1

CHAPTER 1: VECTORS
1.1 Points in n- space; vectors

Physical Quantity: - It is the quantity which can be measured and represented by a number
.Physical quantity can be classified in two: - scalar physical quantity and vector physical
quantity.

Scalar physical quantity: - It is physical quantity, which expressed by its magnitude only. Example
Length 8m, 45Km, Time 20sec, 23 days etc.

Vector physical quantity: - It is physical quantity, which expressed in both magnitude and
direction. Example Displacement 20m East, Force 20N up etc.

Vector is a directed line segment drawn from a point P (called its initial point) to a point Q (called
its terminal point), with P and Q being distinct points. The vector is denoted by ⃗PQIts magnitude
PQ|, and its direction is the same as that of the
is the length of the line segment, denoted by|⃗
directed line segment.

N-space is a space constructed by n axis. In this course we will deal with n-space for n=1,2 and3.
Vectors represented by real n- tuples of coordinates (u1, u2, ..., un)
Case one: - one dimension
I. Along x-axis (unit vector or direction along x-axis is ^I )
Example displacement along x-axis can be expressed as follows
⃗S = 60m ^I
⃗S = -80m ^I
II. Along Y-axis (unit vector or direction along x-axis is ^J)
Example displacement along Y-axis can be expressed as follows
⃗S = 60m ^J
⃗S = -80m ^J
III. Along Z-axis (unit vector or direction along x-axis is ^K)
Example displacement along Z-axis can be expressed as follows
⃗S = 60m k^
⃗S = -80m k^

Case two: - two dimension

I. Along xy Plane (unit vector or direction in xy plane are ^I and ^J)
Example force in xy plane can be expressed as follows

Y F = 3N i + 4N j
⃗

II. Along xz Plane (unit vector or direction in xy plane are ^I and k^ )

Example force in xz plane can be expressed as follows
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F = 3N i + 4N k
⃗

Z
III. Along yz Plane (unit vector or direction in xy plane are ^J and k^ )
Example force in yz plane can be expressed as follows
Y
F = 3N i + 4N k
⃗

Z
Case three: - three dimension
In xyz space (unit vectors or directions in xy plane are ^I , ^J∧¿ k^ )

(0,y,0) (x,y,z)

(x,o,o)
(0,0,0)

(0,0,z)
(x,0,z)

Representation of vectors

Vectors represented by

1. Geometrically by an arrow, such that the head of an arrow shows its direction, its tail
indicates starting point and its length represent its magnitude.
Example
Tail Head
Length
2. Algebraically by letter above an arrow
Example ⃗ F = 10N East, ⃗S = 30mWest

1.2 Types of vectors and Vector Operations

I.2.1. Types of vectors
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I. Parallel Vectors
Parallel vectors are those vectors have the same direction.
Example
S 1 = 30m West and ⃗
⃗ S 2 = 25m West
II. Anti-parallel vectors
Anti- Parallel vectors are those vectors have the opposite direction.
Example
S 1 = 30m West and ⃗
⃗ S 2 = -25m West = 25m East
III. Perpendicular Vectors
Perpendicular vectors are vectors, which form right angle.
Example ⃗ S 1 = 30m West and ⃗ S 2 = -25m South = 25m North
IV. Collinear vectors are vectors lies on the same line
Example
F = 8NE
⃗ F = 4NE
⃗ F = 18NE
⃗ F = 2NE
⃗

V. Coplanar are vectors lies on the same plane

VI. Concurrent vectors are vectors passes through a single common point.

VII. Unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is one.

VIII. Zero vector is a vector whose magnitude is zero.
I.2.2. Operations and properties of vectors
I. Vector times scalar is another vector of different physical quantity
m
V = 10
Example Let we have vector velocity ⃗ East and scalar mass M= 45Kg, then V
M⃗
s

m m
= (45Kg)( 10 East) = 450Kg East, which is vector of different physical quantity or momentum
s s
P)
(⃗
II. Vector times number is another vector of the same physical quantity

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m m
V = 10 East and scalar mass n= 45, then M⃗
Example Let we have vector velocity ⃗ V = (45)( 10
s s

m
East) = 450 East, this vector also represents velocity
s
III. Vector times vector
Vector times vector is ¿
IV. Commutative
⃗A+⃗ B=⃗ B+⃗ A
⃗A-⃗ B≠⃗ B-⃗A (however, there are exceptional)
⃗A.⃗ B=⃗ B.⃗A
⃗AX⃗ B≠ ⃗ BX⃗ A (but there are exceptional)
Only vector addition and dot product or scalar product are commutative
V. Associative scalar multiplication:
⃗A +( ⃗ C¿ = ⃗
B +⃗ ¿¿ + ⃗ B )+ ⃗
C
⃗A .( ⃗
B .C ⃗
⃗¿ ≠ ¿¿ . ⃗
B ). ⃗
C
⃗A X( ⃗B XC⃗ ¿ ≠⃗¿¿ X ⃗B )X ⃗C
Only vector addition is associative
VI. ● Distributive scalar sum
⃗A X( ⃗B +⃗C¿ ¿⃗A X⃗ B+⃗ AX ⃗C
⃗A .( ⃗
B +⃗
C¿ ¿⃗ A .⃗B+⃗ A. ⃗
C
b( ⃗B +⃗C¿ ¿b⃗B + bC⃗
VII. Two non- zero vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same
direction and represent the same physical quantity.
1.3 . DOT AND CROSS PRODUCT

1.3.1. Dot product or Scalar product

A and ⃗
Dot product or Scalar product of any non-zero two vectors ⃗ B can be defined as the product
of the magnitude of both vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.
A.⃗
⃗ B = |⃗
A||⃗
B|cos θ
Example 1
Find
A, i.i B. j.j C , K.k D, i.j E. j.k F, k.i G. j.i H, k.j I, i.k
Solution
Since I,j and k are unit vectors |i| = | j| = |k| = 1
Since the angle between two parallel vectors is 0 o the angle between i&i, j&j and k&k is 0 o
Since the angle between two perpendicular vectors is 90 o then the magnitude angle between i&j,
j&k and k&i is 90 o

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A, i.i = |i||i|cos 0o = 1(1)(1) =1, since cos 0 o =1

B, j.j = | j|| j|cos 0 o = 1(1)(1) =1, since cos 0 o =1
C, k.k = |k||k|cos 0 o = 1(1)(1) =1, since cos 0 o =1
D, i.j = |i|| j|cos 90o = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos 90o =0
E, j.k = | j||k|cos 90 o = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos 90o =0
F, k.i = |k||i|cos 90o = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos 90o =0
G, j.i = | j||i|cos ¿ = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos (−90)o =0
H, k.j = |k|| j|cos ¿ = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos (−90)o =0
I, i.k= |i||k|cos ¿ = 1(1)(0) =0, since cos (−90)o =0
From this particular example, we can see that dot product of unit vector with itself is one and dot
product of perpendicular unit vectors is zero.In short
i.i = j.j = K.k = 1
i.j = j.k = k.i = j.i = k.j = i.k = 0
Example 2
A and ⃗
If two vectors ⃗ A = A xi + A yj + A zk and ⃗
B in 3D are defined by ⃗ B = Bx i + B y j + Bz k then
find A.⃗
A, ⃗ B B.⃗
B, ⃗ A
Solution
B = ( A xi + A yj + A zk ).( Bx i + B y j + Bz k ) =
A.⃗
⃗
A x Bx (i.i)+ A x B y (i.j)+ A x Bz (i.k)+ A y Bx (j.i)+ A y B y (j.j)+ A y Bz (j.k)+ A z Bx (k.i)+ A z B y (k.y)+ A z Bz
(k.k) =
A x Bx (1)+ A x B y (0)+ A x Bz (0)+ A y Bx (0)+ A y B y (1)+ A y Bz (0)+ A z Bx (0)+ A z B y (0)+ A z Bz (1) = A x Bx +
A y B y + A z Bz
B = A x Bx + A y B y + A z Bz
A.⃗
Therefore ⃗
B.⃗
B, ⃗ A
A = Bx A x + B y A y + Bz A z
B.⃗
Similar to ⃗
A.⃗
This shows ⃗ B=⃗
B.⃗
A
In short ⃗ B = A x Bx + A y B y + A z Bz = |⃗
A.⃗ A||⃗
B|cos θ
⃗A .⃗
B A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz
cos θ = ⃗ ⃗ =
| A||B| |⃗A||⃗
B|
Example

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m m
F =10Ni +3Nj pulls a body of mass 5kg with average velocity of ⃗
Let let force ⃗ V =4 i +5 j
s s
Soluttion
m m
P= ⃗ V = F x V x+ F y V y + F z V z = 10Nx4
F .⃗ + 3Nx5 = 40w+15w =55w
s s
1.3.2. Cross product or Vector product
A and ⃗
Cross product or Vector product of any two non-zero vectors ⃗ B can be defined as the vector
whose magnitude is product of the magnitude of both vectors and the sine of the angle between them
and its direction is the direction perpendicular to both vectors and plane formed by them . The best
way of getting its direction is using right hand rules such that curl your fingers from the 1 st vector
towards the 2nd vector your thump indicate in the direction of cross product.
Magnitude=|⃗
A X⃗B| ⃗ ⃗
AX⃗
⃗ B = |⃗
A||⃗
B|sin θ n^ , where {
Direction=n^
= | A||B|sin θ

Example
A, iXi = |i||i|sin 0o = 1(1)(0) =0, since sin 0o =0

B, jXj = | j|| j|sin 0o = 1(1)(0) =0, since sin 0o =0

C, kXk = |k||k|sin 0o = 1(1)(0) =0, since sin 0o =0

D, iXj = |i|| j|sin 90 o = 1(1)(1) =k, since sin 90 o =1

E, jXk = | j||k|sin 90o = 1(1)(1) =i, since sin 90 o =1

F, kXi = |k||i|sin 90 o = 1(1)(1) =j, since sin 90 o =1

G, jXi = | j||i|sin(−90¿¿ o ¿)¿ ¿ = 1(1)(-1) =-k, since sin(−90)o =-1

H, kXj = |k|| j|sin(−90¿¿ o¿)¿ ¿ = 1(1)(-1) =-i, since sin(−90)o =-1

I, iXk= |i||k|sin (−90¿¿ o ¿)¿ ¿ = 1(1)(-1) =-j, since sin(−90)o =-1

From this particular example, we can see that cross product of unit vector with itself is zero,
That is iXi = jXj = kXk = 0
Cross product in increasing order or anticlockwise direction for neighboring vectors is positive one and cross
product in decreasing order or clockwise direction for neighboring unit vectors is negative.
i
iXj = k iXk = -j

jXk = i j k kXj = -i

kXi =j jXi = - k
A and ⃗
If two vectors ⃗ A = A xi + A yj + A zk and ⃗
B in 3D are defined by ⃗ B = Bx i + B y j + Bz k
then find AX⃗
A, ⃗ B AX⃗
B, ⃗ B

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Solution
AX⃗
A, ⃗ B = ( A xi + A yj + A zk )X( Bx i + B y j + Bz k ) =
A x Bx (iXi)+ A x B y (iXj)+ A x Bz (iXk)+ A y Bx (jXi)+ A y B y (jXj)+ A y Bz (jXk)+ A z Bx (kXi)+ A z B y

(kXy)+ A z Bz (kXk) =
A x Bx (0)+ A x B y (k)+ A x Bz (-j)+ A y Bx (-k)+ A y B y (0)+ A y Bz (i)+ A z Bx (j)+ A z B y (-i) + A z Bz (0)

= ¿ ¿ Bz - A z B y ¿ ¿ i + ¿ ¿ Bx - A x Bz )j + ¿ ¿ B y - A y Bx )k
Similarly
B, ⃗ A = -(¿ ¿ Bz - A z B y ¿ ¿ i + ¿ ¿ Bx - A x Bz )j + ¿ ¿ B y - A y Bx )k ) = - ⃗
BX⃗ AX⃗
B
AX⃗
Therefore ⃗ B =-⃗
BX⃗
A or ⃗
AX⃗
B ≠⃗
B X⃗
A that is they have the same magnitude and opposite
direction
Application of dat product and cross product
1. Calculating area
Example 1
A = 6mi + 10mj, ⃗
Calculate area of parallelogram formed by two vectors ⃗ B = 5mi + 4mj
A= absin θ general formula for a parallelogram for side a and b and θ is the angle between side
a and b.
A and ⃗
Since the magnitude of cross product of two vectors ⃗ B is obtained by |⃗
AX⃗
B| =
A||⃗
|⃗ B|sin θ
Therefore, area covered by two vectors is the magnitude of their cross product

A = 6mi + 10mj
⃗
B =( A y B z - A z B y)i +( A z B x - A x B z)j +( A x B y - A y B x )k
A X⃗
Since ⃗

And A x =6m , A y = 10m , A z =0, Bx =5m , B y = 4m , Bz =0

AX⃗
⃗ B =(10 MX 0 - 0 X 4 M )i +( 0 X 5 M - 6 MX 0)j +( 6 mx 4 m -
B = 5mi + 4mj
⃗ 10 mx 5 m)k

B =0 m 2 i + 0m 2j +( 24 m 2 - 50 m 2)k = -26m 2 k
AX⃗
⃗
Example 2
A = 6mi + 10mj, ⃗
Calculate area of triangle formed by two vectors ⃗ B = 5mi + 4mj
1
A= absin θ is the general formula for calculating area of a triangle of side a and b and θ is the
2
angle between side a and b.
A and ⃗
Since the magnitude of cross product of two vectors ⃗ B is obtained by |⃗
AX⃗
B| = |⃗
A||⃗
B|sin θ

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A and ⃗
Therefore, area covered by triangle formed two vectors ⃗ B is half of magnitude of their cross
product.
2
1
B| = 26 m = 13m 2
AX⃗
Area of triangle = |⃗
2 2
2. Calculating volume
A, ⃗
Volume enclosed by three vectors ⃗ B and ⃗
C is calculated by formula
A. ⃗
v= ⃗ ¿¿ X ⃗ C. ⃗
C) = ⃗ ¿¿ X ⃗ B. ⃗
B) =⃗ ¿¿ X ⃗A)
Example
Find volume constructed by the following vectors
A = 3mÎîĴĵ ⃗
⃗ B ⃗
C

3.
1.4 Lines & planes
Lines
The starting and terminal point of a line can be represented by two vectors . The length and
direction of the line expressed using the difference of the two vectors. That is if the first vector is
denoted by r⃗ 1 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0) and the second vector is denoted by any vector r⃗ 2 (x , y , z) then the line
moving from r⃗ 1 to r⃗ 2 is obtained by ∆ r⃗ = r⃗ 2-r⃗ 1 = (x - x 0 ¿ I^ + (y - y 0 ¿ ĵ + (z - z 0 ¿ k^
The length of the line is calculated by doting ∆ r⃗ with it self
^ (x - x ¿ I^ + (y - y 0 ¿ ĵ + (z - z 0 ¿ k)
∆ r⃗ .∆ r⃗ = ((x - x 0 ¿ I^ + (y - y 0 ¿ ĵ + (z - z 0 ¿ k).( ^
0

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2 2 2 2
|∆ r| = ( x−x 0 ) +( y− y 0) +( z−z 0 )
|∆ r| = √ (x−x 0 )2+( y− y 0)2 +(z −z0 )2

Y r⃗ 2 (x , y , z) Y r⃗ 2 (x , y , z)

∆ r⃗
r⃗ 1 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0) r⃗ 1 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0)

X X

Z Z

Planes
Planes in 3-dimensions
A vector is said to be normal to a plane if it is perpendicular to every vector that lies in the plane.
The equation of a plane can be found from:
 Any point A(a; b; c) on the plane.
 a normal vector n = [l; m; n] to the plane
In the diagram below, (x; y; z) is a generalnpoint on the plane π

P(x,y,z)
A(a,b,c)

As AP = [x-a; y-b; z-c] and n = [l; m; n] are perpendicular, their scalar product is zero and l(x - a)
+ m(y - b) + n(z - c) = 0
The equation of πis l(x - a) + m(y - b) + n(z - c) = 0.
Example
Find the equation of the plane with normal vector [1 ,0; -2] that passes through the point (1; 1; 3),
and find one point on the plane.
Solution
The equation is l(x - 1) + 0(y - 1) + (-2)(z - 3) = 0, that is x - 2z + 5 = 0
ii. Let z = 0, then x = -5. the equation imposes no restrictions on the value of y, so take y = 1. One
point is (-5; 1; 0).
Example Find a normal vector to the plane x + 2y - z = 4
Solution

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Since l(x - a) + m(y - b) + n(z - c) = 0

l(x - a) + m(y - b) + n(z - c) = lx +my +nz –(la +mb +nc)=0
or
lx +my +nz = (la +mb +nc) and x + 2y - z = 4
(l,m,n)= (1,2,-1)

Chapter 2: Vector Spaces

2.1 Definitions & examples
3. Definition:
A real vector space V is a set of elements together with two operations, addition “+＂ and scalar
multiplication “ . ＂, satisfying the following properties: Let u, v, and w be vectors in V, and let c and
d be scalars.
I. V + U = U+ V , Commutative addition
II. V+(u+w) = (v+u)+w , Associative addition
III. U-U= 0, Existence of additive inverse
IV. U +0 =u
V. C(dU) =(Cd)U , Associative scalar multiplication
VI. (c+d)U = cU + dU, Distributive scalar sum
VII. c (u + v ) = cu + cv , Distributive scalar multiplication
VIII. 1XU = U, Scalar multiplication identity

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A linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, . . . , V m is any vector of the form c1v1 + c2v2 + . . . +
c m v m , where c1, . . . , c m are any scalars or real numbers.
Many concepts concerning vectors in Rn can be extended to other mathematical systems.
We can think of a vector space in general, as a collection of objects that behave as vectors do in Rn.
The objects of such a set are called vectors.

Subspace:
Vector spaces may be formed from subsets of other vectors spaces. These are called subspaces.
Subspaces.
W is called a subspace of a real vector space V if
1. W is a subset of the vector space V.
2. W is a vector space with respect to the operations in V.
A subset V of Rnis a subspace if, whenever v1, v2 belong to V , and c1, and c2 are any real
numbers, the linear combination c1v1 + c2v2 also belongs to V .

Definition of spanning set

The span of S is the set of all finite linear combinations of elements of S:
Let S {v1 , v2 , , vk } be a set of vectors in a real vector space V. Then, the span of S, denoted by
span (S ) , is the set consisting of all the vectors that are linear combinations of v1 , v2 , , v k . That
is, span (S ) = {c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 + . . . + ck ;c1,c2,c3, . . . ck∈ R} .
n
span(S) = {x : x =∑ C i V i, V i ϵS }
i=1

A finite set S = {x1, x2, . . . , X m} of vectors in Rnis said to be linearly dependent if there exist
scalars (real numbers) c1, c2, . . . , C m, not all of which are 0, such that
c1x1 + c2x2 + . . . + C m X m = 0.
The set of vectors S is linearly dependent if and only if one of the vectors in the set is a linear
combination of the other vectors in the set.
The set { v 1 , v 2 } are linearly dependent if and only if one is the constant multiple of the other or if v1
and v 2collinear
The set { v 1 , v 2 , v 3 } are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is the linear combination of the
others or if v1 , v 2and v3 coplaner

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Example
1 1 3
() ( ) ()
X 1 = 1 , X 2 = −1 , X 3 = 1
1 2 4
2 X 1 + X 2 −X 3 = 0

The set S is linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent. The set S is not linearly dependent
if, whenever some linear combination of the elements of S adds up to 0, it turns out that c1, c2, . . .
are all zero. That is c1x1 + c2x2 + . . . + C m X m = 0. If and only if
c1= c2= . . . , ¿ C m
The set of vectors S is linearly independent if and only if no vector in the set is a linear combination
of the other vectors in the set.
Example
1 0 0
() ( ) ()
X 1 = 0 X 2 = −6 X 3 = 0
0 0 4
C 1 X 1 +C 2 X 2 +C 3 X 3 = 0, if and only if C 1=C2 =C3=0

P N is the set consisting of all polynomials of degree N or less with the form together with standard
polynomial addition and scalar multiplication. Then, P N is a vector space.
Example

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Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space consisting of all polynomials of
degree ≤ n is linearly independent or linearly dependent.

Basis & dimensions of a vector space

Suppose that V is a vector space, and S = {v1, . . . , vk} is a linearly independent spanning set for V.
Then S is called a basis of V.
If S = {e1, . . . , em} spans the subspace V and it is linearly independent then the set
B = {e1, . . . , ek} is a basis for the subspace V
The vectors v 1, v 2, , vk in a vector space V are said to form a basis of V if
(a) v1 , v2 , …, v k span V
(b) v1 , v 2, , vk are linearly independent.

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Here are some examples of bases of vector spaces.

1. (1, 0) and (0, 1) form a basis of R2.
2. More generally, (1; 0; 0), (0; 1; 0), (0; 0; 1) form a basis of R3 . (1,0, 0,0), (0, 1,0,0),
(0, 0,1,0), (0, 0,0, 1) form a basis of R4 and so on. This is called the standard basis of Rn for n ϵN.
(To be precise, the standard basis of Rn is v1,…, vn, where vi is the vector with
1 in the ith position and 0 in all other positions.)
Standard bases for the most popular vector spaces
In R2: (i,j)
In R3: (i,j,k)
In Rn : (e 1 , e 2. .. , e n)
In Pn: (1 , X , X 2 , … X n)
In M2 2: all matrices with all entries 0 except for one entry, which is 1. There are 4 such matrices.
In Mmn: all matrices with all entries 0 except for one entry, which is 1. There are m .n such
matrices.

Definition of dimension:
The dimension of a vector space V is the number of vectors in a basis for V. We often write dim(V)
for the dimension of V.
Let V be an n dimensional vector space, and let S {v , v , , vn } be a set of n vectors in V.
(a) If S is linearly independent, then S is a basis for V.
(b) If S spans V, then S is a basis for V.
dim( Rn) = n
dim( Pn) = n + 1
dim( M mn ¿ = m. n

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Chapter 3: Matrices & Linear maps

1.1 Definitions
A matrix is defined as an array of numbers (or algebraic symbols) set out in rows and columns.
Each numbers appearing in the in the array is called element or component of the matrix. Usually
notation system is to denote matrices by a capital letter in bold type, as for matrix A below, and the
elements of a matrix are enclosed in a set of squared brackets, i.e. [ ].
Example Matrix 1

23 45 7 5 4

A=
[
12
43
60
0
10
23
46
7
2
9
56 65
23 0
10 0
7 34
8 2
4
8
34
1
23
]
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Matrices may also be specified with algebraic terms (lower case letters) instead of numbers. The
elements in each matrix must form a complete rectangle, without any blank spaces.
Example Matrix 2

a 11 a12 a13 a 14 a15

[ ]
a 21 a22 a23 a 24 a25
a 31 a32 a33 a 34 a35
A=
a41 a42 a 43 a 44 a 45
a51 a52 a 53 a54 a55
a61 a62 a 63 a64 a65

In matrix 2 a ij refers to the value of element in the ith row and jth column.
If you compare matrix 1 and matrix 2
A11 = 23, a12= 45, a41=60 and a45=34 and so on.

a11 a 12 … a1 n

A=
.
.
. [ ]
a21 a 22
.
.
.
am 1 am 2
… a2 n
… .
… .
… .
… a mn

Matrix 3 represent matrix of dimension mXn or mXn and the number of its elements are mn .
The size of a matrix is called its ‘order’. The order is specified as:
(Number of rows) × (number of columns)
1.2. Types & properties of matrices
1.2.1. Type of Matrices
There are different types of matrices.
These are
1. Vector Matrix is a matrix, which consists of just one row or just one column only.
Vector matrix can be either row matrix or column matrix
1.1. Row matrix is which has only one row 1Xn matrix or 1 by n matrix
Example
A= [ 45 67 21 54 ]
1.2. Column matrix is which has only one column mX1 matrix or m by 1 matrix
Example

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45
B=
[]
67
21
54

2. Square Matrix it is a matrix that has equal number of row and column or m=n.
Example
4 by 4 matrix, 10 by 10 matrix, 3 by 3 matrix and etc.

3 0 43 7
A=
[
78
4
4
1 6 8
2 5 8
3 6 5
]
4 by 4 matrix B= [ 30 62] 2 by 2 matrix
3. Null or Zero matrixes is a matrix whose all elements assigned zero value.
Example

M= [ 00 0 0
0 0 ]
4. Identity or unit matrix is an identity matrix whose all elements in primary diagonals assigned 1
and the rest elements assigned 0 values. Identity matrix is denoted by I. Elements in Primary
diagonal includes a 11,a 22, a 33, a 44, … a nn
Example

1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0

[ ]
I1= 0 1 0 3X3 and I2=
0 0 1
0
0
0
0
0
[ 1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
]6X6

5. Triangular Matrix
A square matrix is called upper triangular matrix if all elements blow its main diagonal are zero.
Example

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7 4 0 1 5 8

U=
0
0
0
0
0
[ 2
0
0
0
0
8
3
0
0
0
8
6
9
0
0
4
2
2
3
0
9
2
7
1
4
]
A square matrix is called lower triangular matrix if all elements above its main diagonal are zero.
Example

7 0 0 0 0 0

U=
4
2
3
8
9
[ 2
7
6
6
5
0
3
2
8
7

6. Diagonal matrix
0
0
9
2
1
0
0
0
3
5
0
0
0
0
4
]
It is square matrix, whose which has non-zero elements only on its main diagonal and zero
everywhere else. Identity matrix is especial case of diagonal matrix.
7. Symmetric matrix
Symmetric matrix is a square matrix in which matrix and its transpose are equal.
Example
6 8 2 4 3

[ ]
8
2
4
3
7
0
2
5
0
1
9
0
2
9
2
6

8. Idempotent Matrices
5
0
6
9

They are square matrices any order where their value remains unchanged when multiplied by
themselves. That is if matrix A is idempotent matrix then A= A2 = A3 = A 4 = … = An

Example1

A= [ 44 −3
−3 ]

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4 −3 4 −3 4 X 4+(−3 X 4 ) 4 X (−3 ) +(−3 X−3) 14−12 −12+9

AXA = [ X ][
4 −3 4 −3
= ][ =
4 X 4+(−3 X 4 ) 4 X (−3 ) +(−3 X−3) 14−12 −12+9
= ][ ]
[ 44 −3
−3 ]
Example 2
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0
A= 0
0
0
[ ][ ][ ][ ]
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
1
0 1
0= 0 0
0 0
0 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 0 1
0X0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
1
0 1
0= 0 0
0 0
0 0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1

1.2.2. Properties of matrix

Matrix operations (Addition, subtraction and multiplication)
1. Matrix addition/ Subtraction
Two matrix of the same dimension are said to be conformable for addition and subtraction.
Let us consider the following matrix operations
a11 a 12 a13 b11 b 12 b13
A= [ a21 a 22 a23 ] B= [ b21 b 22 b23 ]
C=A+B and D= A-B
c 11 c 12 c 13 d 11 d 12 d 13
C= [ c 21 c 22 c 23 ] D= [ d 21 d 22 d 23 ]
c 11 =a11 + b11 c 12=a12 +b 12 c 13=a 13+b 13
c 21=a 21+b 21 c 22=a 22+b 22 c 23=a 23+ b23

d 11 =a11 −b11 d 12=a 12−b12 d 13=a13−b13

d 21=a 21−b21 d 22=a 22−b22 d 23=a23−b23
Therefore
c ij =aij +b ij d ij =a 12−b12

Properties of matrix addition

 A+B=B+A →Commutative Law of matrix addition
 (A+B)+C= A+ (B+C) →Associative law of matrix addition

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2. Matrix multiplication

There are two forms of multiplication that can be performed on matrices. A matrix can be multiplied
by a specific value, such as a number (scalar multiplication) or by an other matrix (matrix
multiplication).
2.1. Scalar multiplication
Scalar multiplication simply involves the multiplication of each element in a matrix by the scalar
value.Let k is any real number and A is a matrix of size M by N then the product KA is defined
as follows

Ka11 K a12 . .. Ka1 n

.
. [
Ka21 K a22 . .. K a2 n
KA = . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Kam 1 Kam 2 . ..❑ Kamn

Law of Matrix multiplication by scalar

]
Basic principles of matrix multiplication
If one matrix is multiplied by another matrix, the basic rule is to multiply elements along the rows
of the first matrix by the corresponding elements down the columns of the second matrix. The
easiest way to understand how this operation works is to first work through some examples that only
involve matrices with one row or column.

Example 1

Find the inverse of

A= [ 42 53 ]
Solution

Set Zeros first in a column and ones next

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Step one Augment the matrix

2 51 0
4 30 1 |
Step two Replace 2nd row by the sum of 2nd row and -2 times the 1st row

That is

-2(1st row) =-2( 2 5|1 0 ¿ = −4 −10|−2 0 and 2nd row = 4 3|0 1

-2(1st row) + 2nd row = −4 −10|−2 0 + 4 3|0 1 = 0 −7|−2 1

After substitution

2 5 1 0
0 −7 −2 1 |
Step three Replace 1st row by the sum of 5 times 2nd row and 7 times the 1st row

Multiply 1st row by 7 that is 7(1st row) = 7( 2 5|1 0 ¿ = 14 35|7 0

Multiply 2nd row by 5 that is 5(2nd row) = 5( 0 −7|−2 1 ¿ = 0 −35|−10 5

7(1st row) + 5(2nd row) = 7( 2 5|1 0 ¿+5( 0 −7|−2 1) = 14 35|7 0 + 0 −35|−10 5 =

14 0|−3 5

After substitution

14 0 −3 5
0 −7 −2 1 |
Know all zeros were set but not once

To set once divide 1st row by 14 and 2nd row by -7 and finally replace by respective rows

−3 5 −3 5
1 0 14
0 1 −2
7
| 14
1
7
[ ]
, A−1 =
14
−2
7
14
1
7
=
1 −3 5
[
14 −4 2 ]

Example 2 Find the inverse of

4 −1 2

[
A= 1 0 5
3 2 6 ]
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Augment

4 −1 2 1 0 0
1 0 50 1 0
3 2 60 0 1|
Set Zeros 1st

Replace 3rd row by the sum of 3rd row and -3 times 2nd row that is

¿ + ¿ = 0 2 −9| 0 −3 1

After replacement

4 −1 2 1 0 0
1 0 5 0 1 0
0 2 −9 0 −3 1 |
Replace 2nd row by the sum of 1st row and -4 times 2nd row that is

¿ + ¿ = 0 −1 −18|1 −4 0

After replacement

4 −1 2 1 0 0
0 −1 −18 1 −4 0
0 2 −9 0 −3 1 |
Replace 3rd row by the sum of 3rd row and 2 times 2nd row that is

¿ + ¿ = 0 0 −45|2 −11 1

After replacement

4 −1 2 1 0 0
0 −1 −18 1 −4 0
0 0 −45 2 −11 1 |
Replace 2nd row by the sum of -2 times 3rd row and 5 times 2nd row that is

¿ + ¿ = 0 −5 0|1 2 −2

After replacement

4 −1 2 1 0 0
0 −5 0 1 2 −2
0 0 −45 2 −11 1 |
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Replace 1st row by the sum of -5 times 1st row and 1 times 2nd row that is

¿ + ¿ = −20 0 −10|−4 2 −2

After replacement

−20 0 −10 −4 2 −2
0
0
−5 0 1
|
2 −2
0 −45 2 −11 1

Replace 1st row by the sum of -9 times 1st row and 2 times 3rd row that is

¿ + ¿ = 180 0 0| 40 −40 20

After replacement

180 0 0 40 −40 20
0 −5
0
0 1 2
|
−2
0 −45 2 −11 1

To set ones

Divide 1st ,2nd and 3rd row by 180, -5 and -45 respectively and finally substitute the result in to
corresponding rows

After substitution

40 −40 20
180 180 180
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
−1

−2
|
5
−2
5
11 −1
2
5

45 45 45

40 −40 20

A−1 =
[ ]
180
−1

−2
5

45
180
−2
5
11
45
180
2
5
−1
45
=
1 10 −10 5
45 [
−9 −18 18
−2 11 −2 ]

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Matrix Applications

Solving system of linear equations

n by n system

A system of linear equation can be solved using different methods. One of those methods is using
matrix

 Inverse Method
 Gaussian method
1. Inverse method

Steps

i. Change system of linear equation into matrix form. The result will be three different
matrices constructed using coefficient of the variables, unknown values and right hand
side (constant) values.
a1x +b1y = c
a2x + b2y = d
a1 b1 x c
[a2 b2 y ][ ] [ ]
=
d

[ aa 12 bb 12] = Coefficient [ xy ] = Vector of unknown [ dc ] = vector of constant

matrix

ii. Find the inverse of coefficient matrix

iii. Multiply the inverse of coefficient matrix with the vector of constant, and the resulting
value are the values of the unknown matrix.
Example
Solve the following
5x +2y = 12
-3x + y = -5
Solution
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 Change in to matrix form

5 2 x 12
[ −3 1 y][ ] [ ]
=
−5
= AX=C

 Find the inverse of coefficient matrix

Augment
5 21 0
−3 1 0 1 |
Replace 2nd row by the sum of 3 times the 1st row and 5 times the 2nd row
5 2 1 0
0 11 3 5 |
Replace 1st row by the sum of 11 times the 1st row and -2 times the 2nd row
55 0 5 −10
0 11 3 5 |
Divide 1st and 2nd row by 55 and 11 respectively and finally substitute the result in to
corresponding rows

1 −2
1 0 11 11 1 1 −2
0 1 3| 5
, Inverse A−1 = [
11 3 5 ]
11 11
Multiply the coefficient of inverse matrix ( A−1) with the vector constant
1 1 −2 12 1 22 2
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
A−1 C = 11 3 5 −5 = 11 11 = 1

[ xy ]=[ 21] , X=2 and y= 1

Limitation of inverse method
 Used only for square coefficient matrix
 Not used for singular matrix
 It doesn’t differentiate between no solution and infinite solution
Gaussian Method
This method works for any matrix whether it is square or not, whether it
singular or not
It again identify the type of solution (Unique solution, no solution and infinite
solution)
I. n by n system
Step:
1. Change system of linear equation into matrix form. The result will be
three different matrices constructed using coefficient of the variables,
unknown values and right hand side (constant) values.
2. Augment the coefficient matrix with vector constant.
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3. Change the resulting matrix into identity form by applying row operation
4. The resulting values of the vector of constant will be the value of
unknown
Example

Solve the following by using Gaussian method

5x +2y = 12
-3x + y = -5
Solution
 Change in to matrix form
5 2 x 12
[−3 1 y ][ ] [ ]
=
−5
= AX=C

 Augment
5 2 12
−3 1 −5 |
Replace 2nd row by the sum of 3 times the 1st row and 5 times the 2nd row
5 2 12
0 11 11 |
Divide the 2nd row by 11 and the replace 2nd row by this result
5 2 12
0 1 1|
Replace 1st row by the sum of 1 times the 1st row and -2 times the 2nd row
5 0 10
0 1 1|
Divide the 1st row by 5 and the replace 1st row by this result
1 02
0 11 |
[ xy ] = [ 21], x=2 and y=1 it has a unique solution
NB ¿ using row opration
1. if you are able ¿ get identit ¿ cofficient side it has unique solution
2. If you get the last row all zero including constant vector it has infinite solution
3. If you get the last row all zero in coefficient matrix and non zero value constant vector it
has no solution

Group Work
Solve
A. X+y=2 and 2x +2y=4

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B. X + y = 5 and x +y =9

m by n

Case one m>n

a. If the upper part form n by n identity matrix and the rest bottom rows are zero value
including constant vectors it has unique solution
b. If the upper part form n by n identity matrix and the rest bottom rows of coefficient matrix
are zero value but constant vectors are different from zero it has no solution
c. If you get different condition from a and b it has unlimited number of solution
Case two m<n
a. If a row has all zero element except in the constant column it has no solution
b. If a matrix result is different from a it has unlimited number of solution

Markov Chain

This model is forecasting model. It is probabilistic (Stochastic) model.

Which are useful in studying the evolution of certain system over repeated trials.

In this mode a set of transition probabilities is used to determine the manner in which the system
makes transition from one period to the next. Hence we can predict the probabilities of the system in
particular state at a given time period.

Necessary assumptions of the chain

1. The system condition (outcome) state in any given period depends on its state
in the preceding period and on the transition probabilities.
2. The transition probabilities are constant overtime.
3. Change in the system will occur once and only once each period
4. The transition period occurs with regularities (every day, week, month, year
etc)

Markov Chain Formula

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V ij ( n+ 1 )= V ij (n)P

P= Transition matrix

V ij ( n+ 1 ) = Vector of period n + 1

V ij ( n ) = Vector of period n

Example

Currently it is known that 80% of customers shop at store 1 and 20% shop at store 2. In reviewing a
past data suppose we find that out of all customer who shopped at store 1 in a given week 90%
remain loyal for the next week (store one again), 10% switch to store 2. On the other hand out of all
customers who shopped at store 2 , in a given week 80% remains loyal for next week (store 2
again), 20% switch to store 1. What will be the proportion of customer’s shopping at store 1 and 2
in each of the next two weeks?

Solution

Let s1 be proportion of store 1

Let s1 be proportion of store 2

Initial state (Current state) V 12 = [ 0.8 0.2 ]

s 1 s 2 0.9 0.1 ¿
¿ [
0.2 0.8 ]
V 12 ( 0 ) = [ 0.8 0.2 ]

V 12 ( 1 ) = V ij (0)P = [ 0.8 0.2 ] [0.90.2 0.1

0.8 ]
= [ 0.76 0.24 ]

0.9 0.1
V 12 ( 2 ) = V ij (1)P = [ 0.76 0.24 ] [
0.2 0.8 ]
= [ 0.732 0.268 ]

3.1 Definitions & examples

3.2 Matrix Operations
3.3 Types & properties of matrices
3.4 Systems of linear equations
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3.5 Linear mapping

3.5.1 Definitions & examples
3.6 The linear map associated with a matrix
3.7 The matrix associated with a linear map
3.8 Bases
Chapter 4: Determinants
4.1 Definitions & examples
4.2 Properties of determinants&Crame r s rule
4.3 Determinant & inverse of a matrix
Chapter 5: Eigenvectors & Eigenvalues
5.1 Revision on matrices & linear mappings
5.2 Definitions & examples
5.3 Similarity of matrices
5.4 Regionalization
5.5 Decomposable matrices
5.6 Minimal polynomial &Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

9. Instructional Methods
discussion
Group or individual work

Evaluation
 Mid-Exam – 30%
 Assignment – 10%
 Final Exam – 60%
10. Textbook:
 Topic in linear Algebra: by DemissuGemeda (Ph. D)
11. References
 Linear algebra: by S. Lang
 Linear Algebra (Shoumes)
 Linear Algebra, by R. Kunz

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