MICRO-CELEBRITIES AND THEIR FOLLOWERS

The Implications of the Rise of Micro-Celebrities

University of Michigan
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Abstract

As social media platforms continue to dominate social landscapes within American society, the

impacts of the rise of micro-celebrities has become an important factor to consider. The

following paper proposes a survey that will explore people’s opinions and perceived

relationships with these social media influencers. This survey will help to reveal the motivations

and characteristics of many social media users, specifically the people who consider themselves

fans of these figures There is an extensive amount of research on how people interact with

widely known traditional celebrities, but due to the fact that micro-celebrities are relatively new

public figures, there is a lack of research in relation to their impact on social media users. The

survey will also specifically include users of the newer social media platform Tik Tok, as the

number of people downloading it is continuously growing and there must be more research

pertaining to this app. Though there are some limitations to be considered, these results will be

valuable to businesses who are looking to have a better grasp on their consumers. The survey

results will also provide information about fans of micro-celebrities that can be utilized within

the larger scope of research related to fans and celebrities.

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Introduction

There is a common query that may come up in any interview: “If you could sit down and

have dinner with any person (dead or alive), who would it be and why?” Most people have a

favorite celebrity in mind when asked this question, and their personal qualities and traits are

then evaluated based on their answer. This is a prime example of the paramount significance of

the idolization of famous figures in modern day society. People laugh at the teenage girls who

make up Justin Bieber’s community of crazed fans, but they do this because they are taught at an

early age to attach their identity to the attributes of famous figures (Sandvoss, 2005). There are

observations that can be made about the clusters of fans that form based on their affinity for

certain celebrities, and this is especially valuable when it comes to market research.

One factor that may have an impact on the type of celebrity that an individual may

worship is homophily. The term “homophily,” refers to the pattern in human nature in which

people are often attracted to those who are similar to themselves (Lazarsfeld & Merton, 1954).

Further, with the strong attachment to celebrities that people develop, it is possible that “celebrity

worship” occurs. Celebrity worship is a term coined by Lynn McCucheon and her research

colleagues in their 2002 study published in the British Journal of Psychology.

There is a long history of celebrities ruling pop culture, but with the rapid growth in

digitization in the past two decades and the astronomical growth in social media prevalence, the

relationships that people have with widely-known and admired figures continues to transform

and revolutionize.

In today’s age, there is a less concrete definition of “celebrity.” Because celebrities wield

so much power in the social and economic realms of American society, it is important to take

into consideration the concept of “micro-celebrities” (also known as “social media influencers”).
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Micro-celebrities are individuals who became famous on social media platforms. These are

people who have cultivated an online presence that has gained a significant following due to

their engagement with followers and their willingness to offer anecdotes revealing information

about their personal lives (Marwick, 2015). Because there is a difference between traditional

celebrities and micro-celebrities, there is likely a distinction between their fans. Micro-celebrities

are a growing sector of influential figures in American culture, and there is a gap in literature that

provides a better understanding of their fans. Pulling from past literature, I will propose a study

that surveys the motivations and characteristics of micro-influencer fans.

Lit Review

Traditional Celebrity vs. Micro Celebrity.

The term celebrity has many different definitions and the concept is constantly evolving.

In the most broad sense, it can be understood as someone who has an impact on public opinion

and consciousness (Rojek, 2001, p. 10). An example of a more “traditional” type of celebrity is

someone like the artist Justin Bieber who is often involved in the mass media and widely known

by the general public. A micro-celebrity is someone with a less widespread, more niche

following. Like, for example, James Charles is a social media influencer on YouTube who

dominates the beauty niche of social media with 25.6 million followers, but he may not be

known to someone who does not have any interest in makeup. Traditional celebrities differ from

micro-celebrities because they are famous before joining social media, while micro-celebrities

become famous from content creation on social platforms (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). The

fact that micro-celebrities are more likely to engage with their followers than a traditional
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celebrity would, (Kowalczyk et al., 2016) shows that there is more of a bond. However minimal

this bond may be, the boundaries between private and public are being broken down further.

Relationships with Celebrities.

Another difference between traditional celebrities and micro-celebrities is based on their

relationship with their followers. Micro-celebrities offer more information and insights into their

private lives, whereas traditional celebrities interact with a larger fan base and rarely form

personal connections (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). Social media platforms provide fans with

a unique opportunity for the usage of an interactive communication tool with celebrities

(Labrecque, 2014). These tools come in the form of functions such as the “like” button,

comments and direct messaging (Labrecque, 2014). The interactive nature of social media

platforms has changed the way that people perceive their relationships with celebrities

(Labrecque, 2014). Past literature has explored the study of fans in terms of following celebrities

on social media, and results show that the “virtual” relationship with a celebrity is transferred to

fans' development of perceived quality of life and well-being in their normal daily life through

following the celebrity's social media accounts (Laken, 2009). However, there is a need for more

research that accounts for the “virtual relationships” that happen between a micro-celebrity and

their fans, especially because the entire basis of the popularity that these influencers have is on

social media.

In past literature, it has been established that celebrities have “parasocial” relationships

with their fans (Horton & Wohl, 1956). This can be defined as a one-way relationship, often with

someone of a higher status in which one person knows the other extremely well, and the other

either hardly knows them, or does not know them at all. Most of the current literature about fans
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and celebrities refers to their relationship as parasocial, but the interactive nature of social media

platforms has changed this (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). An experimental study by De

Veirman et al. (2017) found that micro-celebrities with higher numbers of followers are found

more likeable, but if they choose not to reciprocate the relationship (i.e. follow back their

followers), then they are no longer as likable. This increase in expectations that the

micro-celebrity must uphold for their followers is a more recent development in the dynamic of

micro-celebrity relationships with their followers.

It is likely that micro-celebrities have more than a parasocial relationship to their

followers, and the study by De Veirman et al. (2017) even found that if they do not, they will be

less successful

Why micro-celebrities?

Another study by Kowalczyk et al. 2016 found that people initially decide to follow

celebrities on social media in order to gather information about the celebrity, and both emotional

attachment and authenticity were factors that motivated people to continue to follow them

(Kowalczyk et al., 2016). People who follow micro-celebrities are drawn to their authenticity

because it makes it easier to identify with them (Schouten et al., 2019). While people have

always been drawn to traditional celebrities because they are attractive and successful, there is a

different connection that social media users have with the micro celebrities on social media

platforms that needs further exploration.

Another factor that affects the likability of a micro-celebrity is the number of followers

and engagement level they have with their followers. A study by De Veirman et al. in 2017 found

that micro-celebrities with high numbers of followers are deemed more popular and therefore
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more likable. So, successful micro celebrities must strike the right balance between having

enough followers to be considered popular and therefore likable according to De Veirman, but

must also not have too many followers, which may take away from the valued authenticity that

Shouten et al. discusses. With this information, it is also more evident that in defining what it

means to be a “celebrity,” it can be looked at as a spectrum: “traditional celebrity” on one

extreme, and “micro-celebrity” on the other.

The Development of “Celebrity Worship.”

Studies have explored the types of relationships that fans believe they have with their

favorite celebrity, and the term “celebrity worship” has become a relevant concept within this

realm. In 2002, McCucheon, Lange and Houran developed a questionnaire paired with a scale

called the “Celebrity Worship Scale,” which was then later adapted by the same authors into the

“Celebrity Attitudes Scale” in order to measure whether a person’s interest in a celebrity is

normal and healthy or if it is potentially pathological. According to Rasch modeling, this scale

categorizes people into three subscales of celebrity worship: “entertainment-social,”

“intense-personal,” and “borderline-pathological” (Sansone, 2014). Entertainment-social can be

defined as having a more casual admiration of a celebrity and the basic, publicly enjoyed

entertainment values a celebrity provides. Many of these people also enjoy learning about the

celebrity and discussing with others about the celebrity (McCutcheon, 2002). The people who

are categorized under the “intense-personal” level of celebrity worship believe that they are

personally connected to the celebrity, and feel genuine empathy for them and their experiences

(McCutcheon, 2002). This is said to be the intermediate form of celebrity worship that is more

than the rational, distant relationship of the “entertainment social,” but less obsessive or
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pathological than the “borderline pathological” level (McCutcheon, 2002).

“Borderline-pathological” is the most extreme level of celebrity worship, and it is characterized

by people who feel as though they have such a strong connection with the celebrity that they will

engage in behaviors beyond normal judgement in order to be closer to the celebrity

(McCutcheon, 2002).

The results give insight into the potential for psychological absorption which could lead

to the imagination of and belief that they have a genuine social relationship with the celebrity.

According to Sansone (2014), celebrity worshippers will likely exhibit “narcissistic features,

dissociation, addictive tendencies, stalking behavior, and compulsive buying.” A study done by

Maltby et al. (2004) confirms this, and also notes that higher levels of celebrity worship indicates

poorer mental health and possible clinical symptoms of depression, anxiety, and social

dysfunction. A number of studies followed that used this scale to find relationships between

levels of celebrity worship and topics such as body image (Maltby et al. 2005) and cosmetic

surgery (Swami, Taylor and Carvalho 2011).

Past literature that focuses on the study of fans as a phenomenon has found that

oftentimes fans of a certain classification will communicate with each other because of their

shared interest (Kowalczyk et al. 2016). This type of activity is supposed to indicate higher

levels of pathology due to the Celebrity Worship Scale (McCutcheon et al. 2002). However,

social media provides a window through which fans of micro-celebrities can communicate with

one another, which is why there must be further research on these individuals. The

conceptualization and definition of celebrity has continued to shift, and there is a need for more

research on celebrity worship on the micro-celebrity scale, and what factors may influence this.
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Homophily.

Homophily is caused by human diversity (race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion,

socioeconomic status, education accrued, sexual orientation, etc.), and it influences people's

behaviors, attitudes, judgements, and values (Lecture 1.4). There are four dimensions of

homophily that have been outlined in past literature: attitude, background, value and appearance

(Ladhari, 2020). First, attitude homophily reflects the level at which a person perceives that

another person shares their attitudes (meaning thinks, behaves, is similar) (Ladhari, 2020). Next,

background homophily shows the level at which a person perceives that another person shares

their social background (meaning similar social class, economic situation, and status) (Ladhari,

2020). Further, value homophily reflects the level at which a person perceives that another

person shares their values and morals (meaning similar cultural values, personal values, and

morals) (Ladhari, 2020). And lastly, appearance homophily level at which a person perceives that

another person shares similar looks to them (Ladhari, 2020).

Followers and fans of celebrities who seem to have more similarities are more likely to

be attached (McGuire, 1985). Perceiving more similarities in the four dimensions of homophily

will generate more attraction, and feelings of connection, affection, and passion toward the

celebrity (McGuire, 1985). Ultimately, it has been found that similar people bring about more

trust and attachment (McGuire, 1985).

A study on homophily in social media found that friendships on social media aren’t

necessarily based on having similar interests (Bisgin et al., 2011). However, this study fails to

address the fact that connections that are made between social media influencers and their

followers (and the followers with one another) are based on some shared attribute, ranging from

sense of humor to sense of fashion.

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Bisgin et al. 2010 looked into homophily as a reason for forming new ties online which

therefore creates online communities, but found that homophily does not necessarily influence

this. The new communities that formed within their study did not have interests that were

significantly different from other communities, and therefore homophily cannot be the only

reason for the formation of online communities (Bisgin et al., 2010). However, past literature

that focuses on the study of fans as a phenomenon has found that oftentimes fans of a certain

classification will communicate with each other because of their shared interest in the celebrity

(Kowalczyk et al., 2016). Though Bisgin et al. found that homophily does not have a strong

influence on the creation of ties and online communities, there is a gap in literature that examines

the impact that micro-celebrities have on the formation of ties and online communities. Bisgin et

al. 2010 originally carried out their study on the basis that it is possible to create online

communities through homophily, so there is a need for further research into whether similar

interests pertaining to social media influencers can create ties that result in online communities.

There is a gap in the literature regarding the character traits of individuals who identify as

fans of micro-celebrities or social media influencers, and the nature of their attraction to them.

The reason for this may be that the growth of micro-celebrities and their impact on American

consumerism and culture is a newer development. By uncovering information about their

followers, it will be possible to use this data to better understand this population of social media

users. I suggest a research question and hypothesis that can be used to discuss possible

implications.

Research Questions and Hypotheses:

RQ1: Is there a relationship between the four dimensions of homophily and the level

of celebrity worship that occurs in terms of social media influencers/micro-celebrities?

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H: Participants with more homophilous traits shared with a micro-celebrity will demonstrate

more severe levels of celebrity worship.

RQ2: Is there a relationship between levels of “celebrity worship” and likelihood to form

online communities?

H: The higher in celebrity worship, the more likely they are to form ties that create online

communities.

Proposed Method

Participants

For this study, an online survey will be administered with approximately 700 participants

between the ages of twelve to thirty-five who live in the United States and consider themselves

Tik Tok users. A Tik Tok user can be defined as someone who spends more than three hours a

week on the app and also performs the action of opening the app at least once a day. There are no

gender restrictions, but in terms of age, those under the age of eighteen must have parental

consent to participate. Before participants join the study, there will be a questionnaire that they

must complete in order to confirm that they fit these necessary criteria for participation. Those

who volunteer to participate in this study will be entered into a raffle to win money.

Procedure

This three section survey will be conducted by sending an invitation to the email and/or phone

numbers that people used to create their Tik Tok accounts asking them to participate in an online

survey in order to win money and take time out of their day to help further important social

scientific research. It will be advertised as a chance to contribute twenty-five minutes of their day
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to something that positively impacts their experience on the app as well as their fellow creators.

By participating, they will also be simultaneously opening up the opportunity to have their name

chosen in the raffle for $100. Because it is a twenty-five minute study, and it will be administered

online which can lead to distractions, there will be one attention check in each section. In the

first section, the attention check will ask them to choose the number 2 (disagree) from the

Lichter scale, and the second section will ask them to choose 5 (strongly agree). Participants will

not have to travel anywhere or be observed in any physical manner. Instead, they will be

observed on the basis of their answers to the survey, which they are able to do within the comfort

of their own home, but it is possible that after completing the first two sections, some

participants will be asked to complete five more minutes of questions and others will not.

Measures

Homophily

The study will be composed of two initial sections, and depending on the results of the second

section, some participants will continue to a third section, and others will not. The first section

will measure the four homophily dimensions pertaining to a micro-celebrity. It will open up with

a prompt asking to name their favorite Tik Tok influencer who fits the specified qualifications.

To measure the four homophily dimensions (attitude, background, morality, appearance), the 16

item scale that was developed by McCroskey et al. in 1975 will be utilized. This scale will ask

people about different character-defining principles such as their morals, likes, dislikes, and

emotions. The participants will provide a response ranging from the provided 5-point Likert

scale that will be either: (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neutral, (4) agree, or (5) strongly

agree. For instance, the background dimension of homophily is measured by gauging how

strongly the participants agree with statements adapted from McCroskey et al (1975) and Ladhari
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et al (2020), such as “this micro-celebrity is from a social class similar to mine.” Or, in order to

measure attitude, statements such as “my favorite micro-celebrity thinks like me” or “my favorite

micro-celebrity behaves like me” will be presented. An example of a statement that measures

morals would be “My favorite micro-celebrity treats people like I do,” or “my favorite

micro-celebrity shares my cultural values.” Or, for instance, to measure appearance, “my favorite

micro-celebrity resembles me.”

Celebrity Worship

The second section will measure celebrity worship for the previously selected

micro-celebrity that the participant demonstrates. This will be done through a questionnaire

adapted from the 2002 study by McCutcheon, who created the Celebrity Attitudes Scale (CAS),

which the authors adapted from their original Celebrity Worship Scale. This will provide insight

into whether the participant falls into one of three categories on the CAS that indicate their level

of celebrity worship: strong-emotional, intense-personal, or borderline- pathological. The survey

includes thirty four statements that participants will provide an answer to based on the same

Lichter scale as mentioned for the previous two sections ranging from “strongly disagree” to

“strongly agree.” For instance, one statement with lower, more neutral implications of celebrity

worship reads “learning the life story of [favorite Tik Tok influencer] is a lot of fun.” However,

another example of a statement would be “I share with [favorite Tik Tok influencer] a special

bond that cannot be described in words” It is important to use this scale because these

categorizations reveal information about a fan of a micro-celebrity, such as the level of pathology

that they have in order to better understand the psychological traits of the fans of micro

celebrities.

Community Ties
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After the results are evaluated from section number two, and therefore it is evident that a

participant falls under the level of celebrity worship that the CAS categorizes as “borderline

pathological,” they will be asked to return for a third section. This final part of the survey will

evaluate the perceived strength of their ties with others in creating an online community based on

this shared interest of the micro-celebrity. Their responses to 15 statements will be in the form of

the same five point Likert scale which was outlined in the first section. The opening statement

will read: “I feel that I have a strong, mutual connection with fellow fans of my favorite Tik Tok

influencer.” The level of agreement that participants have with these statements will provide

insight into the kinds of relationships that they have with people who share an interest in the

same Tik Tok influencer and how having multiple connections of this nature may lead to the

formation of an online community.

Discussion

Overall, the purpose of this study is to better understand the realm of

micro-celebrities/social media influencers as these figures are a relatively new concept within

social scientific literature. Specifically, I want to explore the relationship between the four

dimensions of homophily and whether they impact the levels of celebrity worship amongst fans

of micro-celebrities. Fans of micro-celebrities have yet to be studied in detail, but because of the

increasing popularity and fascination of these figures amongst the general public, it is important

that more information is gathered. With the celebrity worship scale and the personality

distinctions that have been studied for each category, it will be helpful to gauge which levels are

most common amongst current social media users when it comes to worshipping a

micro-celebrity.
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Past literature indicates that there are pathological and narcissistic traits associated with

people who strongly identify with celebrities. However, social media platforms allow for the gap

between everyday people and celebrities to become relatively smaller. Micro-celebrities are

known to engage with their followers and share content that is related to their private lives,

which will result in more widespread borderline pathological categorization because people are

more likely to feel socially connected to micro-celebrities. This means that social media has

caused people to show more signs of the traits that are associated with the “borderline

pathological” categorization, such as depression, narcissism and pathology.

Another shared trait that these borderline pathological celebrity worshippers have is that

they are more inclined to communicate with other fans of the celebrity. This creates an

interesting dynamic when it comes to worshipping a micro-celebrity whose fame is based on

social media platforms, and communicating with others through this social media or other online

platforms about this individual. The third section of this study that only pertains to borderline

pathological fans will express moderate to strong ties with other fans of the micro-celebrity

because of the ease of communication through social media, and because of the previously

hypothesized increase in widespread borderline pathological celebrity worship with the rise of

micro-celebrities.

Unfortunately, there are some limitations to this study that must be addressed. The first

and most detrimental is the possibility of response bias due to the nature of the survey method, so

participants may not answer completely truthfully. The participants could also be doing the

survey with the intention to randomly choose answers with the hopes of having their names put

into the raffle for financial compensation. Further, the only relationship that can be drawn
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between the variables that are being studied is correlational because it is a survey and not an

experimental design so it will not prove complete causation.

Ultimately, this study will provide significant information about how the dimensions of

homophily impact micro-celebrity worship and also how the subsequent level of celebrity

worship impacts the strength of ties between fellow fans of the same micro-celebrity. This

information will be valuable to the larger study of celebrities and fans within social scientific

research, and it opens the door to more questions, such as: How can we further complicate the

relationships that micro-celebrities have with their followers on social media platforms? Further,

with the onset of Tik Tok’s domination of social media platforms and the amount of new

micro-celebrities who have come from this app, there is a need for more research on the social

implications of this platform. The data collected in this study will also be valuable to marketing

professionals and businesses because it will provide more insight into the values, motivations

and behaviors of a large population of consumers.

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