Sardinian language

Sardinian or Sard (sardu [ˈsaɾdu] / sadru [ˈsadɾu], limba sarda [ˈlimba ˈzaɾda] or lìngua sarda
[ˈliŋɡu.a ˈzaɾda]) is a Romance language spoken by the Sardinians on the Western Mediterranean Sardinian
island of Sardinia. Sard
sardu
Many Romance linguists consider it the language that, together with Italian, is closest to Latin among
limba / lìngua sarda
all the genealogical descendants of Latin.[12][13] However, it has also incorporated elements of a Pre-
Latin (mostly Paleo-Sardinian and, to a much lesser degree, Punic) substratum,[14] as well as a Pronunciation [ˈsaɾdu]
Byzantine Greek, Catalan, Spanish and Italian superstratum. These elements of the language originate Native to Italy
in the political history of the island of Sardinia: before the Middle Ages, it was for a time a Byzantine
Region Sardinia
possession; then, after a significant period of self-rule with the judicates, it came during the late Middle
Ages into the Iberian sphere of influence; and finally, from the 18th century onward, under the Italian Ethnicity Sardinians
one. Native speakers 1,000,000[1][2] –
1,350,000[3] (2016)
The originality of Sardinian with respect to the other Romance languages had long been known
Language family Indo-European
among linguists.[15][16] In 1997, Sardinian, along with other languages spoken on the island, was
recognized by regional law as an official language of Sardinia,[4] and in 1999, Sardinian and eleven Italic
other minoranze linguistiche storiche ("historical linguistic minorities") were similarly recognized by Romance
national law (specifically, Law No. 482/1999).[17] Among these, Sardinian is notable as having the
Sardinian
largest number of speakers.[18][19][20][21][22]
Dialects Logudorese Sardinian
However, the number of native speakers has been continually declining,[23] threatening the vitality of (sardu logudoresu)
the Sardinian-speaking community. While it was estimated in 2007 that 68.4 percent of the inhabitants Campidanese Sardinian
of Sardinia had a good oral command of Sardinian,[24] most of them were past retirement age. Only (sardu campidanesu)
13 percent of children were reported to have this level of competence in the language,[25][26] with
Official status
Sardinian being kept as a heritage language.[27][28] UNESCO has classified the language as
"definitely endangered".[29] Official language in Italy ( Sardinia)[4][5]
Recognised minority Italy
language in
• Logudorese
Contents Regulated by
orthography[6][7]
Overview • Campidanese
orthography[8][9]
History • Limba Sarda Comuna
Origins of modern Sardinian code[10][11]
Judicates period Language codes
Iberian period – Catalan and Spanish influence
ISO 639-1 sc (https://www.lo
Savoyard period – Italian influence c.gov/standards/iso
Present situation 639-2/php/langcodes
_name.php?iso_639_1
Phonology =sc)
Vowels
ISO 639-2 srd (https://www.lo
Consonants
c.gov/standards/iso
Plosives 639-2/php/langcodes
Fricatives _name.php?code_ID=4
Affricates 23)
Nasals ISO 639-3 srd – inclusive code
Liquids and rhotics Sardinian
Processes Individual codes:
Neutralizations sro –
Campidanese Sardinian
Sandhi
src –
Morphosyntactic gemination Logudorese Sardinian
Grammar Glottolog sard1257 (http://gl
Vocabulary ottolog.org/resourc
e/languoid/id/sard1
Varieties 257)
Sample of text
Linguasphere 51-AAA-s
Standardization
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Overview

Now the question arises as to whether Sardinian is to be considered a dialect or a

language in its own right. Politically speaking,[note 1] it is clearly one of the many
dialects[note 1] of Italy, just like the Serbo-Croatian and the Albanian spoken in various
villages of Calabria and Sicily. However, from a linguistic point of view, that is a different
question. It can be said that Sardinian has no relationship whatsoever with any dialect of
mainland Italy; it is an archaic Romance speech with its own distinctive characteristics,
showing a very original vocabulary in addition to morphology and syntax rather different
from the Italian dialects.[30]

— Max Leopold Wagner, La lingua sarda, 1951 – Ilisso, pp. 90–91

Sardinian is considered the most conservative Romance language,[31][32] and its substratum (Paleo-
Sardinian or Nuragic) has also been researched. A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguist Mario
Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Latin, in the case of Romance
languages) by comparing phonology, inflection, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the
following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Latin):[33] Sardinian
8%, Italian 12%, Spanish 20%, Romanian 23.5%, Occitan 25%, Portuguese 31%, and French 44%.
For example, Latin "Pone mihi tres panes in bertula" (put three loaves of bread [from home] in the
bag for me) would be the very similar "Ponemi tres panes in bertula" in Sardinian.[34]

Compared to the mainland Italian dialects, Sardinian is virtually incomprehensible for Italians,[36] and
is in fact considered a distinct linguistic group among the Romance languages.[16][37][38][39][40]

History Linguistic map of Sardinia. Sardinian is yellow

Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative
criteria (not on socio-functional ones). Koryakov (2001) ascribes
Sardinian to the separated Island Romance branch of the Romance
languages, along with old Corsican (modern Corsican is in fact part
of the broad Italo-Romance family).[35]
(Logudorese) and orange (Campidanese).
Sardinia's relative isolation from
mainland Europe encouraged the development
of a Romance language that preserves traces of
its indigenous, pre-Roman language(s). The
language is posited to have substratal
influences from Paleo-Sardinian, which some
scholars have linked to Basque[41][42] and
Etruscan;[43] attempts have also been made to
Play media
draw comparisons with the Berber languages
[44] A Sardinian speaker, recorded in
from North Africa to shed more light on the Mexico.
language(s) spoken in Sardinia prior to its
Romanization. Subsequent adstratal influences
include Catalan, Spanish, and Italian. The situation of the Sardinian language with
regard to the politically dominant ones did not change until fascism[45] and, most
evidently, the 1950s.[46][47]
Origins of modern Sardinian
Prenuragic and Nuragic era

The origins of ancient Sardinian, also known as Paleo-Sardinian, are currently unknown. Research has attempted to
discover obscure, indigenous, pre-Romance roots. The root s(a)rd, indicating many place names as well as the island's
people, is reportedly either associated with or originating from the Sherden, one of the Sea Peoples.[48] Other sources trace
instead the root s(a)rd from Σαρδώ, a legendary woman from the Anatolian Kingdom of Lydia,[49][50] or from the Libyan
mythological figure of the Sardus Pater Babai ("Sardinian Father" or "Father of the Sardinians").[51][52][53][54][55][56][57]

In 1984, Massimo Pittau claimed to have found the etymology of many Latin words in the Etruscan language, after
comparing it with the Nuragic language(s).[43] Etruscan elements, formerly thought to have originated in Latin, would
indicate a connection between the ancient Sardinian culture and the Etruscans. According to Pittau, the Etruscan and
Nuragic language(s) are descended from Lydian (and therefore Indo-European) as a consequence of contact with Etruscans
and other Tyrrhenians from Sardis as described by Herodotus.[43] Although Pittau suggests that the Tirrenii landed in
Sardinia and the Etruscans landed in modern Tuscany, his views are not shared by most Etruscologists.

According to Bertoldi and Terracini, Paleo-Sardinian has similarities with the Iberic languages and Siculian; for example,
the suffix -ara in proparoxytones indicated the plural. Terracini proposed the same for suffixes in -/àna/, -/ànna/, -/énna/, -/
ònna/ + /r/ + a paragogic vowel (such as the toponym Bunnànnaru). Rohlfs, Butler and Craddock add the suffix -/ini/ (such
as the toponym Barùmini) as a unique element of Paleo-Sardinian. Suffixes in /a, e, o, u/ + -rr- found a correspondence in
north Africa (Terracini), in Iberia (Blasco Ferrer) and in southern Italy and Gascony (Rohlfs), with a closer relationship to
Basque (Wagner and Hubschmid). However, these early links to a Basque precursor have been questioned by some Basque
linguists.[58] According to Terracini, suffixes in -/ài/, -/éi/, -/òi/, and -/ùi/ are common to Paleo-Sardinian and northern
Hunter, Nuragic bronze
African languages. Pittau emphasized that this concerns terms originally ending in an accented vowel, with an attached
statuette
paragogic vowel; the suffix resisted Latinization in some place names, which show a Latin body and a Nuragic suffix.
According to Bertoldi, some toponyms ending in -/ài/ and -/asài/ indicated an Anatolian influence. The suffix -/aiko/, widely used in Iberia and possibly of
Celtic origin, and the ethnic suffix in -/itanos/ and -/etanos/ (for example, the Sardinian Sulcitanos) have also been noted as Paleo-Sardinian elements
(Terracini, Ribezzo, Wagner, Hubschmid and Faust).

Some linguists, like Max Leopold Wagner (1931), Blasco Ferrer (2009, 2010) and Arregi (2017[59]) have attempted to revive a theoretical connection with
Basque by linking words such as Sardinian idile "marshland" and Basque itil "puddle";[60] Sardinian ospile "fresh grazing for cattle" and Basque hozpil
"cool, fresh"; Sardinian arrotzeri "vagabond" and Basque arrotz "stranger"; Sardinian golostiu and Basque gorosti "holly"; Gallurese (Corso-Sardinian)
zerru "pig" (with z for [dz]) and Basque zerri (with z for [s]). Genetic data have found the Basques to be close to the Sardinians.[61][62][63]

Since the Neolithic period, some degree of variance across the island's regions is also attested. The Arzachena culture, for
instance, suggests a link between the northernmost Sardinian region (Gallura) and southern Corsica that finds further
confirmation in the Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder. There are also some stylistic differences across Northern and
Southern Nuragic Sardinia, which may indicate the existence of two other tribal groups (Balares and Ilienses) mentioned by
the same Roman author. According to the archeologist Giovanni Ugas,[66] these tribes may have in fact played a role in
shaping the current regional linguistic differences of the island.

Classical period

Around the 10th and 9th century BC, Phoenician merchants were known to have made their presence in Sardinia, which
acted as a geographical mediator in between the Iberian and the Italian peninsula. In the eighth and seventh centuries, the
Phoenicians began to develop permanent settlements, politically arranged as city-states in similar fashion to the Lebanese
coastal areas. It did not take long before they started gravitating around the Carthaginian sphere of influence, whose level of
prosperity spurred Carthage to send a series of expeditionary forces to the island; although they were initially repelled by the
Location of the Sardinian
natives, the North African city vigorously pursued a policy of active imperialism and, by the sixth century, managed to tribes, as described by the
establish its political hegemony and military control over South-Western Sardinia. Punic began to be spoken in the area, and Roman sources.[64]
many words entered ancient Sardinian as well. Names like giara "plateau" (cf. Hebrew "forest, scrub"), g(r)uspinu
"nasturtium" (from the Punic cusmin), curma "fringed rue" (cf. ḥarmal "Syrian rue"), mítza "source" (cf.
Hebrew mitsa, metza "place whence something emerges"), síntziri "marsh horsetail" (from the Punic zunzur
"common knotgrass"), tzeúrra "sprout" (from the Punic zeraʿ "seed"), tzichirìa "dill" (from the Punic sikkíria;
cf. Hebrew šēkār "ale") and tzípiri "rosemary" (from the Punic zibbir) are commonly used, especially in the
modern Sardinian varieties of the Campidanese plain, while proceeding northwards the influence is more
limited to place names, such as the town of Magomadas, Macumadas in Nuoro or Magumadas in Gesico and
Nureci, all of which deriving from the Punic maqom hadash "new city".[67][68]

The Roman domination began in 238 BC and brought Latin to Sardinia, but was often contested by the local
Sardinian tribes and proved unable to completely supplant the pre-Latin Sardinian languages, including Punic,
which continued to be spoken in the 4th century AD as attested by votive inscriptions.[69] Some obscure
Nuragic roots remained unchanged, and in many cases Latin accepted the local roots (like nur, presumably
from Norax, which makes its appearance in nuraghe, Nurra, Nurri and many other toponyms). Barbagia, the
mountainous central region of the island, derives its name from the Latin Barbaria (a term meaning "Land of Length of the Roman rule and emergence
the Barbarians", similar in origin to the now antiquated word "Barbary"), because its people refused cultural of the Romance Languages.[65]
and linguistic assimilation for a long time: 50% of toponyms of central Sardinia, particularly in the territory of
Olzai, are actually not related to any known language.[70] Besides the place names, on the island there are still
a few names of plants, animals and geological formations directly traceable to the ancient Nuragic era.[71] Cicero called the Sardinian rebels latrones
mastrucati ("thieves with rough wool cloaks") to emphasize Roman superiority.[72]

During the Roman domination Latin gradually became however the speech of the majority of the island's inhabitants.[73] As a result of this protracted and
prolonged[74] process of Romanization, the modern Sardinian language is today classified as Romance or neo-Latin, with some phonetic features resembling
Old Latin. Some linguists assert that modern Sardinian, being part of the Island Romance group,[35] was the first language to split off from Latin,[75] all
others evolving from Latin as Continental Romance. In terms of vocabulary, Sardinian retains an array of peculiar Latin-based forms that are either
unfamiliar to, or have altogether disappeared in, the rest of the Romance-speaking world.[76][77]

At that time, the only literature being produced in Sardinia was mostly in Latin: the native (Paleo-Sardinian) and non-native (Punic) pre-Roman languages
were then already extinct (the last Punic inscription in Bithia, southern Sardinia, is from the second or third century AD[78]). Some engraved poems in
ancient Greek and Latin (the two most prestigious languages in the Roman Empire[79]) are to be seen in Viper Cave, Cagliari, (Gruta 'e sa Pibera in
Sardinian, Grotta della Vipera in Italian, Cripta Serpentum in Latin), a burial monument built by Lucius Cassius Philippus (a Roman who had been exiled to
Sardinia) in remembrance of his dead spouse Atilia Pomptilla. We also have some religious works by Saint Lucifer and Eusebius, both from Caralis
(Cagliari).

Although Sardinia was culturally influenced and politically ruled by the Byzantine Empire for almost five centuries, Greek did not enter the language except
for some ritual or formal expressions in Sardinian using Greek structure and, sometimes, the Greek alphabet.[80][81] Evidence for this is found in the
condaghes, the first written documents in Sardinian. From the long Byzantine era there are only a few entries but they already provide a glimpse of the
sociolinguistical situation on the island in which, in addition to the community's everyday Neo-Latin language, Greek was also spoken by the ruling
classes.[82] Some toponyms, such as Jerzu (thought to derive from the Greek khérsos, "untilled"), together with the personal names Mikhaleis, Konstantine
and Basilis, demonstrate Greek influence.[82]

As the Muslims conquered southern Italy and Sicily, communications broke down between Constantinople and Sardinia, whose districts became
progressively more autonomous from the Byzantine oecumene (Greek: οἰκουμένη). Sardinia was then brought back into the Latin cultural sphere.

Judicates period
 Sardinian was the first Romance language of all to gain official status, being used by the four
Judicates,[83][84][85][86][note 2] former Byzantine districts that became independent political entities
after the Arab expansion in the Mediterranean cut off any ties left between the island and Byzantium.
One of the oldest documents left in Sardinian (the so-called Carta Volgare) comes from the Judicate
of Cagliari and was issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in around 1070, employing the Greek
alphabet.[87] Old Sardinian had a greater number of archaisms and Latinisms than the present
language does. While the earlier documents show the existence of an early Sardinian Koine,[88][89]
the language used by the various Judicates already displayed a certain range of dialectal
variation.[47][2] A special position was occupied by the Judicate of Arborea, the last Sardinian
kingdom to fall to foreign powers, in which a transitional dialect was spoken, that of Middle
Sardinian. The Carta de Logu of the Kingdom of Arborea, one of the first constitutions in history
drawn up in 1355–1376 by Marianus IV and the Queen, the "Lady Judge" (judikessa in Sardinian,
jutgessa in Catalan, giudicessa in Italian) Eleanor, was written in this transitional variety of Sardinian,
and remained in force until 1827.[90][91] It is presumed the Arborean judges attempted to unify the
The condaghe of Saint Peter of Silki (1065–1180), Sardinian dialects to be legitimate rulers of the entire island under a single state (republica sardisca
written in Sardinian. "Sardinian Republic"); [92] such political goal, after all, was already manifest in 1164, when the
Arborean Judge Barison ordered his great seal to be made with the writings Baresonus Dei Gratia
Rei Sardiniee ("Barison, by the grace of God, King of Sardinia") and Est vis Sardorum pariter
regnum Populorum ("The people's rule is equal to the Sardinians' own force").[93]

Dante Alighieri wrote in his 1302–05 essay De vulgari eloquentia that Sardinians, not being Extract from the Logudorese
Italians (Latii) and having no lingua vulgaris of their own, resorted to aping Latin Privilege (1080)
instead.[36][94][95][96][97][98] Dante's view has been dismissed, as Sardinian had been « In nomine Domini amen. Ego
following its own course in a way which was already unintelligible to non-islanders. In the iudice Mariano de Lacon fazo
popular 12th-century verse from Raimbaut de Vaqueiras' poem Domna, tant vos ai preiada, ista carta ad onore de omnes
Sardinian epitomizes outlandish speech along with German and Berber, having the homines de Pisas pro xu
toloneu ci mi pecterunt: e ego
troubadour's wife say «No t'entend plui d'un Todesco / Sardesco o Barbarì» ("I don't donolislu pro ca lis so ego
understand you any more than [I could] a German / Sard or Berber");[99][100][101][98][102] the amicu caru e itsos a mimi; ci
Tuscan poet Fazio degli Uberti refers to the Sardinians in his poem Dittamondo as «una gente nullu imperatore ci lu aet
potestare istu locu de non
The first page of the
che niuno non-la intende / né essi sanno quel ch'altri pispiglia» ("a people that no one is able (n)apat comiatu de leuarelis
to understand / nor do they come to a knowledge of what other peoples say"). [103][97][98] The toloneu in placitu: de non
Arborean Carta de Logu
Muslim geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, who lived in Palermo, Sicily at the court of King occidere pisanu ingratis: e
Roger II, wrote in his work Kitab Nuzhat al-mushtāq fi'khtirāq al-āfāq ("The book of pleasant ccausa ipsoro ci lis aem
leuare ingratis, de facerlis
journeys into faraway lands" or, simply, "The book of Roger") that «Sardinia is large, mountainous, poorly provided with iustitia inperatore ci nce aet
water, two hundred and eighty miles long and one hundred and eighty long from west to east. [...] Sardinians are ethnically exere intu locu [...] »
Rūm Afāriqah, like the Berbers; they shun contacts with all the other Rūm nations and are people of purpose and valiant that
never leave the arms».[104][105][106] Indeed, Sardinian was perceived as rather similar to the Latin dialects once spoken by the Christian Berbers in North
Africa, giving credit to the theory that vulgar Latin in both Africa and Sardinia displayed a significant wealth of parallelisms.[107] J. N. Adams is of the
opinion that similarities in certain words, such as acina (grape), pala (shoulderblade), or also spanus in African Latin and the Sardinian spanu ("light red"),
could prove that there was a fair amount of vocabulary shared between Sardinia and Africa.[108]

The literature of this period primarily consists of legal documents, besides the aforementioned Carta de Logu. The
first document containing Sardinian elements is a 1063 donation to the abbey of Montecassino signed by Barisone I
of Torres.[109] Other documents are the Carta Volgare (1070–1080) in Campidanese, the 1080 Logudorese
Privilege,[note 3] the 1089 Donation of Torchitorio (in the Marseille archives),[note 4] the 1190–1206 Marsellaise
Chart (in Campidanese)[note 5] and an 1173 communication between the Bishop Bernardo of Civita and Benedetto,
who oversaw the Opera del Duomo in Pisa.[note 6] The Statutes of Sassari (1316) and Castelgenovese (c. 1334) are
written in Logudorese.[note 7]

The first chronicle in lingua sive ydiomate sardo,[110] called Condagues de Sardina, was published anonymously in Sardinian-language statutes of
the 13th century, relating the events of the Judicate of Torres. Sassari from the 13th–14th centuries

Iberian period – Catalan and Spanish influence

The 1297 feoffment of Sardinia by Pope Boniface VIII led to the creation of the Aragonese Kingdom of Sardinia and a long period of war between the
Aragonese and Sardinians, ending with an Aragonese victory at Sanluri in 1409 and the renunciation of any succession right signed by William II of
Narbonne in 1420.[111] During this period the clergy adopted Catalan as their primary language, relegating Sardinian to a secondary but nonetheless relevant
status with regards to the official acts and the Realm's law (the Carta de Logu was extended to most of the island in 1421 by the Parliament[112]). Agreeing
with Fara's De rebus Sardois,[113] the Sardinian attorney Sigismondo Arquer, author of Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio in Sebastian Münster's
Cosmographia universalis (whose report would also be quoted in Conrad Gessner's "On the different languages used by the various nations across the
globe" with minor variations[114]), stated that Sardinian prevailed in most of the Kingdom, with particular regard for the rural interior, and Catalan and
Spanish were spoken in the cities, where the ruling class eventually became plurilingual in both the native and the Iberian languages;[115] Alghero is still a
Catalan-speaking enclave on Sardinia to this day.[116] This sociolinguistic situation was reported by various authors, including the ambassador Martin
Carillo (supposed author of the ironic judgment on the Sardinians' tribal and sectarian divisions: «pocos, locos, y mal unidos» "few, thickheaded, and badly
united"),[117] the anonymous Llibre dels feyts d'armes de Catalunya, a passage of which reads: «parlen la llengua catalana molt polidament, axì com fos a
Catalunya» ("they speak Catalan very well, as though I was in Catalonia"); and, finally, the rector of the Jesuit college of Sassari, Baldassarre Pinyes, who
wrote in Rome: «per ciò che concerne la lingua sarda, sappia vostra paternità che essa non è parlata in questa città, né in Alghero, né a Cagliari: la
parlano solo nelle ville» ("as far as the Sardinian language is concerned, Your Paternity, know that it is not spoken in this city, nor in Alghero, nor in
Cagliari: they only speak it in the towns").

The long-lasting war and the so-called Black Death had a devastating effect on the island, depopulating large parts of it. People from the neighbouring island
of Corsica began to settle in the northern Sardinian coast, leading to the birth of the Tuscan-sounding Sassarese and Gallurese lects.[118][119]
Despite Catalan being widely spoken and written on the island at this time (leaving a lasting influence in Sardinian),
there are some written records of Sardinian, which was estimated to be the ordinary language of the Sardinians by Extract from sa Vitta et sa
the Jesuits in 1561.[121] One is the 15th-century Sa Vitta et sa Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Brothu et Morte, et Passione de sanctu
Ianuariu, written by Antòni Canu (1400–1476) and published in 1557.[120] Gavinu, Prothu et Januariu (A.
Cano, ~1400)[120]
The 16th century is instead marked by a new Sardinian literary revival: Rimas Spirituales, by Hieronimu
Araolla,[122] was aimed at "glorifying and enriching Sardinian, our language" (magnificare et arrichire sa limba
O
nostra sarda) as Spanish, French and Italian poets had already done for their own languages (la Deffense et
illustration de la langue françoyse and Il Dialogo delle lingue). [123][note 8] Antonio Lo Frasso, a poet born in Deus eternu, sempre
Alghero[124] (a city he remembered fondly)[note 9] who spent his life in Barcelona, wrote lyric poetry in omnipotente,
Sardinian:[125] ... «Non podende sufrire su tormentu / de su fogu ardente innamorosu. / Videndemi foras de In s'aiudu meu ti piacat attender,
sentimentu / et sensa una hora de riposu, / pensende istare liberu e contentu / m'agato pius aflitu e congoixosu, / in Et dami gratia de poder acabare
essermi de te senora apartadu, / mudende ateru quelu, ateru istadu ...». Su sanctu martiriu, in rima
vulgare,
Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 and, later in 1624, the 5. De sos sanctos martires tantu
reorganization of the monarchy led by the Count-Duke of Olivares, Sardinia would progressively join a broad gloriosos
Spanish cultural sphere and leave the exclusive Aragonese one. Spanish was perceived as an elitist language, Et cavaleris de Cristus
gaining solid ground among the ruling Sardinian class; Spanish had thus a profound influence on Sardinian, victoriosos,
especially in those words, styles and cultural models owing to the prestigious international role of the Habsburg Sanctu Gavinu, Prothu e
Monarchy as well as the Court.[note 10][122] Most Sardinian authors would write in both Spanish and Sardinian until Januariu,
the 19th century and were well-versed in the former, like Vicente Bacallar y Sanna that was one of the founders of Contra su demoniu, nostru
the Real Academia Española;[126] according to Bruno Anatra's estimates, around 87% of the books printed in adversariu,
Cagliari were in Spanish.[117] A notable exception was Pedro Delitala (1550–1590), who decided to write in Italian Fortes defensores et bonos
instead.[124][127] Nonetheless, the Sardinian language retained much of its importance, earning respect from the advocados,
Spaniards in light of it being the ethnic code the people from most of the Kingdom kept using, especially in the 10. Qui in su Paradisu sunt
interior.[128][note 11] New genres of popular poetry were established around this period, like the gosos or gocius glorificados
(sacred hymns), the anninnia (lullabies), the attitu (funeral laments), the batorinas (quatrains), the berbos and De sa corona de sanctu
paraulas (curses), and the improvised poetry of the mutu and mutetu. martiriu.
Cussos sempre siant in nostru
Sardinian was also one of the few official languages, along with Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese, whose adiutoriu.
knowledge was required to be an officer in the Spanish tercios.[129] Amen.

A 1620 proclamation is in the Bosa archives.[note 12]

Ioan Matheu Garipa, a priest from Orgosolo who translated the Italian Leggendario delle Sante Vergini e Martiri di Gesù Cristo into Sardinian (Legendariu
de Santas Virgines, et Martires de Iesu Christu) in 1627, was the first author to call Sardinian the closest living relative of classical Latin[130] and, like
Araolla before him,[123] valued Sardinian as the language of a specific ethno-national community.[131]

Savoyard period – Italian influence

The War of the Spanish Succession gave Sardinia to Austria, whose sovereignty was confirmed by the 1713–
14 treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt. In 1717 a Spanish fleet reoccupied Cagliari, and the following year Sardinia
was ceded to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy in exchange for Sicily. This transfer would not initially entail any
social nor linguistic changes, though: Sardinia would still retain for a long time its Iberian character, so much so
that only in 1767 were the Aragonese and Spanish dynastic symbols replaced by the Savoyard cross.[132] This
stance was rooted in three political reasons: in the first place, the Savoyards felt like they did not want to rouse
Three gravestones in the ancient international suspicion and followed to the letter the rules dictated by the Treaty of London, signed on the
cemetery of Ploaghe (Logudoro), wherein second of August 1718, whereby they committed themselves to respect the fundamental laws of the newly
a total of thirty-nine gravestones have acquired Kingdom; in the second, they did not want to antagonize the hispanophile locals, especially the elites;
writings in Sardinian and three in Italian. in the third, they lingered on hoping they could manage to dispose of the island while still keeping the title of
Kings by regaining Sicily.[133] In fact, since imposing Italian would mean to break one of the fundamental laws
of the Kingdom the new rulers swore to observe upon taking on the mantle of King, Victor Amadeus II
emphasised the need for the operation to be carried out through incremental steps small enough to go relatively unnoticed (insensibilmente) as early as
1721.[134] Such prudence was again noted, when the same King claimed that he was nevertheless not intentioned to ban either Sardinian or Spanish on two
separate occasions, in 1726 and 1728.[135] The fact that the new masters of Sardinia felt at loss as to how they could better deal with a cultural and linguistic
environment they perceived as alien to the Mainland,[136] where Italian had long been the official language, can be deduced from the study Memoria dei
mezzi che si propongono per introdurre l'uso della lingua italiana in questo Regno ("Account of the proposed ways to introduce the Italian language to this
Kingdom") commissioned in 1726 by the Piedmontese administration, to which the Jesuit Antonio Falletti from Barolo responded suggesting the ignotam
linguam per notam expōnĕre ("to introduce an unknown language [Italian] through a known one [Spanish]") method as the best course of action for
Italianization.[137] In the same year, Victor Amadeus II had already said he could no longer tolerate the lack of ability to speak Italian on the part of the
islanders, in view of the inconveniences that such inability was putting through for the functionaries sent from the Mainland.[138] Restrictions to mixed
marriages between Sardinian women and the Piedmontese officers dispatched to the island, which had hitherto been prohibited by law,[139] were at one
point lifted and even encouraged so as to better introduce the language to the local population.[140][141]

In contrast to the cultural dynamics long established in the Mainland between Italian and the various Romance dialects thereof, in Sardinia the relationship
between the Italian language – recently introduced by Savoy – and the native one had been perceived from the start by the locals, educated and uneducated
alike, as a relationship (albeit unequal in terms of political power and prestige) between two very different languages, and not between a language and one of
its dialects.[142] The plurisecular Iberian period had also contributed in making the Sardinians feel relatively detached from the Italian language and its
cultural sphere; local sensibilities towards the language were further exacerbated by the fact that the Spanish ruling class had long considered Sardinian a
distinct language, with respect to their own ones and Italian as well.[143] The perception of the alterity of Sardinian was also widely shared among the
Italians who happened to visit the island and recounted their experiences with the local population,[144] whom they often likened to the Spanish and the
ancient peoples of the Orient.[145][146][147]
However, the Savoyard government eventually decided to directly impose Italian altogether on Sardinia on 25 July 1760,[148][149][150][151][152][153]
because of the Savoyards' geopolitical need to draw the island away from Spain's gravitational pull and culturally integrate Sardinia into the Italian
peninsula's orbit,[154] and especially Piedmont.[155][156][157][note 13][158] In 1764, the order was extended to all sectors of public life.[159][160][161] Spanish
was thus replaced as the official language (even though it continued to be used in the parish registers and official deeds until 1828[162]) and Sardinian was
again marginalized, making way for the Italianization of the island.[163][164][160][2] For the first time, in fact, even the wealthy and most powerful families of
rural Sardinia, the printzipales, started to perceive Sardinian as a handicap.[159]

At the end of the 18th century, following the trail of the French revolution, a group of the Sardinian middle class planned to break away from the mainland
ruling class and institute an independent Sardinian Republic under French protection; all over the island, a number of political pamphlets printed in Sardinian
were illegally distributed, calling for a mass revolt against the Piedmontese rule and the barons' abuse. The most famous literary product born out of such
political unrest was the poem Su patriottu sardu a sos feudatarios, noted as a testament of the French-inspired democratic and patriotic values, as well as
Sardinia's situation under feudalism.[165][166]

The first systematic study on the Sardinian language was written in 1782 by the philologist Matteo Madau, with the title of Il ripulimento della lingua sarda
lavorato sopra la sua antologia colle due matrici lingue, la greca e la latina.[167] The patriotic intention that motivated Madau was to trace the ideal path
through which Sardinian could grow to be the island's proper national language;[168][169][170][171] nevertheless, the Savoyard climate of repression on
Sardinian culture would induce Matteo Madau to veil its radical proposals with some literary devices, and the author was eventually unable to ever translate
them into reality.[172] The first volume of comparative Sardinian dialectology was produced in 1786 by the Catalan Jesuit Andres Febres, known in Italy and
Sardinia by the pseudonym of Bonifacio d'Olmi, who returned from Lima where he had first published a book of Mapuche grammar in 1764.[173] After he
moved to Cagliari, he became fascinated with the Sardinian language as well and conducted some research on three specific dialects; the aim of his work,
entitled Prima grammatica de' tre dialetti sardi,[174] was to «write down the rules of the Sardinian language» and spur the Sardinians to «cherish the
language of their Homeland, as well as Italian». The government in Turin, which had been monitoring Febres' activity, decided that his work would not be
allowed to be published: Victor Amadeus III had supposedly not appreciated the fact that the book had a bilingual dedication to him in Italian and Sardinian,
a mistake that his successors, while still echoing back to a general concept of "Sardinian ancestral homeland", would from then on avoid, and making
exclusive use of Italian to produce their works.[172]

In the climate of monarchic restoration that followed Angioy's rebellion, other Sardinian intellectuals, all characterized by an attitude of general devotion to
their island as well as proven loyalty to the House of Savoy, posed in fact the question of the Sardinian language, while being careful enough to use only
Italian as a language to get their point across. During the 19th century in particular, the Sardinian intellectuality and ruling class found itself divided over the
adherence to the Sardinian national values and the allegiance to the new Italian nationality,[175] toward which they eventually leaned in the wake of the
abortive Sardinian revolution.[176] The identity crisis of the Sardinian ruling class, and their strive for acceptance into the new citizenship of the Italian
identity, would manifest itself with the publication of the so-called Falsi d'Arborea[177] by the unionist and reactionary historian Pietro Martini in 1863.

A few years after the major anti-Piedmontese revolt, in 1811, the priest Vincenzo Raimondo Porru published a timid essay of Sardinian grammar, which,
however, referred expressively to the Southern dialect (hence the title of Saggio di grammatica del dialetto sardo meridionale[178]) and, out of prudence
towards the king, was made with the declared intention of easing the acquisition of Italian among his fellow Sardinians, instead of protecting their
language.[179] The more ambitious work of the professor and senator Giovanni Spano, the Ortographia sarda nationale ("Sardinian National
Orthography"),[180] although it was officially meant for the same purpose as Porru's,[note 14] attempted in reality to establish a unified Sardinian orthography
based on Logudorese, just like Florentine had become the basis for Italian.[181][182]

The jurist Carlo Baudi di Vesme claimed that the suppression of Sardinian and the imposition of
Italian was desirable to make the islanders "civilized Italians".[note 15] The primary and tertiary
education was thus offered exclusively through Italian, importing teachers from the Mainland to make
up for the lack of Italian-speaking Sardinians,[183] and Piedmontese cartographers replaced many
Sardinian place names with Italian ones.[160] The Italian education, being imparted in a language the
Sardinians were not familiar with,[note 16] spread Italian for the first time in history to Sardinian
villages, marking the troubled transition to the new dominant language; the school environment,
which employed Italian as the sole means of communication, grew to become a microcosm around
the then-monolingual Sardinian villages.[note 17] In 1811, the canon Salvatore Carboni published in
Bologna the polemic book Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda ("Holy Discourses in Sardinian
language"), wherein the author lamented the fact that Sardinia, «hoe provinzia italiana non podet
tenner sas lezzes e sos attos pubblicos in sa propia limba» ("Being an Italian province nowadays,
[Sardinia] cannot have laws and public acts made in its own language"), and while claiming that «sa
The Kingdom of Sardinia in 1856.
limba sarda, totu chi non uffiziale, durat in su Populu Sardu cantu durat sa Sardigna» ("the Sardinian
language, however unofficial, will last as long as Sardinia among the Sardinians"), he also asked
himself «Proite mai nos hamus a dispreziare cun d'unu totale abbandonu sa limba sarda, antiga et
nobile cantu s'italiana, sa franzesa et s'ispagnola?» ("Why should we show neglect and contempt for Sardinian, which is a language as ancient and noble as
Italian, French and Spanish?").[184][185] Eventually, Sardinian came to be perceived as sa limba de su famine / sa lingua de su famini, literally translating
into English as "the language of hunger" (i.e. the language of the poor), and Sardinian parents strongly supported the teaching of the new tongue to their
children, since they saw it as the portal to escaping from a poverty-stricken, rural, isolated and underprivileged life.

In 1827, the historical legal code serving as the consuetud de la nació sardesca in the days of the Iberian rule, the Carta de Logu, was abolished and
replaced by the more advanced Savoyard code of Charles Felix "Leggi civili e criminali del Regno di Sardegna", written in Italian.[186][187] The Perfect
Fusion with the Mainland States, enacted under the auspices of a «transplant, without any reserves and obstacles, [of] the culture and civilization of the
Italian Mainland to Sardinia»,[188] would result in the loss of the island's residual autonomy[189][186] and marked the moment when «the language of the
"Sardinian nation" lost its value as an instrument with which to ethnically identify a particular people and its culture, to be codified and cherished, and
became instead one of the many regional dialects subordinated to the national language».[190] Despite the long-term assimilation policy, the anthem of the
Savoyard Kingdom of Sardinia would still be S'hymnu sardu nationale ("the Sardinian National Anthem"), also known as Cunservet Deus su Re ("God
save the King"), before it was de facto replaced by the Italian Marcia Reale as well, in 1861.[191] However, even when the island became part of the
Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861, Sardinia's distinct culture from the now unified Mainland made it an overall neglected province within
the newly proclaimed unitary nation state.[192]
During the mobilization for World War I, the Italian Army compelled all Sardinians to enlist as Italian
subjects and established the Sassari Infantry Brigade on 1 March 1915 at Tempio Pausania and
Sinnai. Unlike the other infantry brigades of Italy, Sassari's conscripts were only Sardinians (including
many officers). It is currently the only unit in Italy with an anthem in a language other than Italian:
Dimonios ("Devils"), written in 1994 by Luciano Sechi. Its title derives from Rote Teufel (German for
"red devils"). However, compulsory military service played a role in language shift.

Eventually, under Fascism, Sardinia was made to align with the Italian national system,[193] by means
of cultural assimilation via the combined role of the school and the party system and repression of the
local cultural expressions, including Sardinia's mask festivals[194] and improvised poetry
competitions,[195][196][197][198][199][200] and a large number of Sardinian surnames were changed to
sound more Italian. Following an argument between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula (also known
A Sardinian family reading L'Unione Sarda ("The
as Montanaru) and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who stated that «once the region is moribund
Sardinian Union"), a daily newspaper in the Italian
or dead, so will the dialect (sic)», the latter managed to have Sardinian banned from the printing press,
[201][202] language founded in 1889.
as well. It is by Montanaru that, for the first time in the 20th century, the significance of the
Sardinian language was tied to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic
group,[203][note 18] whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to regain a dignity
perceived to have been lost.[204] Another famed poet from the island, Salvatore (Bore) Poddighe, fell into a severe depression and took his own life a few
years after his masterwork (Sa Mundana Cummedia[205]) had been seized by Cagliari's police commissioner.[206] When the use of Sardinian in school was
banned in 1934 as part of a nation-wide educational plan against the alloglot "dialects", the then Sardinian-speaking children were confronted with another
means of communication that was supposed to be their own from then onwards.[207] On a whole, this period saw the most aggressive cultural assimilation
effort by the central government,[208][2] which led to an even further sociolinguistic degradation of Sardinian.[209] However, the Sardinian Anthem of the
once Piedmontese Kingdom was a chance to use a regional language without penalty: as a royal tradition, it could not be forbidden.

The Sardinian-born philosopher Antonio Gramsci commented on the Sardinian linguistic question while writing a letter to his sister Teresina; Gramsci was
aware of the long-term ramifications of language shift, and suggested Teresa to let her son acquire Sardinian with no restriction, because doing otherwise
would result in "putting his imagination in a straitjacket" as well as him ending up eventually "learning two jargons, and no language at all".[210][211]

Present situation
After World War II, awareness around the Sardinian language and the danger of its slipping away did not seem to
concern the Sardinian elites and entered the political spaces much later than in other European peripheries marked
by the long-standing presence of ethno-linguistic minorities;[212] Sardinian was in fact dismissed by the already
Italianized middle class,[209] as both the Sardinian language and culture were still being held responsible for the
island's underdevelopment.[189] The Sardinian ruling class, drawn to the Italian modernist stance on Sardinia's path
to development, believed in fact that the latter had been held back by the islanders' "traditional practices", and that
social and cultural progress could only be brought about through their rejection.[213][214] Consequently, the
Sardinians have been encouraged to Italianize and thus part with what they believed to be negatively marking their
affiliation with a stigmatized identity.[215]

A bilingual sign in Villasor's town

At the time of drafting of the statute in 1948, the legislator eventually decided to specify the "Sardinian specialty" as
hall. a single criterion for political autonomy just on the grounds of a couple of socio-economic issues devoid of
considerations of a distinct cultural, historical and geographical identity,[216][217][218][219] which were on the
contrary looked down upon as a potential prelude to more autonomist or separatist claims;[220] this attitude would
be exemplified by a report of the Italian Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry into Banditry, which warned against the looming threat posed by "isolationist
tendencies injurious to the development of Sardinian society and recently manifesting themselves in the proposal to regard Sardinian as the language of an
ethnic minority".[221] Eventually, the special statute of 1948 did not recognize any special geographical conditions about the region nor made any mention of
a distinct cultural and linguistic element,[222] preferring instead to concentrate on state-funded plans (baptised with the Italian name of piani di rinascita) for
the heavy industrial development of the island, as well as the military installations.[223] Therefore, far from being a Statute grounded on the acknowledgment
of a particular cultural identity like, for example, in South Tyrol, what emerged in Sardinia was an «autonomism solely based on economic considerations,
because there was not either the will or the ability to devise a strong and culturally motivated autonomy, a "Sardinian specificity" that was not defined on the
terms of social backwardness and economic deprivation».[224] In the meantime, the emphasis on Italian-only assimilation policies continued,[2] with
historical sites and ordinary objects renamed in Italian (e.g. the various kinds of "traditional" pecorino cheese, zippole instead of tzipulas, carta da musica
instead of carasau, formaggelle instead of pardulas / casadinas, etc.).[225] The Ministry of Public Education once requested that the teachers willing to teach
Sardinian be put under surveillance.[226][227][228] The rejection of the indigenous language, along with a rigid model of Italian-language education,[229]
corporal punishment and shaming,[note 19][230] has led to poor schooling for the Sardinians.[231][232][233] Early school leaving and school failure rates in
Sardinia prompted a debate on the actual efficacy of strictly monolingual education in the Nineties, with new proposals for a comparative approach.[234]

Claims for an autonomous solution to the Sardinian economic, social and cultural problems, which the 1948 Statute proved unable to resolve,[189][235] came
to the fore once again in the Sixties, with campaigns, often expressed in the form of political demands by Sardinian nationalists,[236][237] to give Sardinian
equal status with Italian as a means to promote cultural identity.[238] To such endeavor was oriented the activism of intellectuals like Antonio Simon Mossa,
who had drawn from his past experiences across the world that Sardinians too were facing the danger of cultural assimilation,[239] and whose fervor
reverberated across the Sardinian society and pushed even some non-nationalist groups to take an interest in matters relating to minorities.[240] Although a
law was passed as early as 1955 for the establishment of five professorships of Sardinian linguistics,[241] one of the first demands for bilingualism was
formulated in a resolution adopted by the University of Cagliari in 1971, calling upon the national and regional authorities to recognize the Sardinians as an
ethnic and linguistic minority and Sardinian as the islanders' co-official language.[242][243][note 20] Sergio Salvi's description of the Sardinians as a
"forbidden nation" in Italy further contributed to the linguistic question gaining more notoriety at the national level.[244] A first legal draft concerning
Sardinian as a language to be legally put on an equal position with Italian was developed by the Sardinian Action Party in 1975.[245][246] Critical acclaim in
Sardinian cultural circles followed the patriotic poem No sias isciau[note 21] ("Don't be a slave") by Raimondo (Remundu) Piras some months before his
death in 1977, urging bilingual education to reverse the ongoing trend of cultural De-Sardization.[198]
It was in the late 70s that a significant shift to Italian was first noted in rural Sardinia not only in the Campidanese plain, but even in some inner areas that
had been previously considered Sardinian-speaking bastions,[247] manifesting a parallel shift of the values upon which the ethnic and cultural identity of the
Sardinians was traditionally grounded.[248][note 22] From then onwards, the use of Sardinian would continue to recede because of the strongly negative view
the Sardinian community developed toward it, assuming a self-belittling attitude which has been described as the emergence of a "minority complex" fairly
typical of linguistic minorities.[249] However, by the Eighties the language had become a point of ethnic pride:[250] it also became a tool through which long
held grievances towards the central government's failure at delivering better economic and social conditions could be channeled.[251] A contradicting
tendency has been noted by observing that, while Sardinian is held in a much more positive light than before, its actual use has notably decreased and keeps
doing so.[252]

A law by popular initiative for Sardinian-Italian bilingualism garnered considerable success as it kept gathering thousands of signatures, but was promptly
blocked by the Italian Communist Party and thus never implemented.[253][254] The same Italian Communist Party would later propose, however, another bill
of its own initiative "for the protection of the language and culture of the Sardinian people" in 1980.[255] In the end, following tensions and claims of the
Sardinian nationalist movement for concrete cultural and political autonomy, including the recognition of the Sardinians as an ethnic and linguistic minority,
three separate bills were eventually presented to the Regional Council in the Eighties.[46] In 1981, the Regional Council debated and voted for the
introduction of bilingualism in Sardinia for the first time.[246][256] As pressure by a resolution of the Council of Europe continued to bear on Italian policy-
makers for the protection of minorities, a Commission was appointed in 1982 to investigate the issue;[257] the following year, a bill was presented to the
Italian Parliament, but without success. One of the first laws approved by the Sardinian legislator with respect to the protection and promotion of the
Sardinian language and culture was soon rejected by the Constitutional Court in 1994, which deemed it "exorbitant in a multitude of ways with regard to the
supplementary and implementing powers enjoyed by the Region in matters of education";[258][259] it was not until 1997 that Sardinian was finally
recognized by the regional law (n. 26 of 15 October 1997 "Promotion and enhancement of the culture and language of Sardinia") without there being any
recourse from the Italian central government;[4] this law too, however, would prove to be more focused on the traditions and history of the Sardinian people
than the language in itself.[241]

A survey conducted by MAKNO in 1984 showed that three-fourths of the Sardinians had a positive attitude towards bilingual education (22% of the
interviewees, especially in the Province of Nuoro and Oristano, wanted Sardinian to be compulsory in Sardinian schools, while 54.7% would prefer to see
teaching in Sardinian as optional) and official bilingualism like in the Aosta Valley and South Tyrol (62.7% of the population were in favour, 25.9% said no
and 11.4% were unsure).[260] Such consensus remains relatively stable to this day;[261] another survey, conducted in 2008, reported that more than half of
the interviewees, 57.3%, were in favour of the introduction of Sardinian into schools alongside Italian.[262] More research carried out in 2010 confirmed
warm reception among the students' parents to introducing Sardinian at school, even though skepticism circulated around having it taught as the vehicular
language of education.[263]

In the 1990s, there had been a resurgence of Sardinian-language music, ranging from the more traditional genres
(cantu a tenore, cantu a chiterra, gosos etc.) to rock (Kenze Neke, Askra, Tzoku, Tazenda etc.) and even hip hop
and rap (Dr. Drer e CRC Posse, Quilo, Sa Razza, Malam, Su Akru, Menhir, Stranos Elementos, Malos Cantores,
Randagiu Sardu, Futta etc.), and with artists who used the language as a means to promote the island and address
its long-standing issues and the new challenges.[264][265][266][267][268] A few films (like Su Re, Bellas Mariposas,
Treulababbu, Sonetaula etc.) have also been dubbed in Sardinian,[269] and some others were provided with subtitles
in the language.[270] The first scientific work in Sardinian (Sa chistione mundiali de s'Energhia), delving into the
question of modern energy supplies, was written by Paolo Giuseppe Mura, Physics Professor at the University of
Cagliari, in 1995.[271] Bilingual No-smoking sign in
Sardinian and Italian
Eventually, sustained activism made possible the ratification by Italy of the European Framework Convention for
the Protection of National Minorities in 1998,[257] which would be followed in 1999 by the formal recognition of
twelve minority languages (Sardinian, Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovenian, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin and Occitan)
through the framework law no. 482,[272] in keeping with the spirit of Art. 6 of the Italian Constitution ("The Republic safeguards linguistic minorities by
means of appropriate measures"[273]). While the first section of said law states that Italian is the official language of the Republic, a number of provisions are
included to normalize the use of such languages and let them become part of the national fabric.[274] However, Italy (along with France and Malta[275]) has
never ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[276] Nevertheless, the law proved to be a positive step towards the legalization of
Sardinian as it put at least an end to the ban on the language which had been in effect since the Italian Unification.[277]

Still, some national school books (education does not fall under the remits of the region and is managed by the state at the central level) have not stopped to
squeeze the language into the Italian acceptation of dialetto ("Italian dialect") in spite of its actual recognition by the state.[278] Sardinian is yet to be taught at
school, with the exception of a few experimental occasions; furthermore, its use has not ceased to be disincentivized as antiquated or even indicative of a
lack of education,[279][280] leading many locals to associate it with negative feelings of shame, backwardness, and provincialism.[281][282] Similar issues of
identity have been observed in regard to the community's attitude toward what they positively perceive to be part of "modernity", generally associated with
the Italian cultural sphere, as opposed to the Sardinian one, whose aspects have long been stigmatized as "primitive" and "barbarous" by the political and
social institutions that ruled the island.[283]

A number of other factors like a considerable immigration flow from mainland Italy, the interior rural exodus to
urban areas, where Sardinian is spoken by a much lower percentage of the population,[note 23] and the use of Italian
as a prerequisite for jobs and social advancement actually hinder any policy set up to promote the
language.[28][284][285] Therefore, following the model proposed by a UNESCO panel of experts in 2003, Sardinian
is classified by UNESCO as a "definitely endangered" language ("children no longer learn the language as mother
tongue in the home"),[286] on the way to become "severely endangered" ("the language is used mostly by the
Bilingual Italian–Sardinian road sign grandparental generation and up").
in Siniscola
Language use is far from stable;[46] following the Expanded GIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational
Disruption Scale) model, Sardinian would position between 7 ("Shifting: the child-bearing generation knows the
language well enough to use it among themselves but none are transmitting it to their children"[287]) and 8a ("Moribund: the only remaining active speakers
of the language are members of the grandparent generation"[287]). While an estimated 68 percent of the islanders had in fact a good oral command of
Sardinian, language ability among the children has plummeted to less than 13 percent;[28][25][26][288] some linguists, like Mauro Maxia, cite the low number
of Sardinian-speaking children as indicative of language decline, calling Sardinia "a case of linguistic suicide".[27] The depth of the Sardophone networks'
increasing assimilation into Italian is illustrated by the latest ISTAT data published in 2017, which confirm Italian as the language that has largely taken root
as the means of socialization within Sardinian families (52.1%), relegating the practice of code-switching to 31.5% and the actual use of languages other than
Italian to only 15.6%; outside the social circle of family and friends, the numbers define Italian as by far the most prevalent language (87.2%), as opposed to
the usage of Sardinian and other languages which has dropped to 2.8%.[289] Today, most people who use Sardinian as part of day-to-day life reside mainly
in the sparsely populated areas in the countryside, like the mountainous region of Barbagia.[290][291]

A bill proposed by the cabinet of the former Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti would have further lowered the protection level of Sardinian,[292]
distinguishing between the so-called "national minorities", speaking languages protected by international agreements (German, Slovenian, French) and the
"linguistic minorities" whose language is not spoken in any state other than Italy (all the other ethno-linguistic groups, including Sardinian). This bill, which
was eventually implemented[293] but later deemed unconstitutional by the Court,[294] triggered a reaction on the island.[295][296][297][298] Students
expressed an interest in taking all (or part) of their exit examinations in Sardinian.[299][300][301][302][303][304][305][306][307][308][309] In response to a 2013
Italian initiative to remove bilingual signs on the island, a group of Sardinians began a virtual campaign on Google Maps to replace Italian place names with
the original Sardinian names. After about one month, Google changed the place names back to Italian.[310][311][312]

After a signature campaign,[313] it has been made possible to change the language setting on Facebook from any
language to Sardinian.[314][315][316][317] It is also possible to switch to Sardinian even in Telegram[318][319] and a
number of other programs, like F-Droid, Diaspora, OsmAnd, Notepad++, Swiftkey, Stellarium,[320] Skype,[321]
VLC media player for Android and iOS, Linux Mint Debian Edition 2 "Betsy", etc. The DuckDuckGo search
engine is available in Sardinian as well. In 2016, the first automatic translation software from Italian to Sardinian
was developed.[322]

In 2015, all the political parties in the Sardinian regional council reached an agreement concerning a series of
amendments to the old 1997 law to be able to introduce the optional teaching of the language in Sardinia's
schools.[323][324][325] The Unified Text on the Discipline of the Regional linguistic policy[5] was eventually
approved on 27 June 2018, with the aim of setting in motion a path towards bilingual administration, contributions
to bilingual mass media, publishing, IT schools and websites; it also allowed for the foundation of a Sardinian board
(Consulta de su Sardu) with thirty experts that would propose a linguistic standard based on the main historical
varieties, and would also have advisory duties towards the Regional body.[326][327] However, said law has yet to be
followed up by the respective implementing decrees, the lack of which prevents it from being legally
applicable.[328][329][330] Some Sardinian language activists and activist groups have also contested the law itself,
considering it a political attack on Sardinian made to try to negate its uniformity and to relegate it to folklore, and Church of the Pater Noster
also noted how its text contains a few parts that could bring the Italian government to challenge it.[331][332][333] (Jerusalem, Israel), Lord's Prayer
plaque in Sardinian
In 2021 the Prosecutor of Oristano opened a Sardinian linguistic desk, both to support citizens and to provide advice
and translations to magistrates and the police. It has been the first time in Italy in which such a service has been
offered to a minority language.[334][335]

Although there is still not an option to teach Sardinian on the island itself, let alone in Italy, some language courses are instead sometimes available in
Germany (Universities of Stuttgart, Munich, Tübingen, Mannheim[336] etc.), Spain (University of Girona),[337] Iceland[338] and Czech Republic (Brno
university).[339][340] Shigeaki Sugeta also taught Sardinian to his students of Romance languages at the Waseda University in Tokyo (Japan),[341][342][343]
and would even release a Sardinian-Japanese dictionary out of it.[344][345]

At present, the Sardinian-speaking community is the least protected one in Italy, despite being the largest
minority language group officially recognized by the state.[47][21] In fact the language, which is receding in all
domains of use, is still not given access to any field of public life,[28][348] such as education (Italian–Sardinian
bilingualism is still frowned upon,[27][301][349][350] while the local public universities play little, if any, role
whatsoever in supporting the language[351][352][353]), politics (with the exception of some nationalist
groups[354]), justice, administrative authorities and public services, media,[355][356][357][358] and cultural,[359]
ecclesiastical,[360][361] economic and social activities, as well as facilities.[362]

According to a 2017 report on the digital language diversity in Europe, Sardinian appears to be particularly
vital on social media as part of many people's everyday life for private use, but such vitality does not still
translate into a strong and wide availability of Internet media for the language.[363] In 2017, a 60-hour
Sardinian language course was introduced for the first time in Sardinia and Italy at the University of Cagliari,
although such a course had been already available in other universities abroad.[364]

The Sardinian-speaking community
among the other minority language groups
officially recognized by Italy.[346][347]
In 2015, the Council of Europe commented on the status of national minorities in Italy, noting the à la carte
approach of the Italian state towards them with the exception of the German, French and Slovenian languages,
where Italy has applied full bilingualism due to international agreements. Despite the formal recognition from
the Italian state, Italy does not in fact collect any information on the ethnic and linguistic composition of the
population, apart from South Tyrol.[365] There is also virtually no print and broadcasting media exposure in
politically or numerically weaker minorites like Sardinian. Moreover, the resources allocated to cultural projects
like bilingual education, which lacks a consistent approach and offers no guarantee of continuity throughout the
years,[366] are largely insufficient to meet "even the most basic expectations".[367][368][369][370][371]

A solution to the Sardinian question being unlikely to be found anytime soon,[46] the language has become highly endangered:[351] even though the
endogamy rate among group members seems to be very high,[28] the late recognition as a minority language, as well as the gradual but pervasive
Italianization promoted by the education system, the administration system and the media, followed by the intergenerational language replacement, made it
so that the vitality of Sardinian has been heavily compromised.[372] The 1995 Euromosaic project, which conducted a research study on the current situation
of the ethno-linguitic minorities across Europe under the auspices of the European Commission, concludes their report on Sardinian as follows:

This would appear to be yet another minority language group under threat. The agencies of production
and reproduction are not serving the role they did a generation ago. The education system plays no role
whatsoever in supporting the language and its production and reproduction. The language has no prestige
 and is used in work only as a natural as opposed to a systematic process. It seems to be a language
relegated to a highly localised function of interaction between friends and relatives. Its institutional base is
extremely weak and declining. Yet there is concern among its speakers who have an emotive link to the
language and its relationship to Sardinian identity.

— Sardinian language use survey, Euromosaic report[28]

As Matteo Valdes explains, «the island's population sees, day after day, the decline of their original languages. They are
complicit in this decline, passing on to their children the language of prestige and power, but at the same time they feel
Bilingual road signs in Pula.
that the loss of local languages is also a loss of themselves, of their history, of their own specific identity or
distinctiveness».[373] With cultural assimilation having already occurred, [374][375] most of the younger generation of
islanders, although they do understand some basic Sardinian, is now in fact Italian monolingual and monocultural,
being able to speak not Sardinian anymore, but a Sardinian-influenced variety of Italian[376][46][377][378] which in its lowest diastratic forms[379] is,
oftentimes derisively,[380] nicknamed italiànu porcheddìnu (literally "swinish Italian") by native Sardinian speakers. By contrast, it has been noted how the
latter engage only in code-switching and usually take care in refraining from code-mixing between the two different languages.[381] Even many Sardinian
speakers, who have been increasingly raised in Italian, have now just a limited active or solely passive command of their ethnic language.[382] Negative
attitudes among native speakers have been observed towards second-language learners for speaking "poor Sardinian", an attitude considered to be ethnically
grounded on the interaction of in-group and out-group dynamics.[383]

In conclusion, the Sardinian language, while still viable overall,[382] continues to be adversely affected by pervasive and all-encompassing Italianization, and
thus continues its agony, albeit at a slower pace than before thanks to the commitment of those who, in various contexts, promote its revaluation in a process
that has been defined by some scholars as "linguistic re-Sardization".[384] Still, arrangements for bilingualism exist only on paper[385] and factors such as the
intergenerational transmission, which remain essential in the reproduction of the ethnolinguistic group, are severely compromised because of
Italianization.[386] As the long-term future of the language looks far from secure in the present circumstances,[387] it is possible that it shall be referred to as
constituting the substratum of the one prevailing now, Italian, rather than as a living language spoken by the islanders.[388][389][390]

Phonology
All dialects of Sardinian have phonetic features that are relatively conservative compared to other Romance languages. The degree of conservatism varies,
with the dialect spoken in the Province of Nuoro displaying some of the most conservative features. Medieval evidence indicates that the language spoken in
Sardinia and Corsica at the time was similar to modern Nuorese Sardinian; while Corsica underwent a process of Tuscanization that rendered the Corsican
dialects akin to Tuscan, the Sardinian dialects are thought to have slowly evolved through some Catalan, Spanish and later Italian influences.

The examples listed below are from the Logudorese dialect:

Latin vowels lost their length contrasts together with length-associated tenseness distinctions, but have all preserved their original
height; high- and low-mid vowels have collapsed, conditioned by metaphony (on which below); most other Romance varieties have
augmented tenseness distinctions by sacrificing the original height. As a result and in contrast to most other varieties, Sardinian merges
all Late Latin short-long vowel pairs without exception.
For example, the Latin high short (lax) /i/ [ɪ] and /u/ [ʊ], which merged into the high /i/ and /u/ in Sardinian, instead generally merged into
the mid /e/ and /o/, respectively, in Tuscan Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, where Latin length contrasts were exchanged for quality
contrasts: for example, Latin siccum > sicu "dry", Italian secco, Spanish and Portuguese seco. This could indicate an early (and thus
archaic) elimination of vowel length contrasts in the Latin of Sardinia - some archaic varieties in Southern Lucania share similar or
identical systems, while African Latin, believed to have been genetically closest to the Latin of Sardinia, presents compelling indications
of vowel length loss as early as the 3rd century AD.[391][392]

Outcomes of Latin vowels[393]

Latin Nuorese and Campidanese outcomes Latin
/i/: piram ['piːra] 'pear’ ['biːnu] 'wine' /ī/: vīnum
/u/: nucem ['nukːɛ, 'nuːʒi] 'nut' ['lukːɛ, 'luːʒi] 'light' /ū/: lūcem
Log. ['s̺ɛːrɔ] 'evening',
/e/: decem ['dɛkːɛ, 'dɛːʒi] 'ten' /ē/: (heri) sērō
Camp. [ari'z̺ɛːru] 'yesterday'

/o/: focum ['fokːu, 'foːɣu] 'fire' ['s̺ɔːlɛ, 's̺ɔːli] 'sun' /ō/: sōlem
/a/: mare ['maːrɛ, 'maːri] 'sea' ['kaːlɛ, 'kaːli] 'of what kind' /ā/: quālem

Preservation of the plosive sounds /k/ and /ɡ/ before front vowels /e/ and /i/; for example, centum > chentu "hundred"; decem > dèche
"ten" and gener > ghèneru "son-in-law" (Italian cento, dieci, genero with /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/). This is another strikingly archaic feature that was
shared by African Romance.[394]
/t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ have since been introduced to Logudorese via borrowing from other dialects and external languages, but generally not
Nuorese, where these are reflected as /t͡s/ and /d͡z/.
Absence of diphthongizations found in many other Romance languages; for example, potest > podest "(s)he can" (Italian può, Spanish
puede, Romanian poate); bonus > bónu "good" (Italian buono, Spanish bueno). This is shared by several Central-Southern Italian
varieties, with many displaying various types of metaphony reminiscent of Sardinian.

Sardinian contains the following phonetic innovations:

Change of the Latin -ll- into a retroflex [ɖɖ], shared with Sicilian, Southern Corsican as well as historically in Gascon;[395] for example,
corallus > coraddu "coral" and villa > bidda "village, town".
 Latin lj changed into /ld͡z/, /ll/, /d͡z/, /t͡s/, /d͡ʒ/ or /ʒ/ rather than the palatal /ʎ/ of Italian: *voliam > bolla ~ bolza ~ boza "wish, longing"
(Italian voglia); fīlium > fillu ~ fizu ~ fitzu~ figiu ~ fixu "son" (Italian figlio).
Various outcomes of initial pl-, fl- and cl-, commonly as [pr], [fr], [kr], variously seen also in Portuguese and Galician; for example,
plateam > pratza "public square" (Portuguese praça, Galician praza; but Italian piazza), flŭxum > frúsciu "flabby" (Portuguese and
Galician frouxo) and the early Church Latin borrowing ecclēsiam > crèsia "church" (Portuguese igreja, Galician igrexa; but Italian
chiesa).
But also [pj], [fj], [t͡ʃ] in both Logudorese ciae (alongside crae) and Old Galician-Portuguese chave < clāvem "key"; contrast Italian
chiave, with [kj].
A small area on the Nuorese territory conserves Latin /Cl/: flùmene alongside fiùmene, frùmine < flūmen for all three possible
outcomes.
Metathesis as in abbratzare > abbaltzare "to hug, to embrace". In word-initial position, it can produce marked syllable onsets such as
[s̺r], [mr], [t͡ʃr], [d͡ʒr], e.g. ianuarius > jrennazu (Capidanese) "January".[396]
Vowel prothesis before an initial r in Campidanese, similar to Basque and Gascon: rēx > (g)urrèi/re "king" (Basque errege); rota > arroda
"wheel" (Gascon arròda, Basque errota); rīvus > Sardinian and Gascon arríu "river".[396]
Vowel prothesis in Logudorese before an initial s followed by consonant, as in the Western Romance languages: scrīptum > iscrítu
"written" (Spanish escrito, French écrit), stēlla > isteddu "star" (Spanish estrella, French étoile)
Except for the Nuorese dialect, intervocalic Latin single voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ became voiced approximant consonants. Single
voiced plosives /b/, /d/, /ɡ/ were lost: caritātem (acc.) > caridàde [kaɾiˈðaːðe], [kaɾiˈdaːde] (Italian carità), locus > lóːgu [ˈloːɣu], [ˈloːɡu]
(Italian luogo). This also applies across word boundaries: porcu "pig", but su porcu [su ˈβorku] "the pig"; tempus "time", but su tempus [su
ˈðempuzu] "the time"; domu "house", but sa 'omu "the house".

Vowels

Vowels are /a/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/ and /u/, without length differentiation, with allophonic lengthening in open stressed syllables when followed by a voiced
consonant:

Vowel phonemes Metaphonic contrasts in Sardinian

Front Central Back Latin Log. Camp. Translation
Close i u bene 'bɛːnɛ 'bɛːni 'well'
Close-mid (e) (o) venī 'beːni 'come!'
Open-mid ɛ ɔ pecus 'pekːuz̺u 'peːɣuz̺u 'head of cattle'
Open a pecōs 'pɛkːɔz̺ɔ 'pɛːɣuz̺u 'heads of cattle'

A strict metaphony occurs when a high vowel /i/, /u/, or a palatal consonant, occur in a post-stressed syllable. It results in the raising of /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ to [e] and
[o], not only in the primary-stressed syllable, but throughout the word: Log. lepere [ˈlɛpːɛrɛ] 'hare' > lepereddu [lepːeˈreɖːu] 'hare (diminutive)', minore [mi
ˈnɔːrɛ] 'small' > minoreddu [minoˈreɖːu] 'tiny'.[397] The same process continues to operate in the dialects of south-eastern Salento, which can be taken as
evidence that this was the original type of metaphony in Romance, with diphthongisation a secondary development.

This results in regular morphophonemic alternations such as Nuo. sa d[o]mu "house", sas d[ɔ]mos "houses".

All Campidanese varieties are characterized by the raising of word-final /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ to /i/ and /u/, which spread from Cagliari towards the middle of the island
from the 11th century and is commonly attributed to Byzantine influence. This finds a parallel in the Sicilian vowel system, where all the close-mid vowels
have been raised and merged with high vowels.

This obscured the condition for metaphony and resulted in surface minimal pairs such as su sp[e]ru 'hope', deu sp[ɛ]ru 'I hope'.
On several generative analyses, Campidanese is said to retain the 5-vowel system of Logudorese underlyingly with synchronic vowel
raising, while traditional structuralist analyses assumed phonologisation to have developed a 7-vowel system like that of Italian.[398]

There are also nasal vowels [ĩ], [ɛ̃], [ẽ], [ã], [ɔ̃ ], [õ], [ũ] in some Campidanese varieties, which arise when an intervocalic n is deleted with nasalization of
both the surrounding vowels: beni [bɛ̃ĩ] "well".

All varieties show paragogic vowels: the vowel of the final syllable ending in a consonant is copied after it to form a new open syllable, which undergoes
the usual lenition (voicing) processes: Log. istranzos [is.ˈtran.ʣɔ.zɔ] / Camp. strangius [ˈstran.ʤu.zu] ‘strangers’.[396] This is only present before pause,
and may be variable with some speakers.

After resonants, this vowel is sometimes etymological and sometimes not, leading to variation in spelling: Nuo. nùmen(e) "name" <
nōmen; fàcher(e) "to do" < facere. Note that the vowel is paragogic in both cases and disappears when not utterance-final.
A similar epenthetic vowel has been lexicalized in most varieties in monosyllables: Camp. tui "you" < tū.

Logudorese and Nuorese display vowel insertion before initial /sC/ clusters, less typical of Campidanese (examples above); the latter displays it before word-
initial /r/: Camp. arrùbiu, Log. rùbiu < rubeum "reddish".

Consonants

Sardinian has the following consonants:[399][400]

 Consonant phonemes
Labio- Post-
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar
dental alveolar
Nasal m n (ɳ) ɲ (ŋ)
Plosive p b t d ɖ k ɡ
Affricate t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative (β) f v θ (ð) s (z) ʃ ʒ (ɣ)
Tap (ɾ)
Trill r
Lateral l
Approximant (w) j

Plosives

The Sardinian system of plosives cannot be exhaustively characterized by either qualitative (voicing) or quantitative (duration) contrasts, but both contrasts
must be specified independently on some level of grammar. All plosives participate in a system-wide and complex process of lenition that characterizes all
varieties of Sardinian and operates across word boundaries.[401]

There are three series of plosives or corresponding approximants:

Voiceless or fortis stops derive from their Latin counterparts in composition after another stop, from utterance-initial voicelss stops and
from Latin geminates (typically voiceless). They are reinforced (become long or half-long) in order to escape voicing; orthographic
practices vary as to the spelling of these, with some preferring etymological (double) spelling and others phonemic (single).
In Nuorese, which maintains etymological single voiceless stops, these merge with etymologically double ones. Individual words
and morphemes may display independent voicing (-tàde < Lat. -tātem) and even deletion (-àu < Lat. -ātum).
Etymologically double and postconsonantal voiced stops do not contrast with single ones in any variety, even in Nuorese, and are
typically realised as voiced geminates.
Voiced or lenis "stops" derive from single Latin stops (voiced or voiceless), and are commonly realised as approximants [β ð ɣ] between
vowels, as in Spanish (/d/ less commonly). Latin single voiced intervocalic stops are generally reflected as zero in Logudorese and
Campidanese; this can also apply across word boundaries, resulting in consonants disappearing when in combination.
Latin b merges with v (and usually with p) as /b/ in almost all varieties: vīperam > bíbera "viper". See Betacism.
In Cagliari and neighboring dialects, the weak allophone of /d/ surfaces as [ɾ] in all positions due to rhotacism: digitus > didu~diru
"finger".
/ɖ/, written -dd- or -dh-,[402] is the geminate voiced retroflex stop [ɖɖ]. It derives from the Latin geminate /ll/, presumably via the non-
attested stage of /ɭɭ/[395] phonemically reinterpreted a plosive. The phoneme also regularly occurs as part of the cluster /nd/, realised as
[ɳɖ] and normally written -nd-: andande [aɳ'ɖaɳɖɛ] 'going'.

Fricatives
/s/ is a retracted, normally apico-alveolar [s̺], intervocalically voiced to [z̺] on most of the territory, but remains voiceless in several
communities of Barbagia.[393] It participates in notable sandhi.
/ss/ is its geminate/fortis counterpart, also arising from assimilation; for example, ipsa > issa. It never undergoes voicing/lenition.
/θ/, written -th-, represents the voiceless interdental fricative as in the English thing and as a phoneme is characteristic of Nuorese. In
many cases it corresponds to the /t͡s/ of other varieties, but also has diverse origins: e.g. /ˈθiu/ ‘uncle’ < Grk. θεῖος, Lat. [kj] as in /ˈfaθo/ "I
do" < faciō, and Lat. [tj] as in /ˈpuθu/ "a well" < puteum.
[ð] is absent as a phoneme, but is an allophone of /d/.
/ʃ/, written -sc(i/e)- or -sç-, is pronounced as single [ʃ] at the beginning of a word, and strengthened to [ʃʃ] otherwise.
/ʒ/, written -x- and never phonetically long, is its voiced counterpart. However, it's most common source is lenition of /d͡ʒ/.
/f/ is labiodental, is normally weakened to [v] intervocalically, otherwise strengthened to [ff].
In central Sardinia, particularly in Nuorese, the sound /f/ disappears, passing through the /h/ stage: fīcum > ['hiku] > ['iku] 'the fig', still
['hiʔu] in Ovodda. Parallelled in Gascon and Old Spanish, this can be ascribed to the Paleobasque substrate,[403] however, the exact
same development was already underway in dialects closely related to Latin, e.g. Faliscan, and Greek speakers are reported to
substitute the initial Latin /f/ for aspiration.[404]
[v] primarily exists as the lenis allophone of /f/ and is often reflected as such: Camp. fentana 'window' < Cat. ventana. Nevertheless, in
some varieties it has become a phoneme that itself exhibits a fortis allophone: Camp., Log. avvesare 'to accustom'.[405] A few dialects
(eg. Bitti and Lula) have been reported to distinguish Latin /b/ and /w/ as /b/ and /v/, but the vast majority merge them as /b/.

Affricates
/t͡s/ is dentalized laminal [ts̪͡ ̪] or [t ̪ts̪͡ ̪] written -tz-. It corresponds to Italian -z- or -ci-, the latter especially in loanwords. In contrast to /s/ it is
very advanced, tending towards the interdental [θ] in central varieties, and then spelled th. Particularly in Nuorese, it represents the /t͡ʃ/ of
loanwords.
/d͡z/ is the corresponding voiced [d̪ ͡z̪] or [d̪ d̪͡z̪], written -z-. It mainly stems from the Latin yod /j/ after consonants in Logudorese (fizu "son"
< fīlium, ghennarzu "January" < iānuārium), but also corresponds to Italian -gi- or -ggi- in loanwords.
/t͡ʃ/ is written -c(i/e)- or -ç-.
 /d͡ʒ/ is written -g(e/i)- or -j-. In Campidanese, it stems from the Latin yod /j/ after consonants (figiu "son" < fīlium, gennàlgiu "January" <
iānuārium) as well as from the palatalization of Latin /g/. In many varieties, this sound undergoes lenition to ʒ when intervocalic.

Nasals
/m/ is variously but commonly realised as fortis (geminate) inside the stressed syllable, and for this reason (as well due to etymology) is
often spelled double.
/n/ and /nn/ is the only other consonant showing phonemic length contrast besides the rhotic.[396]
Intervocalic /n/ commonly undergoes lenition in Campidanese, giving a glottal stop, pharyngeal fricative or disappearing, with vowel
nasalization: Sarrabus [ˈannu ˈʔõũ] "new year".[406]
/ɲɲ/, written -gn-[407] or -nny-/-nni-[408] (the palatal nasal for some speakers or dialects, although for most the pronunciation is [nːj]).

Liquids and rhotics

Sardinian has a single-rhotic system. /r/ contrasts with /rr/ intervocalically (the only such contrast besides /n/), with the former surfacing
as a tap [ɾ] and the latter as a trill [r]. In other positions the trill is an allophone of the tap.
Especially in Campidanese, intervocalic /l/ is subject to lenition both word-internally and across word boundaries, giving rise to [β w ʁ ʔ
ɡʷ ʟ Ø].[396] Some of these realisations are written with b or u: sobi, soui 'sun.
/l/ is strengthened to geminate retroflex [ɭɭ] in order to escape lenition in those varieties where it's affected. It thus may freely alternate
with the lenition outcomes, although strengthening is nowadays more common.[409]
/w/, written u, appears in Campidanese in the clusters /kw/ and /gw/, as in lingua 'tongue', and elsewhere in borrowings. It can also be
found as the closing element in diphthongs, when these arise phonetically: pau, pàulu 'pole, stake' < pālus.

Processes

Neutralizations

Most varieties are characterised by the historic neutralization of Latin /l/ and /r/ into the archiphoneme /R/ within the morpheme: marralzu~marrarzu 'rock'.
The Campidanese dialect does not generally allow this /R/ to end syllables except if followed by another /R/; as a result, underlying /R.C/ sequences are
synchronically and systematically repaired, either through assimilation or metathesis:[409][410]

One strategy moves rhotic to the leftmost available position within a phrase, sometimes jumping several syllables: /su 'aRku/ > ['s̺ɾakːu]
'the bow', but /'aRku/ > ['arku] if none is available. The intervocalic consonant that's left is regularly fortis (geminate).
When /R/ is harmonically followed by the voiceless coronal /t/, assimilation occurs: altum > /aRtu/ > ['atːu] 'tall'.
When followed by the voiced coronal /d/, another type of metathesis is frequent: surdum > ['s̺uðɾu] 'deaf'.
Recent Italian borrowings tend to maintain the coda /R/ as a function of register: It. forse > ['fɔrs̺is̺] ~ ['fɔrts̺is̺] > ['fɾɔts̺is̺].
In some varieties located at the north of the island, any etymological liquid in coda surfaces as a voiced lateral fricative [ɮ] or a palatal
glide.[410]
[r] and [n] alternate in Campidanese Sardinian, but not Nuorese.[410]

Sandhi

Only /s/, /n/, /r/, /t/ are permitted word-nally. The first three of these alternate in notable external sandhi processes. For Nuorese, /s/ and /r/ neutralise
(merge) when in sandhi in the following way:[406][410]

[s̺] before word-initial voiceless obstruents except /f/ and /t͡s/;

[r] before other word-initial obstruents including /t͡s/, also /j/, /m/ and /r/;
total assimilation before word-initial /l/, /n/;
variable total assimilation in allegro speech before word-initial /f/.
Parallel outcomes occur word-internally with the prefixes dis-, is-.

The word-final /t/ is assimilated to the following consonant within a phrase, or can be said to disappear, inducing strengthening: Log. cheret bennere ['kɛrɛ
b'bɛnnɛrɛ] '(s)he wants to come'.

Morphosyntactic gemination

Unlike Tuscan Italian, Neapolitan and Sicilian, Sardinian doesn't have a productive process of syntactic gemination since most Latin final consonants have
been maintained. Nevertheless, there are a few lexical items that formerly ended in consonants, and thus prevented initial-consonant weakening (lenition); as
a result, consonants occurring after these words undergo strengthening, typically by gemination. These include the conjunction e "and" < La. et, the
preposition a "to, at" < La. ad as well as the interrogative particle a < La. aut.[396]

Grammar
Some distinctive features typical of Sardinian are:
 The plural marker is -s (from the Latin accusative plural), as in Western Romance languages like French, Occitan, Catalan, Spanish,
Portuguese and Galician: sardu, sardus "Sardinian"; pudda, puddas "hen"; margiane, margianes "fox". In Italo-Dalmatian languages like
Italian, or Eastern Romance languages like Romanian, the plural ends with -i, -e or -a.
The definite article derives from the Latin ipse: su, sa, plural sos, sas (Logudorese) and is (Campidanese). At present, such articles are
only common in Balearic Catalan and were once used in Gascon as well, whilst all the other Romance languages make use of forms
derived from ille.
A periphrastic construction of "have to" (late Latin habere ad) is used for the future: ap'a istàre < apo a istàre "I will stay", Vulgar Latin
'habeo ad stare' (as in the Portuguese hei de estar, but here as periphrasis for estarei, or colloquial Romanian am să stau/o să stau). All
the other Romance languages have realisations of the alternative Vulgar Latin 'stare habeo', Italian "starò", Spanish "estaré",
Portuguese "estarei".
For prohibitions, a negative form of the subjunctive is used: no bengias!, "don't come!" (compare Spanish no vengas and Portuguese
não venhas, classified as part of the affirmative imperative mood). Italian uses the infinitive (non-venire) instead.
A common occurrence of a left-dislocated construction: cussa cantone apo cantadu ("That song I have sung": that is, "I've sung that
song").
In yes/no questions, fronting of a constituent (especially a predicative element) is required, though it is not specifically a question-
formation process: Cumprendiu m'as? ("Understood me you have", that is, "Have you understood me?"), Mandicatu at? ("Eaten
he/she has", that is "Has he/she eaten?"), Fattu l'at ("Done he/she has", that is "He/She's done it"), etc.
Interrogative phrases might be constructed like echo questions, with the interrogative marker remaining in underlying position: Sunt
lòmpios cando? ("They arrived when?", that is, "when did they arrive?"), Juanne at pigadu olìas cun chie? ("John has picked olives with
whom?"), etc.
Impersonal sentence constructions are commonly used to replace the passive voice, which is limited to the formal register: A Juanni ddu
ant mortu rather than Juanni est istadu mortu.
The use of non de + noun: non de abba, abbardente est ("not of water brandy it+is": that is, "It is not water, but brandy."); non de frades,
parent inimigos ("Not of brothers, they seem enemies": that is, "Far from being brothers, they are like enemies").
The use of ca (from quia) or chi as subordinate conjunctions: Ja nau ti l'apo ca est issa sa mere ("Already told I have you that is she the
boss", that is "I've already told you that it's her the boss").
Existential uses of àer / ài ("to have") and èsser / èssi ("to be"): B'at prus de chentu persones inoghe! ("There is over a hundred people in
here!"), Nci funt is pratus in mesa ("There are the plates on the table").
Ite ("What") + adjective + chi: Ite bellu chi ses! ("You are so beautiful!").
Nominal syntagmas without having a head: Cussu ditzionariu de gregu est prus mannu de su de Efis ("That Greek dictionary is bigger
than Efisio's"), Cudda machina est prus manna de sa de Juanne ("That car is bigger than John's").
Extraposition of the lexical head: Imprestami su tou de ditzionariu ("Please lend me your dictionary").
Ancu + subjunctive as a way to express a (malevolent) wish on someone: Ancu ti falet unu lampu! ("May you be struck by lightning!").
Prepositional accusative: Apo bidu a Maria ("I've seen Mary").
Insertion of the affirmative particle ja / giai: Ja m'apo corcau ("I did go to bed").
Use of the same particle to express antiphrastic formulas: Jai ses totu istudiatu, tue! ("You're so well educated!", that is, "You are so
ignorant and full of yourself!").
Reflexive use of intransitive verbs: Tziu Pascale si nch'est mortu[note 24] eris sero ("Uncle Pascal passed away yesterday"), Mi nch'apo
dormiu pro una parica de oras ("I've slept for a couple of hours").
Use of àer in reflexive sentences: Si at fertu a s'anca traballende ("He/She injured himself/herself while working").
Combination of the perfective and progressive verb aspect: Est istadu traballende totu sa die" ("He/She has been working all day").
Continuous and progressive aspect of the verb, which is meant to indicate an effective situation rather than typical or habitual: Non ti so
cumprendende ("I don't understand you").
Relative lack of adverbs: with the exception of some localized words like the Nuorese mescamente ("especially"), as well as some
recent loanwords from Italian, all the Sardinian dialects have a number of ways with which to express the meaning conferred to the
adverbs by the other Romance languages (e.g. Luchía currit prus a lestru / acoitendi de María, "Lucy runs faster than Mary").
The expression of the deontic modality through a periphrastic form, characterized by the verb "to want" in auxiliary position, a feature
also common to Southern Corsican, Sicilian, Moroccan Arabic and Moroccan Berber, in addition to some non-standard varieties of
English.[411] (e.g. Su dinare bolet / cheret torradu "money has to be paid back").
The condaghes seem to demonstrate that unlike other Romance languages, Old Sardinian may have had verb-initial word order, with
optional topicalization into the beginning of the sentence.[412] While verb-initial word order is also attested in other old Romance
languages, such as Old Venetian, Old French, Old Neapolitan, Old Spanish, Old Sicilian and others, it has been argued that Old
Sardinian was alone in licensing verb-initial word order (V1) as the generalized word order, while the others had V1 only as a marked
alternative.[413]

Vocabulary
 English Late Latin Sardinian Corsican Italian Spanish Catalan French Portuguese Romanian
key clāve(m) crae/-i chjave/chjavi chiave llave clau clé chave cheie
night nocte(m) note/-i notte/notti notte noche nit nuit noite noapte
to sing cantāre cantare/-ai cantà cantare cantar cantar chanter cantar cânta
goat capra(m) cabra/craba capra capra cabra cabra chèvre cabra capră
language lingua(m) limba/lìngua lingua/linga lingua lengua llengua langue língua limbă
square (plaza) platea(m) pratza piazza piazza plaza plaça place praça piață
bridge ponte(m) ponte/-i ponte/ponti ponte puente pont pont ponte pod (punte)
church ecclēsia(m) crèsia/eccresia ghjesgia chiesa iglesia església église igreja biserică
hospital hospitāle(m) ispidale/spidali spedale/uspidali ospedale hospital hospital hôpital hospital spital
cheese cāseu(m) fōrmāticu(m) casu casgiu cacio, formaggio queso formatge fromage queijo brânză, caș

Varieties
Historically, the Sardinians have always been quite a small population scattered across isolated cantons, sharing
demographic patterns similar to the neighbouring Corsica; as a result, Sardinian developed a broad spectrum of dialects
over the time. Starting from Francesco Cetti's description in the 18th century,[414][415][416] Sardinian has been
presented as a pluricentric language, being traditionally subdivided into two standardized varieties spoken by roughly
half of the entire community: the dialects spoken in North-Central Sardinia, centered on the orthography known as
Logudorese (su sardu logudoresu), and the dialects spoken in South-Central Sardinia, centered on another orthography
called Campidanese (su sardu campidanesu).[417] All the Sardinian dialects differ primarily in phonetics, which does
not considerably hamper intelligibility;[418][419][420][421] the view of there being a dialectal boundary rigidly separating The word for "peace" in all the
the two varieties of High Sardinian has been in fact subjected to more recent research, which shows a fluid linguistic varieties of Sardinian.
continuum from the northern to the southern ends of the island.[422][423][424][425] The dualist perception of the
Sardinian dialects, rather than pointing to an actual isogloss, is in fact the result of a psychological adherence to the way
Sardinia was administratively subvidided into a Caput Logudori (Cabu de Susu) and a Caput Calaris (Cabu de Jossu) by the Spanish.[426]

On the other hand, the Logudorese and Campidanese dialects have been estimated in another research to have 88% of matches in 110-item wordlist,
similarly to the 85–88% number of matches between Provençal Occitan and the Catalan dialects,[427] which by some standards is usually (even though
arbitrarily) considered characteristic for two different, albeit very closely related, languages.[428] ISO 639 counts four Sardinian languages (Campidanese,
Gallurese, Logudorese and Sassarese), each with its own language code.

The dialects centered on the Logudorese model are generally considered more conservative, with the Nuorese subdialect (su sardu nugoresu) being the most
conservative of all. They have all retained the classical Latin pronunciation of the stop velars (kena versus cena, "supper"),[429] the front middle vowels
(compare Campidanese iotacism, probably from Byzantine Greek)[430] and assimilation of close-mid vowels (cane versus cani, "dog" and gattos versus
gattus, "cats"). Labio-velars become plain labials (limba versus lingua, "language" and abba versus acua, "water").[431] I is prosthesized before consonant
clusters beginning in s (iscala versus Campidanese scala, "stairway" and iscola versus scola, "school"). An east-west strip of villages in central Sardinia
speaks a transitional group of dialects (su sardu de mesania). Examples include is limbas (the languages) and is abbas (the waters). The dialects centered on
the Campidanese model, spreading from Cagliari (once the metropolis of the Roman province), show relatively more influences from Carthage, Rome,
Constantinople and Late Latin. Examples include is fruminis (the rivers) and is domus (the houses).

Sardinian is the indigenous and historical language of most Sardinian communities. However, Sardinian is not
spoken as the native and primary language in a significant number of other ones, amounting to 20% of the Sardinian
population.[47][420] The afore-mentioned Gallurese and Sassarese, despite being often colloquially considered part
of Sardinian, are two Corso-Sardinian transitional languages; they are spoken in the northernmost part of
Sardinia,[432][433] although some Sardinian is also understood by the majority of people living there (73.6% in
Gallura and 67.8% in the Sassarese-speaking subregion). Sassari, the second-largest city on Sardinia and the main
center of the northern half of the island (cabu de susu in Sardinian, capo di sopra in Italian), is located there. There
are also two language islands, the Catalan Algherese-speaking community from the inner city of Alghero (northwest
Sardinia) and the Ligurian-speaking towns of Carloforte, in San Pietro Island, and Calasetta in Sant'Antioco island Corso-Sardinian (orange and yellow)
(south-west Sardinia).[432][434] with respect to Sardinian proper
(green).

Sample of text
Logudorese Campidanese LSC (Sardinian
English Latin Italian
Sardinian Sardinian Written Standard)

Our Father, who art in Babbu nostru chi ses Babbu nostu chi ses Babbu nostru chi ses Pater noster qui es in Padre Nostro, che sei
heaven, in chelu, in celu, in chelu, cælis, nei cieli,
hallowed be thy name. Santificadu siat su Santificau siat su Santificadu siat su sanctificetur nomen Sia santificato il tuo
thy kingdom come, nomine tou. nomini tuu. nòmine tuo. tuum. nome.
thy will be done, Benzat a nois su Bengiat a nosus su Bèngiat a nois su adveniat regnum Venga il tuo regno,
on earth as it is in rennu tou, regnu tuu, rennu tuo, tuum, Sia fatta la tua
heaven. Siat fatta sa boluntade Siat fatta sa boluntadi Siat fata sa voluntade fiat voluntas tua, volontà,
Give us this day our tua, tua, tua, sicut in cælo et in Come in cielo, così in
daily bread, comente in chelu gai comenti in celu aici in comente in chelu gasi terra. terra.
and forgive us our in terra. terra. in terra. Panem nostrum Dacci oggi il nostro
debts, Dona nos oe su pane Donasi oi su pani Dona་nos oe su pane quotidianum da nobis pane quotidiano,
as we forgive our nostru de donzi die, nostu de dogna dii, nostru de ònnia die, hodie, E rimetti a noi i nostri
debtors. Et perdona nos sos Et perdonasi is E perdona་nos is et dimitte nobis debita debiti
And lead us not into peccados nostros, peccaus nostus, pecados nostros, nostra, Come noi li rimettiamo
temptation, Comente nois Comenti nosus Comente nois sicut et nos dimittimus ai nostri debitori.
but deliver us from perdonamus a sos perdonaus a is perdonamus a is debitoribus nostris. E non-ci indurre in
evil. depidores nostros. depidoris nostus. depidores nostros. et ne nos inducas in tentazione,
Et no nos lesses ruer Et no si lessis arrui in E no nos lasses tentationem Ma liberaci dal male.
in tentatzione, tentatzioni, arrùere in tentatzione, sed libera nos a malo.
Et libera nos dae Et liberasi de mali. E lìbera་nos de male.
male.

Standardization
Until 2001 there was not a single orthographic standard available that was representative of all the dialects of Sardinian, neither for writing it nor to speak it
(the latter does not exist even today); previous attempts in this direction had been hindered by the Iberian and later Savoyard authorities.[435] Since the 18th
century, not because of linguistic reasons but for political ones,[415][418][422][423][424][425][416] the Sardinian language has been presented as having two
standardized orthographies, conventionally named "Logudorese" and "Campidanese". However, some attempts have been made to introduce a single
orthographic form for administrative purposes over the recent decades; said form would not refer to morphology and syntax, which is already fairly
homogeneous,[436] but would rather concern itself primarily with spelling.

To allow for an effective implementation of the provisions on the language, as per the regional law no. 26/1997 and the national law no. 482/1999, the
Sardinian Autonomous Region arranged for a commission of experts to elaborate a standard capable of overcoming the hurdle posed by the dialectal
differences and thereby providing a unified writing system. A first proposal (the LSU: Limba Sarda Unificada, published on 28 February 2001) was tabled
which identified a model language of reference (based on the analysis of local varieties of Sardinian and on the selection of the most representative and
compatible models) so as to guarantee the necessary characteristics of certainty, coherence, univocity, and supra-local diffusion. The people appointed for the
task were Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Roberto Bolognesi, Diego Salvatore Corraine, Ignazio Delogu, Antonietta Dettori, Giulio Paulis, Massimo Pittau, Tonino
Rubattu, Leonardo Sole, Heinz Jürgen Wolf, and Matteo Porru acting as the Committee's secretary. This study, although scientifically valid, has never been
adopted at an institutional level: critics argued that it was an "imposed" and "artificial" language based on the mediation between the central-northern
varieties.

Nevertheless, the LSU would act as a springboard for a subsequent drafting proposal, this time drawn by a new Committee composed of Giulio Angioni,
Roberto Bolognesi, Manlio Brigaglia, Michel Contini, Diego Corraine, Giovanni Lupinu, Anna Oppo, Giulio Paulis, Maria Teresa Pinna Catte and Mario
Puddu. The new project continued to be worked on, going by the name of LSC (Limba Sarda Comuna). The new experimental standard proposal,
published in 2006, was characterised by taking the mesania (transitional) varieties as a reference basis,[437] and welcoming elements of the spoken language
so as to be perceived as a more "natural" mediation; it also ensured that the common orthography would be provided with the characteristics of over-
dialectality and supra-municipality, while leaving the possibility of representing the phonetic peculiarities of the local variants.[438] Despite this, there were
some criticism or proposals for amendments for this norm as well.[439][440]

The Sardinian Regional Government, with the resolution of the Regional Council n. 16/14 of 18 April 2006 "Limba Sarda Comuna. Adoption of the
reference standards of an experimental nature for the written language output of the Regional Administration", has experimentally adopted the LSC as the
official orthography for the acts and documents issued by the Region of Sardinia (even if, as per Article 8 of the national Law no. 482/99, only the text
written in Italian has legal value), giving citizens the right to write to the Public Administration in their own variety and establishing the regional language
desk Ufitziu de sa Limba Sarda. The resolution does not aim to impose the guide and further notes that it is "open to integrations" and that "all solutions are
of equal linguistic value".

In the following years, the Region has followed the LSC standard in the translation of many documents and resolutions and in many other areas. In addition,
the LSC standard has been used as a voluntary choice by many other institutions, schools and media, often in a complementary manner with orthographic
norms closer to the local pronunciation. Regarding these uses, a percentage estimate was made, considering only the projects financed or co-financed by the
Region for the diffusion of the Sardinian language in the municipal and supra-municipal language offices, for the teaching in schools and the media from
2007 to 2013.[441]

The monitoring, by the Sardinian Language and Culture Service of the Department of Public Education, was published on the website of the Sardinian
Autonomous Region in April 2014. Regarding the school projects financed in 2013, for example, it appears from that research that there was a clear
preference, in schools, for the use of the LSC orthographic standard together with a local spelling (51%), compared to the exclusive use of the LSC (11%) or
the exclusive use of a local spelling (33%).[441]

On the other hand, regarding the editorial projects in Sardinian language in the regional media, financed by the Region in 2012, we find a greater presence
of the LSC (which could derive from a reward of 2 points in the formation of the rankings to take funding, a reward that was not present in the notice for
schools). According to those data, it appears that 35% of textual production in media projects was in LSC, 35% in LSC and in local spellings and 25% in
local spellings only.[441]

The local language offices, co-financed by the Regional Government, in 2012 used LSC in 50% of their writing, LSC together with local spelling for 9%
and local spellings for 41%.[441]

A recent research on the use of the LSC orthography in schools, carried out in the municipality of Orosei, showed that the students of the local middle
school had no problem using that standard despite the fact that the Sardinian they spoke was partly different. No pupil rejected it or considered it "artificial",
a thing that proved its validity as a didactic tool. The results were first presented in 2016 and published in an article in 2021.[442][443]

See also
Sardinia
Sardinians
Help:IPA/Sardinian
 Paleo-Sardinian language
Southern Romance
Traditional writing forms of Sardinian: Logudorese, Campidanese
Non-Sardinian dialects spoken on Sardinia: Sassarese, Gallurese, Algherese, Tabarchino
Notes
1. It is to be noted that Wagner's academic research took place in
1951; however, it took another forty years for Sardinian to be
politically recognized, at least formally, as one of Italy's twelve
minority languages by Law no.482/99.
2. As Ludovico Antonio Muratori noted, «Potissimum vero ad
usurpandum in scriptis Italicum idioma gentem nostram fuisse
adductam puto finitimarum exemplo, Provincialium, Corsorum
atque Sardorum» ("In reality, I believe that our people [Italians]
have been induced to employ the Italian language for writing by
following the example of our neighbours, the Provençals, the
Corsicans and the Sardinians") and «Sardorum quoque et
Corsorum exemplum memoravi Vulgari sua Lingua utentium,
utpote qui Italis preivisse in hoc eodem studio videntur»
("Moreover, I made reference to the example of the Sardinians
and the Corsicans, who used their own vulgar language, as
being those who preceded the Italians in such regard"). Antonio,
Ludovico Antonio (1739). Antiquitates Italicae Moedii Evi,
Mediolani, t. 2, col.1049
3. In nomine Domini amen. Ego iudice Mariano de Lacon fazo ista
carta ad onore de omnes homines de Pisas pro xu toloneu ci mi
pecterunt: e ego donolislu pro ca lis so ego amicu caru e itsos a
mimi; ci nullu imperatore ci lu aet potestare istu locu de non
(n)apat comiatu de leuarelis toloneu in placitu: de non occidere
pisanu ingratis: e ccausa ipsoro ci lis aem leuare ingratis, de
facerlis iustitia inperatore ci nce aet exere intu locu ...
4. «E inper(a)tor(e) ki l ati kastikari ista delegantzia e fagere kantu
narat ista carta siat benedittu ...»
5. «In nomine de Pater et Filiu et Sanctu Ispiritu. Ego iudigi Salusi
de Lacunu cun muiere mea donna (Ad)elasia, uoluntate de
Donnu Deu potestando parte de KKaralis, assolbu llu
Arresmundu, priori de sanctu Saturru, a fagiri si carta in co bolit.
Et ego Arresmundu, l(eba)nd(u) ass(o)ltura daba (su) donnu miu
iudegi Salusi de Lacunu, ki mi illu castigit Donnu Deu balaus
(a)nnus rt bonus et a issi et a (muiere) sua, fazzu mi carta pro
kertu ki fegi cun isus de Maara pro su saltu ubi si ( ... )ari zizimi
( ... ) Maara, ki est de sanctu Saturru. Intrei in kertu cun isus de
Maara ca mi machelaa(nt) in issu saltu miu (et canpa)niarunt si
megu, c'auea cun istimonius bonus ki furunt armadus a iurari, pro
cantu kertàà cun, ca fuit totu de sanctu Sat(ur)ru su saltu. Et
derunt mi in issu canpaniu daa petra de mama et filia derectu a
ssu runcu terra de Gosantini de Baniu et derectu a bruncu
d'argillas e derectu a piskina d'arenas e leuat cabizali derectu a
sa bia de carru de su mudeglu et clonpit a su cabizali de uentu
dextru de ssa doméstia de donnigellu Cumitayet leuet tuduy su
cabizali et essit a ssas zinnigas de moori de silba, lassandu a
manca serriu et clonpit deretu a ssu pizariu de sellas, ubi posirus
sa dìì su tremini et leuat sa bia maiori de genna (de sa) terra
al(ba et) lebat su moori ( ... ) a sa terra de sanctu Saturru,
lassandu lla issa a manca et lebat su moori lassandu a (manca)
sas cortis d'oriinas de ( ... ) si. Et apirus cummentu in su
campaniu, ki fegir(us), d'arari issus sas terras ipsoru ki sunt in su
saltu miu et (ll)u castiari s(u) saltu et issus hominis mius de
Sinnay arari sas terras mias et issas terras issoru ki sunt in saltu
de ssus et issus castiari su saltu(u i)ssoru. Custu fegirus
plagendu mi a mimi et a issus homi(nis) mius de Sinnay et de
totu billa de Maara. Istimonius ki furunt a ssegari su saltu de pari
(et) a poniri sus treminis, donnu Cumita de Lacun, ki fut curatori
de Canpitanu, Cumita d'Orrù ( ... ) du, A. Sufreri et Iohanni de
Serra, filiu de su curatori, Petru Soriga et Gosantini Toccu
Mullina, M( ... ) gi Calcaniu de Pirri, C. de Solanas, C. Pullu de
Dergei, Iorgi Cabra de Kerarius, Iorgi Sartoris, Laurenz( ... ) ius,
G. Toccu de Kerarius et P. Marzu de Quartu iossu et prebiteru
Albuki de Kibullas et P. de Zippari et M. Gregu, M. de Sogus de
Palma et G. Corsu de sancta Ilia et A. Carena, G. Artea de Palma
et Oliueri de Kkarda ( ... ) pisanu et issu gonpanioni. Et sunt
istimonius de logu Arzzoccu de Maroniu et Gonnari de Laco(n)
mancosu et Trogotori Dezzori de Dolia. Et est facta custa carta
abendu si lla iudegi a manu sua sa curatoria de Canpitanu pro
logu salbadori (et) ki ll'(aet) deuertere, apat anathema (daba)
Pater et Filiu et Sanctu Ispiritu, daba XII Appostolos et IIII
Euangelistas, XVI Prophetas, XXIV Seniores, CCC(XVIII)
Sanctus Patris et sorti apat cun Iuda in ifernum inferiori. Siat et F.
I. A. T.»
6. «Ego Benedictus operaius de Santa Maria de Pisas Ki la fatho
custa carta cum voluntate di Domino e de Santa Maria e de
Santa Simplichi e de indice Barusone de Gallul e de sa muliere
donna Elene de Laccu Reina appit kertu piscupu Bernardu de
Kivita, cum Iovanne operariu e mecum e cum Previtero Monte
Magno Kercate nocus pro Santa Maria de vignolas ... et pro sa
doma de VillaAlba e de Gisalle cum omnia pertinentia is soro ....
essende facta custa campania cun sii Piscupu a boluntate de
pare torraremus su Piscupu sa domo de Gisalle pro omnia sua e
de sos clericos suos, e issa domo de Villa Alba, pro precu
Kindoli mandarun sos consolos, e nois demus illi duas ankillas,
ki farmi cojuvatas, suna cun servo suo in loco de rnola, e sattera
in templo cun servii de malu sennu: a suna naran Maria Trivillo, a
sattera jorgia Furchille, suna fuit de sa domo de Villa Alba, e
sattera fuit de Santu Petru de Surake ... Testes Judike Barusone,
Episcopu Jovanni de Galtellì, e Prite Petru I upu e Gosantine
Troppis e prite Marchu e prite Natale e prite Gosantino Gulpio e
prite Gomita Gatta e prite Comita Prias e Gerardu de Conettu ... e
atteros rneta testes. Anno dom.milles.centes.septuag.tertio»
 7. «Vois messer N. electu potestate assu regimentu dessa terra de
Sassari daue su altu Cumone de Janna azes jurare a sancta dei
evangelia, qui fina assu termen a bois ordinatu bene et
lejalmente azes facher su offitiu potestaria in sa dicta terra de
Sassari.»
8. Incipit to "Lettera al Maestro" in "La Sardegna e la Corsica", Ines
Loi Corvetto, Torino, UTET Libreria, 1993: Semper happisi
desiggiu, Illustrissimu Segnore, de magnificare, & arrichire sa
limba nostra Sarda; dessa matessi manera qui sa naturale insoro
tottu sas naciones dessu mundu hant magnificadu & arrichidu;
comente est de vider per isos curiosos de cuddas.
9. ... L'Alguer castillo fuerte bien murado / con frutales por tierra
muy divinos / y por la mar coral fino eltremado / es ciudad de
mas de mil vezinos...
10. Jacinto Arnal de Bolea (1636), El Forastero, Antonio Galcerin
editor, Cagliari – "....ofreciéndonos a la vista la insigne ciudad de
Càller, corte que me dixeron era de aquel reino. ....La hermosura
de las damas, el buen gusto de su alino, lo prendido y bien
saconado de lo curioso-dandole vida con mil donaires-, la
grandeza en los titulos, el lucimientos en los cavalleros, el
concurso grande de la nobleza y el agasajo para un forastero no
os los podrà zifrar mi conocimiento. Basta para su alavanza el
deciros que alcuna vez, con olvido en mi peregrinaciò y con
descuido en mis disdichas, discurria por los templos no estrano
14. In Spano's dedication to Charles Albert's wife, out of devotion to
y por las calles no atajado, me hallava con evidencias grandes
que era aquel sitio el alma de Madrid, que con tanta urbanidad y
cortesìa se exercitavan en sus nobles correspondencias"
11. Juan Francisco Carmona Cagliari, 1610–1670, Alabança de San
George obispu suelense: Citizen (in Spanish): "You, shepherd!
What frightens you? Have you never seen some people
gathering?"; Shepherd (in Sardinian): "Are you asking me if I'm
married?"; Citizen (in Spanish): "You're not getting a grasp of
what I say, do you? Oh, what an idiot shepherd!"; Shepherd (in
Sardinian): "I'm actually thirsty and tired"; Citizen (in Spanish):
"I'd better speak in Sardinian so that we understand each other
better. (in Sardinian) Tell me, shepherd, where are you from?";
Shepherd: "I'm from Suelli, my lord, I've been ordered to bring my
lord a present"; Citizen: "Ah, now you understand what I said,
don't you!"". ("Ciudadano: Que tiens pastor, de que te espantas?
que nunca has visto pueblo congregado?; Pastor: E ite mi nais,
si seu coiadu?; Ciudadano: Que no me entiendes? o, que pastor
15. "It would be a great innovation, with regard to both the civilizing
bozal aqui me vino; Pastor: A fidi tengu sidi e istau fadiau;
Ciudadano: Mejor sera que en sardo tambien able pues algo
dello se y nos oigamos. Nada mi su pastori de undi seis?;
Pastor: De Suedi mi Sennori e m'anti cumandadu portari unu
presenti a monsignori; Ciudadano: Jmoi jà mi jntendeis su que
apu nadu").
12. Jn Dei nomine Amen, noverint comente sende personalmente
constituidos in presensia mia notariu et de sos testimongios
infrascrittos sa viuda Caterina Casada et Coco mugere fuit de su
Nigola Casada jàganu, Franziscu Casada et Joanne Casada
Frades, filios de su dittu Nigola et Caterina Casada de sa
presente cittade faguinde custas cosas gratis e de certa sciensia
insoro, non-per forza fraudu, malìssia nen ingannu nen pro
nexuna attera sinistra macchinassione cun tottu su megius modu
chi de derettu poden et deven, attesu et cunsideradu chi su dittu
Nigola Casada esseret siguida dae algunos corpos chi li dein de
notte, pro sa quale morte fettin querella et reclamo contra sa
persona de Pedru Najtana, pro paura de sa justissia, si
ausentait, in sa quale aussensia est dae unu annu pattinde
multos dannos, dispesas, traballos e disusios.
13. King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, Royal Note, 23 July
1760: "Since we must use for such teachings (lower schools),
among the most cultured languages, the one that is the less
distant from the native dialect and the most appropriate to public
administration at the same time, we have decided to use Italian
in the aforementioned schools, as it is in fact no more different
from the Sardinian language than the Spanish one, and indeed
the most educated Sardinians have already a grasp of it; it is also
the most viable option to facilitate and increase trade; the
Piedmontese in the Kingdom won't have to learn another
language to be employed in the public sector, and the Sardinians
could also find work on the continent." Original: "Dovendosi per
tali insegnamenti (scuole inferiori) adoperare fra le lingue più
colte quella che è meno lontana dal materno dialetto ed a un
tempo la più corrispondente alle pubbliche convenienze, si è
determinato di usare nelle scuole predette l'italiana, siccome
quella appunto che non essendo più diversa dalla sarda di
quello fosse la castigliana, poiché anzi la maggior parte dei sardi
più colti già la possiede; resta altresì la più opportuna per
maggiormente agevolare il commercio ed aumentare gli
scambievoli comodi; ed i Piemontesi che verranno nel Regno,
non avranno a studiare una nuova lingua per meglio abituarsi al
servizio pubblico e dei sardi, i quali in tal modo potranno essere
impiegati anche nel continente.
the new rulers, there are several passages in which the author
sings the praises of the Savoyards and their cultural policies
pursued in Sardinia, such as "It was destiny that the sweet Italian
tongue, although born on the pleasant banks of the Arno, would
one day also become rich heritage of the Tirso's inhabitants" (p.
5) and, formulating a vow of loyalty to the new dynasty of regents
that followed the Spanish ones, "Sardinia owes so much to the
most August HOUSE OF SAVOY, which, once the Hispanic
domination had ceased, so wisely promoted the development of
science, and also commanded during the middle of the last
century, that Tuscan be made the language of the Dicasteries
and public education" (p. 6). The Preface, entitled Al giovanetto
alunno, states the intention, already common to Porru, to publish
a work dedicated to the teaching of Italian, through the
differences and similarities provided by another language more
familiar to the Sardinian subjects.
process of Sardinia and the public education, to ban the
Sardinian dialects in every social and ecclesiastical activity,
mandating the use of the Italian language... At the moment,
Sardinian is used to make announcements, and to sing the
songs of the Saints (Goccius), some of them without any
decency... It is also necessary to eradicate the Sardinian dialect
[sic] and introduce the Italian language in its place even for other
reasons, which are not less important; that is, to civilize that
nation [Sardinia], so that they are able to comprehend the
Government's instructions and commands,... and remove one of
the biggest differences between Sardinia and the Mainland
states, as well." Original text (in Italian): "Una innovazione in
materia di incivilimento della Sardegna e d’istruzione pubblica,
che sotto vari aspetti sarebbe importantissima, si è quella di
proibire severamente in ogni atto pubblico civile non meno che
nelle funzioni ecclesiastiche, tranne le prediche, l’uso dei dialetti
sardi, prescrivendo l’esclusivo impiego della lingua italiana.
Attualmente in sardo si gettano i così detti pregoni o bandi; in
sardo si cantano gl'inni dei Santi (Goccius), alcuni dei quali privi
di dignità [...] È necessario inoltre scemare l’uso del dialetto
sardo [sic] ed introdurre quello della lingua italiana anche per
altri non men forti motivi; ossia per incivilire alquanto quella
nazione, sì affinché vi siano più universalmente comprese le
istruzioni e gli ordini del Governo,... sì finalmente per togliere una
delle maggiori divisioni, che sono fra la Sardegna e i Regi stati di
terraferma." Carlo Baudi di Vesme (1848). Considerazioni
politiche ed economiche sulla Sardegna (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Ko83AAAAcAAJ). Dalla Stamperia Reale. pp. 49–
51.
16. Andrea Manca dell'Arca, an agronomist from Sassari (a city
which, like most of Northern Sardinia, had been historically more
exposed via Corsica to the Italian culture than the rest of the
island) had so illustrated how Italian was still perceived by the
locals: "Italian is as familiar to me as Latin, French or other
foreign languages which one only partially learns through
grammar study and the books, without fully getting the hang of
them"[...] (Original text: [...]È tanto nativa per me la lingua italiana,
come la latina, francese o altre forestiere che solo s’imparano in
parte colla grammatica, uso e frequente lezione de’ libri, ma non-
si possiede appieno[...]). Ricordi di Santu Lussurgiu di
Francesco Maria Porcu in Santu Lussurgiu dalle Origini alla
"Grande Guerra" – Grafiche editoriali Solinas – Nuoro, 2005
17. The introduction of Italian as a foreign language to the Sardinian
villages is exemplified in a passage from the contemporary
Francesco (Frantziscu) Masala's Sa limba est s'istoria de su
mundu; Condaghe de Biddafraigada ("The language is the
world's history; Biddafraigada's Condaghe"), Condaghes, p. 4:
"A sos tempos de sa pitzinnìa, in bidda, totus chistionaiamus in
limba sarda. In domos nostras no si faeddaiat atera limba. E deo,
in sa limba nadìa, comintzei a connoscher totu sas cosas de su
mundu. A sos ses annos, intrei in prima elementare e su mastru
de iscola proibeit, a mie e a sos fedales mios, de faeddare in
s'unica limba chi connoschiamus: depiamus chistionare in limba
italiana, «la lingua della Patria», nos nareit, seriu seriu, su
mastru de iscola. Gai, totus sos pitzinnos de 'idda, intraian in
iscola abbistos e allirgos e nde bessian tontos e cari-tristos."
("When I was a little kid growing up in the village, we all used to
speak in the Sardinian language. We did not speak any other
language in our homes. And I began to know all the things of the
world in the native language. At the age of six, I went to first
grade and the school teacher forbade me as well as my peers to
speak in the only language we knew: from that moment on, we
only had to speak in Italian, «the language of the Fatherland», he
told us seriously. Thus, the children of our village would come to
school bright and happy, and walk out of school empty-headed
and with a gloomy look on our faces.")
18. Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the
only means through which the island's cultural reawakening
could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper
L'Unione Sarda, whose editorial staff properly censored it in
accordance with the regime's directives. The newspaper then
justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed
to Casula on 12 September: «Your article could not be published
because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is
absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of
Government's press office, which specifically state: 'In no way
and for no reason does the region exist'. We are very sorry.
However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking
about your poetry in dialect [sic] without touching on this
dangerous subject!» Francesco Casula. "Sa chistione de sa
limba in Montanaru e oe" (https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/arti
culo/3400254.pdf) (PDF). p. 66.
19. Bolognesi (1998: 7) stated that in his school years in Sardinia, he
«witnessed both physical and psychological abuse against
monolingual Sardinian-speaking children. The psychological
violence consisted usually in calling the children "donkeys" and
in inviting the whole class to join the mockery».
20. Istanza del Prof. A. Sanna sulla pronuncia della Facoltà di
Lettere in relazione alla difesa del patrimonio etnico-linguistico
sardo. Il prof.Antonio Sanna fa a questo proposito una
dichiarazione: «Gli indifferenti problemi della scuola, sempre
affrontati in Sardegna in torma empirica, appaiono oggi assai
particolari e non risolvibili in un generico quadro nazionale; il
tatto stesso che la scuola sia diventata scuola di massa
comporta il rifiuto di una didattica inadeguata, in quanto basata
sull'apprendimento concettuale attraverso una lingua, per molti
aspetti estranea al tessuto culturale sardo. Poiché esiste un
popolo sardo con una propria lingua dai caratteri diversi e distinti
dall'italiano, ne discende che la lingua ufficiale dello Stato,
risulta in effetti una lingua straniera, per di più insegnata con
metodi didatticamente errati, che non tengono in alcun conto la
lingua materna dei Sardi: e ciò con grave pregiudizio per
un'efficace trasmissione della cultura sarda, considerata come
sub-cultura. Va dunque respinto il tentativo di considerare come
unica soluzione valida per questi problemi una forzata e
artificiale forma di acculturazione dall'esterno, la quale ha
dimostrato (e continua a dimostrare tutti) suoi gravi limiti, in
quanto incapace di risolvere i problemi dell'isola. È perciò
necessario promuovere dall'interno i valori autentici della cultura
isolana, primo fra tutti quello dell'autonomia, e "provocare un
salto di qualità senza un'acculturazione di tipo colonialistico, e il
superamento cosciente del dislivello di cultura" (Lilliu). La
Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell'Università di Cagliari,
coerentemente con queste premesse con l'istituzione di una
Scuola Superiore di Studi Sardi, è pertanto invitata ad assumere
l'iniziativa di proporre alle autorità politiche della Regione
Autonoma e dello Stato il riconoscimento della condizione di
minoranza etnico-linguistica per la Sardegna e della lingua
sarda come lingua <<nazionale>> della minoranza. È di
conseguenza opportuno che si predispongano tutti i
provvedimenti a livello scolastico per la difesa e conservazione
dei valori tradizionali della lingua e della cultura sarda e, in
questo contesto, di tutti i dialetti e le tradizioni culturali presenti in
Sardegna (ci si intende riferire al Gallurese, al Sassarese,
all'Algherese e al Ligure-Carlofortino). In ogni caso tali
provvedimenti dovranno comprendere necessariamente, ai livelli
minimi dell'istruzione, la partenza dell'insegnamento del sardo e
dei vari dialetti parlati in Sardegna, l'insegnamento nella scuola
dell'obbligo riservato ai Sardi o coloro che dimostrino
un'adeguata conoscenza del sardo, o tutti quegli altri
provvedimenti atti a garantire la conservazione dei valori
tradizionali della cultura sarda. È bene osservare come, nel
quadro della diffusa tendenza a livello internazionale per la
difesa delle lingue delle minoranze minacciate, provvedimenti
simili a quelli proposti sono presi in Svizzera per la minoranza
ladina fin dal 1938 (48000 persone), in Inghilterra per il Galles, in
Italia per le minoranze valdostana, slovena e ultimamente ladina
(15000 persone), oltre che per quella tedesca; a proposito di
queste ultime e specificamente in relazione al nuovo
ordinamento scolastico alto-atesino. Il presidente del Consiglio
on. Colombo, nel raccomandare ala Camera le modifiche da
apportare allo Statuto della Regione Trentino-Alto Adige (il
cosiddetto "pacchetto"), <<modifiche che non-escono dal
concetto di autonomia indicato dalla Costituzione>>, ha ritenuto
di dover sottolineare l'opportunità "che i giovani siano istruiti
nella propria lingua materna da insegnanti appartenenti allo
stesso gruppo linguistico"; egli inoltre aggiungeva che "solo
eliminando ogni motivo di rivendicazione si crea il necessario
presupposto per consentire alla scuola di svolgere la sua
funzione fondamentale in un clima propizio per la migliore
formazione degli allievi". Queste chiare parole del presidente del
Consiglio ci consentono di credere che non-si voglia compiere
una discriminazione nei confronti della minoranza sarda, ma
anche per essa valga il principio enunciato dall'opportunità
dell'insegnamento della lingua materna ad opera di insegnanti
appartenenti allo stesso gruppo linguistico, onde consentire alla
scuola di svolgere anche in Sardegna la sua funzione
fondamentale in un clima propizio alla migliore formazione per
gli allievi. Si chiarisce che tutto ciò non è sciovinismo né rinuncia
a una cultura irrinunciabile, ma una civile e motivata iniziativa
per realizzare in Sardegna una vera scuola, una vera rinascita,
"in un rapporto di competizione culturale con lo stato (...) che
arricchisce la Nazione" (Lilliu)». Il Consiglio unanime approva le
istanze proposte dal prof. Sanna e invita le competenti autorità
politiche a promuovere tutte le iniziative necessarie, sul piano
 sia scolastico che politico-economico, a sviluppare
coerentemente tali principi, nel contempo acquisendo dati atti a
mettere in luce il suesposto stato. Cagliari, 19 Febbraio 1971.
[Farris, Priamo (2016). Problemas e aficàntzias de sa
pianificatzioni linguistica in Sardigna. Limba, Istòria, Sotziedadi /
Problemi e prospettive della pianificazione linguistica in
Sardegna. Lingua, Storia, Società, Youcanprint]
21. "O sardu, si ses sardu e si ses bonu, / Semper sa limba tua apas
presente: / No sias che isciau ubbidiente / Faeddende sa limba
'e su padronu. / Sa nassione chi peldet su donu / De sa limba
iscumparit lentamente, / Massimu si che l'essit dae mente / In
iscritura che in arrejonu. / Sa limba 'e babbos e de jajos nostros /
No l'usades pius nemmancu in domo / Prite pobera e ruza la
creides. / Si a iscola no che la jughides / Po la difunder menzus,
dae como / Sezis dissardizende a fizos bostros." ("Oh Sardinian!
If you are Sardinian and a good Sardinian as well, you should
always keep your language etched in your mind: do not be like a
submissive slave, speaking your master's language. The nation
that loses the gift of its own language is fated to slowly fade out
of existence, especially when it does not come to its mind
anymore to write and speak. Not even at home is the language of
our ancestors used anymore, for you consider it wretched and
uncout. If you do not bring it to be taught in school so as to better
spread its use, from now on you are going to be stripping the
Sardinian identity out of your children.") In "Piras, Raimondo. No
sias isciau" (http://www.poesias.it/poeti/piras_raimondo/sonetti/N
o_sias_isciau.rtf).
22. Gavino Pau, in an article published on La Nuova Sardegna (18
aprile 1978, Una lingua defunta da studiare a scuola), claimed
that "per tutti l'italiano era un'altra lingua nella quale
traducevamo i nostri pensieri che, irrefrenabili, sgorgavano in
sardo" and went on to conclude that for the Sardinian language
"abbiamo vissuto, per essa abbiamo sofferto, per essa viviamo e
vivremo. Il giorno che essa morrà, moriremo anche noi come
sardi." (cit. in Melis Onnis, Giovanni (2014). Fueddariu sardu
campidanesu-italianu, Domus de Janas, Presentazione)
23. Similar dynamics led the Irish language to be primarily spoken
only in certain areas, known as Gaeltacht (Edwards J.,
Language, society and identity, Oxford, 1985)
24. As opposed to the transitive use of morrer / morri a..., which
means "to kill" instead. E.g.: Pascale at mortu a tziu Bachis
("Pascal has killed uncle Bachisio").
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ti, thi, tu which make their appearance in relating to names of
small animals (e.g. tilicherta "lizard", tilipirche "grasshopper",
etc.) but even to other words beyond that semantic field (e.g.
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45. «Dopo pisani e genovesi si erano susseguiti aragonesi di lingua
catalana, spagnoli di lingua castigliana, austriaci, piemontesi ed,
infine, italiani [...] Nonostante questi impatti linguistici, la "limba
sarda" si mantiene relativamente intatta attraverso i secoli. [...]
Fino al fascismo: che vietò l'uso del sardo non solo in chiesa, ma
anche in tutte le manifestazioni folkloristiche.». De Concini,
Wolftraud (2003). Gli altri d'Italia : minoranze linguistiche allo
specchio, Pergine Valsugana : Comune, pp. 195-196.
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It was conquered by Rome in 238/7 BC, but was isolated and
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76. Michele Loporcaro (2009). Profilo linguistico dei dialetti italiani.
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considered quite archaic by the time of Marcus Terentius Varro,
see Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
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78. Barreca F.(1988), La civiltà fenicio-punica in Sardegna, Carlo
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79. Cum utroque sermone nostro sis paratus. Svetonio, De vita
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80. M. Wescher e M. Blancard, Charte sarde de l'abbaye de Saint-
Victor de Marseille écrite en caractères grecs, in "Bibliothèque
de l' École des chartes", 35 (1874), pp. 255–265
81. "Un'inedita carta sardo-greca del XII secolo nell'Archivio
Capitolare di Pisa, di Alessandro Soddu – Paola Crasta –
Giovanni Strinna" (http://www.filologiasarda.eu/files/documenti/p
ubblicazioni_pdf/bss3/01Soddu-Crasta-Strinna.pdf) (PDF).
82. Giulio Paulis, Lingua e cultura nella Sardegna Bizantina,
Sassari, 1983
83. "La lingua sarda acquisì dignità di lingua nazionale già
dall'ultimo scorcio del secolo XI quando, grazie a favorevoli
circostanze storico-politiche e sociali, sfuggì alla limitazione
dell'uso orale per giungere alla forma scritta, trasformandosi in
volgare sardo." Cecilia Tasca (a cura di), 2003. Manoscritti e
lingua sarda, La memoria storica, p. 15
84. «Moreover, the Sardinians are the first Romance-speaking
people of all who made the language of the common folk the
official language of the State, the Government...» Puddu, Mario
(2002). Istoria de sa limba sarda, Ed. Domus de Janas,
Selargius, p. 14
85. Gian Giacomo Ortu, La Sardegna dei Giudici p. 264, Il Maestrale
2005
86. Maurizio Virdis, Le prime manifestazioni della scrittura nel
cagliaritano, in Judicalia, Atti del Seminario di Studi Cagliari 14
dicembre 2003, a cura di B. Fois, Cagliari, Cuec, 2004, pp. 45–
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87. Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (1984). Storia Linguistica Della
Sardegna, p. 65, De Gruyter
88. Tagliavini, Carlo (1964). Le origini delle lingue neolatine, Patron,
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89. Salvi, Sergio. Le lingue tagliate: storia delle minoranze
linguistiche in Italia, Rizzoli, 1975, pp. 176–177
90. "La Carta de Logu" (http://www.sandalyon.eu/ita/articoli/archivio/
sardegna-giudicale/la-carta-de-logu-sandalyon__342.html).
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92. Barisone II of Arborea, G. Seche, L'incoronazione di Barisone
"Re di Sardegna" in due fonti contemporanee: gli Annales
genovesi e gli Annales pisani, Rivista dell'Istituto di storia
dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,
n°4, 2010
93. Casula, Francesco Cesare (2017). La scrittura in Sardegna dal
nuragico ad oggi, Carlo Delfino Editore, p. 91
94. Dantis Alagherii De Vulgari Eloquentia Liber Primus, The Latin
Library (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/dante/vulgar.shtml):
«Sardos etiam, qui non-Latii sunt sed Latiis associandi videntur,
eiciamus, quoniam soli sine proprio vulgari esse videntur,
gramaticam tanquam simie homines imitantes: nam domus nova
et dominus meus locuntur.» (Lib. I, XI, 7)
95. "Dante Online - Le Opere" (http://www.danteonline.it/english/oper
e2.asp?idcod=000&idope=3&idliv1=1&idliv2=11&idliv3=1&idlan
g=UK). www.danteonline.it.
96. De Vulgari Eloquentia 's Italian paraphrase by Sergio Cecchini
(http://www.classicitaliani.it/dante/prosa/vulgari_ita.htm)
97. "Marinella Lőrinczi, La casa del signore. La lingua sarda nel De
vulgari eloquentia" (http://people.unica.it/marinellalorinczi/files/2
007/06/11-dantesardo2000.pdf) (PDF).
98. Salvi, Sergio. Le lingue tagliate: storia delle minoranze
linguistiche in Italia, Rizzoli, 1975, p. 195
99. "Raimbaut de Vaqueiras (392.7)" (http://www.rialto.unina.it/RbVa
q/392.7(Saviotti).htm). www.rialto.unina.it.
100. Leopold Wagner, Max. La lingua sarda, a cura di Giulio Paulis (ht
tp://ir.nmu.org.ua/bitstream/handle/123456789/118720/655bf1c0
5b3e99f095c9edecc51f53a3.pdf?sequence=1) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160126223757/http://ir.nmu.org.ua/bitstre
am/handle/123456789/118720/655bf1c05b3e99f095c9edecc51f
53a3.pdf?sequence=1) 26 January 2016 at the Wayback
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101. "Le sarde, une langue normale" (http://taban.canalblog.com/archi
ves/2013/10/27/28302736.html). Retrieved 28 November 2015.
102. Rebecca Posner (ed. by), John N. Green (1982). Language and
Philology in Romance, Mouton Publishers, p. 178
103. Dittamondo III XII 56 ss.
104. «Wa ahl Ğazīrat Sardāniya fī aṣl Rūm Afāriqa mutabarbirūn
mutawaḥḥišūn min ağnās ar-Rūm wa hum ahl nağida wa hazm
lā yufariqūn as-silāḥ». "Contu, Giuseppe. Sardinia in Arabic
sources" (http://eprints.uniss.it/1055/).. Annali della Facoltà di
Lingue e Letterature Straniere dell'Università di Sassari, Vol. 3
(2003 pubbl. 2005), pp. 287-297. ISSN 1828-5384
105. Mastino, Attilio (2005). Storia della Sardegna antica, Edizioni Il
Maestrale, p. 83
106. Translation provided by Michele Amari: «I sardi sono di schiatta
RUM AFARIQAH (latina d'Africa), berberizzanti. Rifuggono (dal
consorzio) di ogni altra nazione di RUM: sono gente di proposito
e valorosa, che non lascia mai l'arme.» Note to the passage by
Mohamed Mustafa Bazama: «Questo passo, nel testo arabo, è
un poco differente, traduco qui testualmente: "gli abitanti della
Sardegna, in origine sono dei Rum Afariqah, berberizzanti,
indomabili. Sono una (razza a sé) delle razze dei Rum. [...] Sono
pronti al richiamo d'aiuto, combattenti, decisivi e mai si separano
dalle loro armi (intende guerrieri nati).» Mohamed Mustafa
Bazama (1988). Arabi e sardi nel Medioevo. Cagliari: Editrice
democratica sarda. pp. 17, 162.
107. Paolo Pompilio (1455–91): «ubi pagani integra pene latinitate
loquuntur et, ubi uoces latinae franguntur, tum in sonum
tractusque transeunt sardinensis sermonis, qui, ut ipse noui,
etiam ex latino est» ("where villagers speak an almost intact
Latin and, when Latin words are corrupted, then they pass to the
sound and habits of the Sardinian language, which, as I myself
know, also comes from Latin")». Quoted in Loporcaro, Michele
(2015). Vowel Length from Latin to Romance, Oxford University
Press, p. 48
108. Adams, J.N. (2007). The Regional Diversification of Latin 200
BC – AD 600 (https://books.google.com/books?id=yu9zSREo0b
kC). Cambridge University Press. p. 576. ISBN 978-
1139468817.
109. Archivio Cassinense Perg. Caps. XI, n. 11 " e "TOLA P., Codice
Diplomatico della Sardegna, I, Sassari, 1984, p. 153
110. Antonietta Orunesu, Valentino Pusceddu (a cura di). Cronaca
medioevale sarda: i sovrani di Torres, 1993, Astra, Quartu
S.Elena, p. 11
111. Francesco Cesare Casula, La storia di Sardegna, 1994
112. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. p. 33.
113. «[Sardinians] speak a peculiar language, Sardinian, and use it to
write both in poetry and prose, especially in Logudoro where it
has been kept purer, and more elegant and rich. And, since many
Spaniards, both Aragonese and Catalan, and Italians immigrated
to Sardinia, and keep doing so to trade, Spanish, Catalan and
Italian are also spoken; so, a single people is able to hold a
conversation in all these languages. However, those from
Cagliari and Alghero usually speak their masters' language,
Catalan, whilst the other people retain the genuine language of
the Sardinians.» Original text: «[Sardi] Loquuntur lingua propria
sardoa, tum ritmice, tum soluta oratione, praesertim in Capite
Logudorii, ubi purior copiosior, et splendidior est. Et quia Hispani
plures Aragonenses et Cathalani et Itali migrarunt in eam, et
commerciorum caussa quotidie adventant, loquuntur etiam
lingua hispanica et cathalana et italica; hisque omnibus linguis
concionatur in uno eodemque populo. Caralitani tamen et
Algharenses utuntur suorum maiorum lingua cathalana; alii vero
genuinam retinent Sardorum linguam.» Fara, Francesco
Giovanni (1580). De Rebus Sardois, De natura et moribus
Sardorum, 1835-1580, Turin, p. 51
14. Gessner, Conrad (1555). De differentiis linguarum tum veterum
tum quae hodie apud diversas nationes in toto orbe terraru in usu
sunt (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k938671), Sardorum
lingua: pp. 66–67
15. Sigismondo Arquer (edited by Maria Teresa Laneri, 2008).
Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio, CUEC, p. 30, De
Sardorum Lingua (http://www.filologiasarda.eu/files/documenti/p
ubblicazioni_pdf/cfsarquer/05edizione.pdf). «Certainly, the
Sardinians had once their own language, however since many
peoples immigrated to the island and it fell under the rule of
many foreign powers (namely Latins, Pisans, Genoese, Spanish
and Africans), the language of the Sardinians became extremely
corrupted; nonetheless, a number of words which have no
equivalent in any other language have been preserved. [...]
Because of this, the Sardinians speak in a very different way
depending on where they live, since they have been under many
diverse dominations; however, they manage to understand each
other perfectly. On the island are two main languages, the first in
the cities and the latter out of their reach. People from the cities
commonly speak Spanish, Tarragonese or Catalan, which they
learnt from the Spaniards, who also occupy much of the official
positions; the others, on the other hand, retain the genuine
language of the Sardinians.» Original text: «Habuerunt quidem
Sardi linguam propriam, sed quum diversi populi immigraverint
in eam atque ab exteris principibus eius imperium usurpatum
fuerit, nempe Latinis, Pisanis, Genuensibus, Hispanis et Afris,
corrupta fuit multum lingua eorum, relictis tamen plurimis
vocabulis, quae in nullo inveniuntur idiomate. [...] Hinc est quod
Sardi in diversis locis tam diverse loquuntur, iuxta quod tam
varium habuerunt imperium, etiamsi ipsi mutuo sese recte
intelligant. Sunt autem duae praecipuae in ea insula linguae,
una qua utuntur in civitatibus, et altera qua extra civitates.
Oppidani loquuntur fere lingua Hispanica, Tarraconensi seu
Catalana, quam didicerunt ab Hispanis, qui plerumque
magistratum in eisdem gerunt civitatibus: alii vero genuinam
retinent Sardorum Linguam.» Sigismondo, Arquer (1549).
Sardiniae brevis historia et descriptio, De Sardorum Lingua
16. Why is Catalan spoken in L'Alguer? – Corpus Oral de l'Alguerès
(http://prosodia.upf.edu/coalgueres/en/algueres.html)
17. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (2009). Storia della
lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-
culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari
commentati e tradotti. Cagliari: Cuec. p. 92.
18. Carlo Maxia, Studi Sardo-Corsi, Dialettologia e storia della
lingua fra le due isole
19. Ciurrata di la linga gadduresa, Atti del II Convegno
Internazionale di Studi (http://maxia-mail.doomby.com/medias/file
s/atti-convegno-palau-2014-def.pdf)
20. "Antonio Cano (Edited by Dino Manca, 2002). Sa Vitta et sa
Morte, et Passione de sanctu Gavinu, Prothu et Januariu, CUEC"
(http://www.filologiasarda.eu/pubblicazioni/pdf/cfsmanca/03edizi
one.pdf) (PDF).
21. Turtas, Raimondo (1981). La questione linguistica nei collegi
gesuitici in Sardegna nella seconda metà del Cinquecento, in
"Quaderni sardi di storia" 2, p. 57-87, at p. 60
22. "Sardegna Cultura - Lingua sarda - Letteratura - Dalle origini al
'700" (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/258?s=20328&v=2&c=26
95&t=7). www.sardegnacultura.it.
23. «First attempts at national self-assertion through language date
back to the 16th century, when G. Araolla, a speaker of
Sassarese, wrote a poem intended to enrich and honour the
Sardinian language.» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993).
Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 286.
24. J. Arce, La literatura hispánica de Cerdeña (https://dialnet.unirioj
a.es/descarga/articulo/906360.pdf). Revista de la Facultad de
Filología, 1956
25. Lo Frasso, Antonio (1573). Los diez libros de fortuna d'Amor
26. "Vicenç Bacallar, el sard botifler als orígens de la Real
Academia Española" (http://www.vilaweb.cat/noticia/4228285/20
150124/vicenc-bacallar-sard-botifler-origens-real-academia-esp
anola.html). VilaWeb.cat.
27. Rime diverse, Cagliari, 1595
128. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (edited by). Storia della
lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-
culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari
commentati e tradotti, 2009, Cuec, Cagliari, p. 99
129. Olaya, Vicente G. (2019), La segunda vida de los tercios (https://
elpais.com/cultura/2018/12/21/actualidad/1545406261_918691.
html) (in Spanish), El País, retrieved 4 June 2019: "Los tercios
españoles solo podían ser comandados por soldados que
hablasen castellano, catalán, portugués o sardo. Cualquier otro
tenía vedado su ascenso, por eso los italianos que
chapurreaban español se hacían pasar por valencianos para
intentar su promoción."; "The Spanish tercios could only be
commanded by soldiers who spoke Castilian, Catalan,
Portuguese or Sardinian. Everyone else had his promotion
forbidden, that's why the Italians who spoke Spanish badly tried
to pass themselves off as Valencians to try to get promoted."
130. "Las apo voltadas in sardu menjus qui non in atera limba pro
amore de su vulgu [...] qui non tenjan bisonju de interprete pro bi-
las decrarare, et tambene pro esser sa limba sarda tantu bona,
quanta participat de sa latina, qui nexuna de quantas limbas si
plàtican est tantu parente assa latina formale quantu sa sarda."
Garipa, Ioan Matheu. Legendariu de santas virgines, et martires
de Iesu Crhistu, 1627, Per Lodouicu Grignanu, Roma (https://arc
hive.org/details/bub_gb_pbBMjcSo_60C)
131. "Totu sas naziones iscrient e imprentant sos libros in sas propias
limbas nadias e duncas peri sa Sardigna – sigomente est una
natzione – depet iscriere e imprentare sos libros in limba sarda.
Una limba – sighit Garipa – chi de seguru bisongiat de
irrichimentos e de afinicamentos, ma non est de contu prus pagu
de sas ateras limbas neolatinas." ("All the nations write and print
books in their native languages and therefore Sardinia – which is
a nation – should do so as well, in Sardinian language. A
language – follows Garipa – which certainly needs a little
enrichment and refinement, but is no less important than the
other Neolatin languages"). Casula, Francesco. Sa chistione de
sa limba in Montanaru e oe (https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/a
rticulo/3400254.pdf)
132. M. Lepori, Dalla Spagna ai Savoia. Ceti e corona della Sardegna
del Settecento (Rome, 2003)
133. Cardia, Amos (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e
poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in
edadi spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, pp. 86–87
134. Roberto Palmarocchi (1936). Sardegna sabauda. Il regime di
Vittorio Amedeo II. Cagliari: Tip. Mercantile G. Doglio. p. 95.
135. Palmarocchi, Roberto (1936). Sardegna sabauda, v.I, Tip.
Mercantile G. Doglio, Cagliari, p. 87
136. Cardia, Amos (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e
poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in
edadi spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, p. 86
137. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (edited by). Storia della
lingua sarda : dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione
storico-culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari
commentati e tradotti, 2009, Cuec, Cagliari, p. 110
138. Rossana Poddine Rattu. Biografia dei viceré sabaudi del Regno
di Sardegna (1720-1848). Cagliari: Della Torre. p. 31.
139. Luigi La Rocca (1905). La cessione del Regno di Sardegna alla
Casa Sabauda. Gli atti diplomatici e di possesso con documenti
inediti, in "Miscellanea di Storia Italiana. Terza Serie", v.10.
Torino: Fratelli Bocca. pp. 180–188.
140. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. p. 210.
141. On further information as to the role played by mixed marriages
in general to spread Italian among the islanders, see Ines Loi
Corvetto. L'italiano regionale di Sardegna. Bologna: Zanichelli.
pp. 21–25. ; Francesco Bruni. L'italiano nelle regioni. Lingua
nazionale e identità regionali. Torino: UTET. p. 913.
42. «La più diffusa, e storicamente precocissima, consapevolezza
nell'isola circa lo statuto di lingua a sé del sardo, ragion per cui il
rapporto tra il sardo e l'italiano ha teso a porsi fin dall'inizio nei
termini di quello tra due lingue diverse (benché con potere e
prestigio evidentemente diversi), a differenza di quanto
normalmente avvenuto in altre regioni italiane, dove, tranne nel
caso di altre minoranze storiche, la percezione dei propri
"dialetti" come "lingue" diverse dall'italiano sembrerebbe essere
un fatto relativamente più recente e, almeno apparentemente,
meno profondamente e drammaticamente avvertito.» Eduardo
Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di
linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 209.
43. «La consapevolezza di alterità rispetto all'italiano si spiega
facilmente non solo per i quasi 400 anni di fila sotto il dominio
ispanico, che hanno agevolato nei sardi, rispetto a quanto
avvenuto in altre regioni italiane, una prospettiva globalmente
più distaccata nei confronti della lingua italiana, ma anche per il
fatto tutt'altro che banale che già i catalani e i castigliani
consideravano il sardo una lingua a sé stante, non solo rispetto
alla propria ma anche rispetto all'italiano.» Eduardo Blasco
Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica
sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton.
p. 210.
44. «Ma la percezione di alterità linguistica era condivisa e avvertita
anche da qualsiasi italiano che avesse occasione di risiedere o
passare nell'Isola.» Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela
Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of
Romance linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 209.
45. According to the officer Giulio Bechi, the Sardinians spoke "a
horrible language, as intricate as Saracen, and sounding like
Spanish." Giulio Bechi (1997, 1900). Caccia grossa. Scene e
figure del banditismo sardo. Nuoro: Ilisso. p. 43. Check date
values in: |year= (help)
46. «Lingue fuori dell'Italiano e del Sardo nessuno ne impara, e
pochi uomini capiscono il francese; piuttosto lo spagnuolo. La
lingua spagnuola s'accosta molto anche alla Sarda, e poi con
altri paesi poco sono in relazione. [...] La popolazione della
Sardegna pare dalli suoi costumi, indole, etc., un misto di popoli
di Spagna, e del Levante conservano vari usi, che hanno molta
analogia con quelli dei Turchi, e dei popoli del Levante; e poi vi è
mescolato molto dello Spagnuolo, e dirò così, che pare una
originaria popolazione del Levante civilizzata alla Spagnuola,
che poi coll'andare del tempo divenne più originale, e formò la
Nazione Sarda, che ora distinguesi non solo dai popoli del
Levante, ma anche da quelli della Spagna.» Francesco
D'Austria-Este (1993, 1812). Descrizione della Sardegna (1812),
ed. Giorgio Bardanzellu. Cagliari: Della Torre. pp. 43, 64. Check
date values in: |year= (help)
47. Antonio Bresciani (1861). Dei costumi dell'isola di Sardegna
comparati cogli antichissimi popoli orientali (http://www.sardegna
digitallibrary.it/mmt/fullsize/2009040715122300055.pdf) (PDF).
Napoli: Giannini Francesco.
48. «Come data ufficiale per la estensione della lingua italiana in
Sardegna viene comunemente citato il 1764, anno in cui fu
emanata un'apposita carta reale per le Università, ma questa, in
effetti, fu preceduta nel 1760 da un piano regio per le scuole
inferiori e seguita nel 1770 da un regio editto per la magistratura.
Occorse dunque un periodo di dieci anni per rendere ufficiale,
nell'isola, l'adozione dell'italiano, la cui diffusione fu da principio
assai lenta anche negli ambienti colti, come attesta l'uso
frequente della lingua spagnola in atti e documenti pubblici fino
ai primi decenni dell'Ottocento.» Francesco Corda (1994).
Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese: con una proposta
ortografica, elementi di metrica e un glossario. Cagliari: Edizioni
della Torre. pp. 6–7.
49. Bolognesi, Roberto (1998). The Phonology of Campidanian
Sardinian: A Unitary Account of a Self-Organizing Structure.
Holland Academic Graphics. p. 3.
50. Amos Cardia (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e
poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in
edadi spanniola. Ghilarza: Iskra. pp. 88, 91.
51. Alessandro Mongili (2015). Topologie postcoloniali. Innovazione
e modernizzazione in Sardegna. Cagliari. p. Premessa, 18;
Postcolonial Sardinia, 65; Mondi post, informatica ed esclusione,
21.
152. "Limba Sarda 2.0S'italianu in Sardigna? Impostu a òbligu de
lege cun Boginu – Limba Sarda 2.0" (http://salimbasarda.net/istor
ia/sitalianu-in-sardigna-impostu-a-obligu-de-lege-cun-boginu/).
Limba Sarda 2.0. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
153. "La limba proibita nella Sardegna del '700 da Ritorneremo, una
storia tramandata oralmente" (http://www.meilogunotizie.net/focu
s/storia/161/la-limba-proibita-nella-sardegna-del-700). Retrieved
28 November 2015.
154. «L'attività riformatrice si allargò anche ad altri campi: scuole in
lingua italiana per riallacciare la cultura isolana a quella del
continente, lotta contro il banditismo, ripopolamento di terre e
ville deserte con Liguri, Piemontesi, Còrsi.» Roberto Almagia et
al., Sardegna, Enciclopedia Italiana (1936) (http://www.treccani.i
t/enciclopedia/sardegna_%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/),
Treccani, "Storia"
155. «L'italianizzazione dell'isola fu un obiettivo fondamentale della
politica sabauda, strumentale a un più ampio progetto di
assimilazione della Sardegna al Piemonte.» Cardia, Amos
(2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant
impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi
spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, p. 92
156. «To the Savoyard functionaries, who were well into bureaucratic
absolutism as well as raised to the cult of orderliness and
precision, the island looked like something alien and bizarre, like
a Country that was prey to barbarism and anarchy, populated by
savages who were anything but nice. It was unlikely that the
functionaries could regard anything different as other than utter
evil. They therefore proceeded to apply to Sardinia the same
formulas of Piedmont.» Original text: «Ai funzionari sabaudi,
inseriti negli ingranaggi dell'assolutismo burocratico ed educati
al culto della regolarità e della precisione, l'isola appariva come
qualcosa di estraneo e di bizzarro, come un Paese in preda alla
barbarie e all'anarchia, popolato di selvaggi tutt'altro che buoni.
Era difficile che quei funzionari potessero considerare il diverso
altrimenti che come puro negativo. E infatti essi presero ad
applicare alla Sardegna le stesse ricette applicate al Piemonte.».
Guerci, Luciano (2006). L'Europa del Settecento : permanenze e
mutamenti , UTET, p. 576
157. «En aquest sentit, la italianització definitiva de l'illa representava
per a ell l'objectiu més urgent, i va decidir de contribuir-hi tot
reformant les Universitats de Càller i de Sàsser, bandejant-ne
alhora els jesuïtes de la direcció per tal com mantenien encara
una relació massa estreta amb la cultura espanyola. El ministre
Bogino havia entès que només dins d'una Universitat reformada
podia crear-se una nova generació de joves que contribuïssin a
homogeneïtzar de manera absoluta Sardenya amb el Piemont.»
Joan Armangué i Herrero, Represa i exercici de la consciència
lingüística a l'Alguer (ss.XVIII-XX), Arxiu de Tradicions de
l'Alguer, Cagliari, I.1
158. Girolamo Sotgiu (1984), Storia della Sardegna Sabauda, Editori
Laterza
159. Bolognesi, Roberto; Heeringa, Wilbert. Sardegna fra tante
lingue, p. 25, 2005, Condaghes
160. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, p. 181
161. Martin Maiden, John Charles Smith, Adam Ledgeway (edited
by). The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages: Volume
II, Contexts, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 302
162. Caria, Clemente (1981). Canto sacro-popolare in Sardegna,
Oristano, S'Alvure, p. 45
163. "Sardegna Cultura - Lingua sarda - Letteratura - Dalle origini al
'700" (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/258?s=20329&v=2&c=26
95&t=7). www.sardegnacultura.it.
164. "sardi, dialetti in "Enciclopedia dell'Italiano" " (https://www.trecca
ni.it/enciclopedia/dialetti-sardi_(Enciclopedia-dell%27Italiano)).
www.treccani.it.
165. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Giorgia Ingrassia (edited by). Storia della
lingua sarda: dal paleosardo alla musica rap, evoluzione storico-
culturale, letteraria, linguistica. Scelta di brani esemplari
commentati e tradotti, 2009, Cuec, Cagliari, p. 127
166. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, pp. 182–183
167. Madau, Matteo (1782). Saggio d'un opera intitolata Il ripulimento
della lingua sarda lavorato sopra la sua analogia colle due
matrici lingue, la greca e la latina, Bernardo Titard, Cagliari
68. "MADAO, Matteo in "Dizionario Biografico" " (https://www.treccan
i.it/enciclopedia/matteo-madao_(Dizionario-Biografico)).
www.treccani.it.
69. "Ichnussa - la biblioteca digitale della poesia sarda" (http://www.
poesias.it/poeti/madau_matteo/madau.htm). www.poesias.it.
70. "Sa limba tocare solet inue sa dente dolet" (https://presnaghe.wo
rdpress.com/2014/02/23/sa-limba-tocare-solet-inue-sa-dente-dol
et/). 23 February 2014.
71. Un arxipèlag invisible: la relació impossible de Sardenya i
Còrsega sota nacionalismes, segles XVIII-XX (http://www.tdx.cat/
bitstream/handle/10803/129737/tmf2.pdf?sequence=3) – Marcel
Farinelli, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Institut Universitari
d'Història Jaume Vicens i Vives, pp.285
72. Cardia, Amos (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e
poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in
edadi spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, pp. 111–112
73. "Febrés, la prima grammatica sul sardo. A lezione di limba dal
gesuita catalano" (https://www.sardiniapost.it/culture/cultura/febr
es-la-prima-grammatica-sul-sardo-a-lezione-di-limba-dal-gesuita
-catalano/). Sardiniapost.it.
74. Febres, Andres (1786). Prima grammatica de' tre dialetti sardi ,
Cagliari [the volume can be found in Cagliari's University Library,
Baille Collection, ms. 11.2.K., n.18]
75. Maurizio Virdis. "Geostorica sarda. Produzione letteraria nella e
nelle lingue di Sardegna"
(https://www.academia.edu/38298144). Literature 8.2. Rhesis
UniCa. p. 21.
76. «Nel caso della Sardegna, la scelta della patria italiana è
avvenuta da parte delle élite legate al dominio sabaudo sin dal
1799, in modo esplicito, più che altro come strategia di un ceto
che andava formandosi attraverso la fusione fra aristocrazia,
nobiltà di funzione e borghesia, in reazione al progetto
antifeudale, democratico e repubblicano della Sarda
rivoluzione.» Mongili, Alessandro. Topologie postcoloniali.
Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna, Condaghes, chpt.
1.2 "indicibile è il sardo"
77. Maurizio Virdis (2012). Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna, in
Contarini, Silvia. Marras, Margherita. Pias, Giuliana. L'identità
sarda del XXI secolo tra globale, locale e postcoloniale. Nuoro: Il
Maestrale. pp. 32–33.
78. Saggio di grammatica sul dialetto sardo meridionale dedicato a
sua altezza reale Maria Cristina di Bourbon infanta delle Sicilie
duchessa del genevese, Cagliari, Reale stamperia, 1811
79. «[Il Porru] In generale considera la lingua un patrimonio che
deve essere tutelato e migliorato con sollecitudine. In definitiva,
per il Porru possiamo ipotizzare una probabilmente sincera
volontà di salvaguardia della lingua sarda che però, dato il clima
di severa censura e repressione creato dal dominio sabaudo,
dovette esprimersi tutta in funzione di un miglior apprendimento
dell'italiano. Siamo nel 1811, ancora a breve distanza dalla
stagione calda della rivolta antifeudale e repubblicana, dentro il
periodo delle congiure e della repressione.» Cardia, Amos
(2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e poita d'ant
impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in edadi
spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, pp. 112–113
80. Johanne Ispanu (1840). "Ortographia Sarda Nationale o siat
Grammatica de sa limba logudoresa cumparada cum s'italiana"
(http://www.sardegnadigitallibrary.it/mmt/fullsize/2009042212524
300097.pdf) (PDF). Kalaris: Reale Stamperia.
81. «Il presente lavoro però restringesi propriamente al solo
Logudorese ossia Centrale, che questo forma la vera lingua
nazionale, la più antica ed armoniosa e che soffrì alterazioni
meno delle altre». Ispanu, Johanne (1840). Ortographia sarda
nationale o siat grammatica de sa limba logudoresa cumparada
cum s'italiana, p. 12
182. «[...] Nonetheless, the two works by Spano are of extraordinary
importance, as they put on the table in Sardinia the "question of
the Sardinian language", the language that should have been
the unified and unifying one, to be enforced on the island over its
singular dialects; the language of the Sardinian nation, through
which the island was keen to project itself onto the other
European nations, that already reached or were about to reach
their political and cultural actualization in the 1800s, including
the Italian nation. And just along the lines of what had been
theorized and put into effect in favour of the Italian nation, that
was successfully completing the process of linguistic unification
by elevating the Florentine dialect to the role of "national
language", so in Sardinia the long-desired "Sardinian national
language" was given the name of "illustrious Sardinian".»
Original: «[...] Ciononostante le due opere dello Spano sono di
straordinaria importanza, in quanto aprirono in Sardegna la
discussione sul problema della lingua sarda, quella che sarebbe
dovuta essere la lingua unificata ed unificante, che si sarebbe
dovuta imporre in tutta l'isola sulle particolarità dei singoli dialetti
e suddialetti, la lingua della nazione sarda, con la quale la
Sardegna intendeva inserirsi tra le altre nazioni europee, quelle
che nell'Ottocento avevano già raggiunto o stavano per
raggiungere la loro attuazione politica e culturale, compresa la
nazione italiana. E proprio sulla falsariga di quanto era stato
teorizzato ed anche attuato a favore della nazione italiana, che
nell'Ottocento stava per portare a termine il processo di
unificazione linguistica, elevando il dialetto fiorentino e toscano
al ruolo di "lingua nazionale", chiamandolo italiano illustre,
anche in Sardegna l'auspicata lingua nazionale sarda fu
denominata sardo illustre"». Massimo Pittau, Grammatica del
sardo illustre, Nuoro, pp. 11–12, Introduction (http://www.pittau.it/
Sardo/sardoillustre.html)
183. Cardia, Amos (2006). S'italianu in Sardìnnia candu, cumenti e
poita d'ant impostu: 1720–1848; poderi e lìngua in Sardìnnia in
edadi spanniola, Iskra, Ghilarza, p. 89
184. Carboni, Salvatore (1881). Sos discursos sacros in limba sarda,
Bologna.
185. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, pp. 186–187
186. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, p. 184
187. «Des del seu càrrec de capità general, Carles Fèlix havia lluitat
amb mà rígida contra les darreres actituds antipiemonteses que
encara dificultaven l'activitat del govern. Ara promulgava el Codi
felicià (1827), amb el qual totes les lleis sardes eren recollides i,
sovint, modificades. Pel que ara ens interessa, cal assenyalar
que el nou codi abolia la Carta de Logu – la «consuetud de la
nació sardesca», vigent des de l'any 1421 – i allò que restava de
l'antic dret municipalista basat en el privilegi.» Joan Armangué i
Herrero, Represa i exercici de la consciència lingüística a
l'Alguer (ss.XVIII-XX), Arxiu de Tradicions de l'Alguer, Cagliari,
I.1
188. «Il trapiantamento in Sardegna, senza riserve ed ostacoli, della
civiltà e cultura continentale, la formazione d’una sola famiglia
civile sotto un solo Padre meglio che Re, il Grande Carlo
Alberto.» Martini, Pietro (1847). Sull’unione civile della Sardegna
colla Liguria, col Piemonte e colla Savoia, Cagliari, Timon, p. 4
189. "Lingue sotto il tetto d'Italia. Le minoranze alloglotte da Bolzano
a Carloforte - 8. Il sardo | Treccani, il portale del sapere" (https://w
ww.treccani.it/magazine/lingua_italiana/articoli/scritto_e_parlato/
Toso8.html). www.treccani.it.
190. «...la ‘lingua della sarda nazione’ perse il valore di strumento di
identificazione etnica di un popolo e della sua cultura, da
codificare e valorizzare, per diventare uno dei tanti dialetti
regionali subordinati alla lingua nazionale.» Dettori, Antonietta,
2001. Sardo e italiano: tappe fondamentali di un complesso
rapporto, in Argiolas, Mario; Serra, Roberto. Limba lingua
language: lingue locali, standardizzazione e identità in Sardegna
nell’era della globalizzazione, Cagliari, CUEC, p. 88
191. "Spanu, Gian Nicola. Il primo inno d'Italia è sardo" (http://www.ilis
so.com/inno/innonazionalesardo.pdf) (PDF).
192. "In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the
island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct
language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the
Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province,
however." "Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest.
Sardinia in a united Italy" (https://www.britannica.com/place/Sard
inia-island-Italy/Aragonese-domination#ref333582). Britannica.
93. "Il ventennio fascista – come ha affermato Manlio Brigaglia ‒
segnò il definitivo ingresso della Sardegna nel “sistema"
nazionale. L’isola fu colonialisticamente integrata nella cultura
nazionale: modi di vita, costumi, visioni generali, parole d’ordine
politiche furono imposte sia attraverso la scuola, dalla quale partì
un’azione repressiva nei confronti dell’uso della lingua sarda, sia
attraverso le organizzazione del partito..." Garroni, M. (2010). La
Sardegna durante il ventennio fascista (https://art.torvergata.it/retr
ieve/handle/2108/1380/6630/capitolo%201.pdf), art.torvergata.it
94. Deidda, Giancarlo (1990). Folk festivals in Sardinia, Janus, p. 7
95. L. Marroccu, Il ventennio fascista
96. M. Farinelli, The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking
Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism, p. 15
97. "Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda" (http://www.mani
festosardo.org/quando-a-scuola-si-insegnava-la-lingua-sarda/). Il
Manifesto Sardo.
98. Remundu Piras, Sardegna Cultura (http://www.sardegnacultura.i
t/j/v/253?s=23661&v=2&c=2767&c1=2797&t=1)
99. Massimo Pittau, Grammatica del sardo illustre, Nuoro, Premessa
(http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/sardoillustre.html)
00. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, p. 191
01. "Casula, Francesco. Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e
oe" (https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf)
(PDF).
02. "Masala, Francesco. Est torradu Montanaru, Messaggero, 1982"
(http://www.regione.sardegna.it/messaggero/1982_dicembre_21.
pdf) (PDF).
03. "Montanaru e la lingua sarda" (https://www.manifestosardo.org/m
ontanaru-e-la-lingua-sarda/). Il Manifesto Sardo. 2019.
04. «Il diffondere l’uso della lingua sarda in tutte le scuole di ogni
ordine e grado non è per gli educatori sardi soltanto una
necessità psicologica alla quale nessuno può sottrarsi, ma è il
solo modo di essere Sardi, di essere cioè quello che veramente
siamo per conservare e difendere la personalità del nostro
popolo. E se tutti fossimo in questa disposizione di idee e di
propositi ci faremmo rispettare più di quanto non-ci rispettino.»
Antioco Casula (1982). Poesie scelte. Cagliari: Edizioni 3T.
p. 35.
05. "Poddighe, Salvatore. Sa Mundana Cummedia, bilingual version
in Sardinian and English" (http://www.lophius.net/Cummun_en.p
df) (PDF).
06. Poddighe, Salvatore. Sa Mundana Cummédia, p. 32, Domus de
Janas, 2009, ISBN 88-88569-89-8
07. Bolognesi, Roberto. The Phonology of Campidanian Sardinian:
A Unitary Account of a Self-organizing Structure, 1998, 6
08. De Gruyter Mouton, ed. by Lubello, Sergio (2016). Manuale di
linguistica italiana, Manuals of Romance Linguistics 13, Lingue
di minoranza, comunità alloglotte (Paul Videsott), Le singole
lingue di minoranza e comunità alloglotte, 3.11: Sardo
09. Manuale di linguistica sarda (Manual of Sardinian linguistics) (htt
ps://www.degruyter.com/view/product/180542), 2017, Ed. by
Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo. Manuals of
Romance Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, p. 36
10. Francesco Casula. "Gramsci, la Sardegna, la lingua sarda, le
tradizioni popolari" (http://www.labarbagia.net/notizie/territorio/36
86/gramsci-la-sardegna-la-lingua-sarda-le-tradizioni-popolari).
LaBarbagia.net.
11. "lettera n° 23 : 26 marzo 1927 : a Teresina" (https://leletteredalcar
cere.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/lettera-n%c2%b0-23-26-marzo-
1927-a-teresina/). 13 November 2009.
12. Pala, Carlo (2016). Idee di Sardegna, Carocci Editore, p. 121
13. Fiorenzo Caterini, La mano destra della storia. La demolizione
della memoria e il problema storiografico in Sardegna, Carlo
Delfino Editore, p. 99
214. «Le argomentazioni sono sempre le stesse, e sostanzialmente
possono essere riassunte con il legame a loro avviso naturale tra
la lingua sarda, intesa come la lingua delle società tradizionali, e
la lingua italiana, connessa ai cosiddetti processi di
modernizzazione. Essi hanno interiorizzato l'idea, molto rozza e
intellettualmente grossolana, che essere italofoni è essere
"moderni". La differenza tra modernità e tradizione è ai loro occhi
di sostanza, si tratta di due tipi di società opposti per natura, in
cui non-esiste continuità di pratiche, di attori, né esistono forme
miste.» Mongili, Alessandro (2015). Topologie postcoloniali.
Innovazione e modernizzazione in Sardegna, Chpt. 9: I problemi
della standardizzazione in Sardegna
215. «La tendenza che caratterizza invece molti gruppi dominati è
quella di gettare a mare i segni che indicano la propria
appartenenza a un'identità stigmatizzata. È quello che accade in
Sardegna con la sua lingua (capp. 8–9, in questo volume).»
Mongili, Alessandro (2015). Topologie postcoloniali. Innovazione
e modernizzazione in Sardegna, Chapt. 1: Indicible è il sardo
216. Pintore, Gianfranco (1996). La sovrana e la cameriera: La
Sardegna tra sovranità e dipendenza. Nuoro: Insula, 13
217. "Relazione di accompagnamento al disegno di legge "Norme
per la tutela, valorizzazione e promozione della lingua sarda e
delle altre varietà linguistiche della Sardegna", p. 7" (http://www.
condaghes.it/public/docs/relata_lege.pdf) (PDF).
218. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, p. 193
219. "Francesco Casula, Gianfranco Contu. Storia dell'autonomia in
Sardegna, dall'Ottocento allo Statuto Sardo, Dolianova, Stampa
Grafica del Parteolla, 2008, pp. 116, 134" (http://www.ufficiostudi
angioy.it/news/storia_autonomia.pdf) (PDF).
220. Pala, Carlo (2016). Idee di Sardegna, Carocci Editore, p. 118
221. Pier Sandro Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni.
Quarant'anni di dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fonda
zionesardinia.eu/ita/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Libro-Pier-San
dro-Pillonca-lingua-sarda-e-istituzioni.pdf) (PDF). Rende:
Edizioni Fondazione Sardinia. p. 12.
222. "Strumenti giuridici per la promozione della lingua sarda" (http://
www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/258?xsl=258&s=24014&v=2&c=2480
&t=7). Sardegna Cultura.
223. "Francesco Casula, Gianfranco Contu. Storia dell'autonomia in
Sardegna, dall'Ottocento allo Statuto Sardo, Dolianova, Stampa
Grafica del Parteolla, 2008, p. 118" (http://www.ufficiostudiangio
y.it/news/storia_autonomia.pdf) (PDF).
224. "Un autonomismo nettamente economicistico, perché non si
volle o non si poté disegnare un’autonomia forte, culturalmente
motivata, una specificità sarda che non si esaurisse
nell’arretratezza e nella povertà economica". Cardia, Mariarosa
(1998). La conquista dell’autonomia (1943–49), in Luigi
Berlinguer, Luigi e Mattone, Antonello. La Sardegna, Torino,
Einaudi, p. 749
225. "Sardinia and the right to self-determination of peoples,
Document to be presented to the European left University of
Berlin – Enrico Lobina" (http://www.enricolobina.org/wp/wp-conte
nt/uploads/2014/07/Comuna-univ-SE_ENG.pdf) (PDF).
226. "Schedati tutti gli insegnanti che vogliono portare la lingua sarda
nelle scuole". Nazione Sarda. 20 January 1981.
227. "E in tempi a noi più vicini, con una nota riservata del Ministero
della Pubblica Istruzione – regnante Malfatti – del 13-2-1976 si
sollecitano Presidi e Direttori Didattici a controllare eventuali
attività didattiche- culturali riguardanti l’introduzione della lingua
sarda nelle scuole. Una precedente nota riservata dello stesso
anno del 23-1 della Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri aveva
addirittura invitato i capi d’Istituto a schedare gli insegnanti."
"Lingua sarda: dall'interramento alla resurrezione?" (http://www.
manifestosardo.org/lingua-sarda-dallinterramento-alla-resurrezio
ne/). Il Manifesto Sardo. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
228. Salvatore Serra (2021). "Cando ischedaiant sos maistros de
sardu" (https://salimbasarda.net/cando-ischedaiant-sos-maistros-
de-sardu/).
229. Manuale di linguistica sarda (Manual of Sardinian linguistics) (htt
ps://www.degruyter.com/view/product/180542), 2017, Ed. by
Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo. Manuals of
Romance Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, p. 208
30. «Come primo atto, il maestro decise di dividere la classe in due:
da una parte sistemò i bambini che lui sapeva essere già "bravi",
che appartenevano a famiglie di ceto e condizione superiore,
che parlavano in italiano, dall'altra aggregò, ben distinti per
banco, i bambini "non bravi", qualcuno più irrequieto di altri,
qualche altro scalzo e che puzzava di pecora, quelli, cioè, che
l'italiano non sapevano neppure cosa fosse, e che portavano
addosso, ben impresso, il marchio dei figli della gleba. Quando
poi fece l'appello, con mia grande sorpresa, scoprii che per la
scuola e per il maestro io non ero più "Giuanneddu" ma
"Giovanni".» Melis Onnis, Giovanni (2014). Fueddariu sardu
campidanesu-italianu, Domus de Janas, Presentazione.
31. «Anche qui, per quanto riguarda le percentuali di posticipatari
[ripetenti] presenti nel campione, viene rilevata una loro
maggiore presenza nelle regioni settentrionali e una diminuzione
costante nel passaggio dal Centro al Sud. In Val d'Aosta sono il
31% e nelle scuole italiane della Provincia di Bolzano il 38%.
Scendendo al sud, la tendenza alla diminuzione è la stessa
della scuola media, fino ad arrivare al 13% in Calabria. Unica
eccezione la Sardegna che arriva al 30%. Le cause ipotizzate
sono sempre le stesse. La Sardegna, in controtendenza con le
regioni dell'Italia meridionale, a cui quest'autore vorrebbe
associarla, mostra percentuali di ripetenze del tutto analoghe a
quelle di regioni abitate da altre minoranze linguistiche.»
Roberto Bolognesi (2013). Le identità linguistiche dei Sardi.
Condaghes. p. 66.
32. Mongili, Alessandro (2013). Introduction to Corongiu, Giuseppe,
Il sardo: una lingua normale, Condaghes, 2013
33. «Ancora oggi, nonostante l'eradicazione e la stigmatizzazione
della sardofonia nelle generazioni più giovani, il "parlare
sbagliato" dei sardi contribuisce con molta probabilità
all'espulsione dalla scuola del 23% degli studenti sardi (contro il
13% del Lazio e il 16% della Toscana), e lo giustifica in larga
misura anche di fronte alle sue stesse vittime (ISTAT 2010).»
Mongili, Alessandro (2015). Topologie postcoloniali. Innovazione
e modernizzazione in Sardegna, Chpt. 9: I problemi della
standardizzazione del sardo
34. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance Linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 38–39.
35. Salvi, Sergio (1974). Le lingue tagliate, Rizzoli, pp. 198–199
36. Manuale di linguistica sarda (Manual of Sardinian linguistics) (htt
ps://www.degruyter.com/view/product/180542), 2017, Ed. by
Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo. Manuals of
Romance Linguistics, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 31, 36
37. "Regional Identity in Contemporary Sardinian Writing" (https://w
ww.europenowjournal.org/2019/04/04/regional-identity-in-conte
mporary-sardinian-writing/). www.europenowjournal.org.
38. "New research shows strong support for Sardinian – Eurolang"
(http://www.sotziulimbasarda.net/maggio2007/eurolanglsc.pdf)
(PDF).
39. «Mossa era un intellettuale poliedrico: architetto di grande
talento, insegnante, giornalista, viaggiatore instancabile. Fin da
giovane manifestò un particolare interesse verso le
problematiche delle minoranze etnico-linguistiche, europee e
mondiali, a rischio di estinzione e vittime di un “genocidio
culturale”. Un pericolo che incombeva anche sulla Sardegna,
considerata da Mossa “un’unità o comunità etnica ben distinta
dalle altre componenti dello Stato italiano”.» Pier Sandro
Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni. Quarant'anni di
dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fondazionesardinia.e
u/ita/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Libro-Pier-Sandro-Pillonca-lin
gua-sarda-e-istituzioni.pdf) (PDF). Rende: Edizioni Fondazione
Sardinia. p. 9.
40. Pier Sandro Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni.
Quarant'anni di dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fonda
zionesardinia.eu/ita/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Libro-Pier-San
dro-Pillonca-lingua-sarda-e-istituzioni.pdf) (PDF). Rende:
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41. Paolo Coluzzi (2007). Minority Language Planning and
Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the Situation of Friulian,
Cimbrian and Western Lombard with Reference to Spanish
Minority Languages. Peter Lang. p. 45.
242. «The University of Cagliari passed a resolution demanding from
regional and state authorities the recognition of the Sardinians as
an ethnic and linguistic minority and of Sardinian as their
national language.» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993).
Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 272.
243. Pier Sandro Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni.
Quarant'anni di dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fonda
zionesardinia.eu/ita/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Libro-Pier-San
dro-Pillonca-lingua-sarda-e-istituzioni.pdf) (PDF). Rende:
Edizioni Fondazione Sardinia. pp. 12–13.
244. «S. Salvi described the Sardinians as a "nazione proibita"
[forbidden nation] since their status as a linguistic or ethnic
minority is nowhere reflected in national or regional legislation.
His books (Salvi 1973, 1975) contributed significantly to the
increased intensity in the controversy surrounding the language
question.» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993). Bilingualism
and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 272.
245. Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993). Bilingualism and
Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 272.
246. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance Linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. p. 37.
247. Kurt Braunmüller, Gisella Ferraresi (2003). Aspects of
multilingualism in European language history.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: University of Hamburg. John
Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 239.
248. Corsale, Andrea; Sistu, Giovanni (2019). Sardegna: geografie di
un'isola. Milano: Franco Angeli. p. 193.
249. Mura, Giovanni (1999). Fuéddus e chistiònis in sárdu e italiánu,
Istituto Superiore Regionale Etnografico, Nuoro, p.3
250. «It also became obvious that the polarization of the language
controversy had brought about a change in the attitude towards
Sardinian and its use. Sardinian had become a symbol of ethnic
identity: one could be proud of it and it served as a marker to
distance oneself from the 'continentali' [Italians on the
continent].» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993).
Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 279.
251. «It also turned out that this segregation from Italian became
proportionately stronger as speakers felt that they had been let
down by the 'continentali' in their aspirations towards better
socio-economic integration and greater social mobility.»
Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993). Bilingualism and
Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 279.
252. «The data in Sole 1988 point to the existence of two opposing
tendencies: Sardophone speakers hold their language in higher
esteem these days than before but they still use it less and less.»
Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993). Bilingualism and
Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 288.
253. Caretti, Paolo; Rosini, Monica; Louvin, Roberto (2017). Regioni a
statuto speciale e tutela della lingua. Turin, Italy: G. Giappichelli.
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254. Pier Sandro Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni.
Quarant'anni di dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fonda
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255. «In August 1980 the Italian Communist Party (PCI) presented the
regional council with another bill, and in October of that year a
further proposal "for the protection of the language and culture of
the Sardinian people" was put forward on the initiative of the
education advisory council.» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green
(1993). Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De
Gruyter Mouton. p. 273.
256. Pier Sandro Pillonca (2020). La lingua sarda nelle istituzioni.
Quarant'anni di dibattiti in Consiglio Regionale (http://www.fonda
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61. «Se dunque il quadro delle competenze e degli usi linguistici è
contraddittorio ed estremamente eterogeneo per le ragioni che
abbiamo citato prima, non altrimenti si può dire per l'opinione.
Questa è generalmente favorevole a un mutamento dello status
pubblico della lingua sarda e delle altre lingue della Sardegna,
le vuole tutelare e vuole diffonderne l'uso, anche ufficiale.»
Caretti, Paolo; Rosini, Monica; Louvin, Roberto (2017). Regioni a
statuto speciale e tutela della lingua. Turin, Italy: G. Giappichelli.
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comunque connotato di un passato misero e miserabile che si
vuole dimenticare e di cui ci si vuole liberare, è il segno della
subordinazione sociale e politica; la lingua di classi più che
subalterne e per di più legate a modalità di vita ormai ritenuta
arcaica e pertanto non-desiderabile, la lingua degli antichi e dei
bifolchi, della ristrettezza e della chiusura paesane contro
l'apertura, nazionale e internazionale, urbana e civile.» Virdis,
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caratterizzano la subalternità ovunque, si è costituita un'identità
fondata su alcune regole che distinguono il dicibile (autonomia
in politica, italianità linguistica, criteri di gusto musicali
convenzionali non-sardi, mode, gastronomie, uso del tempo
libero, orientamenti politici) come campo che può comprendere
quasi tutto ma non-l'indicibile, cioè ciò che viene stigmatizzato
come "arretrato", "barbaro", "primitivo", cioè sardo de souche,
"autentico". Questa esclusione del sardo de souche, originario,
si è costituita lentamente attraverso una serie di atti repressivi
(Butler 2006, 89), dalle punizioni scolastiche alla repressione
fascista del sardismo, ma anche grazie alla pratica quotidiana
del passing e al diffondersi della cultura di massa in epoca
recente (in realtà molto più porosa della cultura promossa
dall'istruzione centralizzata).» Mongili, Alessandro (2015).
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episodicamente sui media, a scuola, dalla Chiesa,
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76. "Difendere l'italiano per resuscitare il sardo" (https://www.indiscr
eto.org/difendere-litaliano-resuscitare-sardo/). 2 September
2016.
77. Bolognesi, Roberto (2013). Le identità linguistiche dei sardi.
Cagliari: Condaghes. p. 63.
78. Corsale, Andrea; Sistu, Giovanni (2019). Sardegna: geografie di
un'isola. Milano: Franco Angeli. pp. 191, 199.
79. «The sociolinguistic subordination of Sardinian to Italian has
resulted in the gradual degeneration of the Sardinian language
into an Italian patois under the label of regional Italian. This new
linguistic code that is emerging from the interference between
Italian and Sardinian is very common among the less privileged
cultural and social classes.» "Sardinian in Italy, 1995" (https://ww
w.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index1.html). Euromosaic. To
access the article, click on List by languages, Sardinian, then
scroll to "Sardinian in Italy"
80. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. p. 211.
81. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. p. 213.
82. Kurt Braunmüller, Gisella Ferraresi (2003). Aspects of
multilingualism in European language history.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: University of Hamburg. John
Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 241.
383. «Benché si tratti anche qui di atteggiamenti e stereotipi in via di
rapido cambiamento, va rilevato che anche essi implicano però
una profonda consapevolezza dello statuto di lingua, fortemente
marcata etnicamente, e non di semplice "dialetto", del sardo
stesso: ciò che si può inferire da questo tipo di atteggiamenti
(neanche troppo cripticamente normativi) è infatti che, così come
si deve evitare di "storpiare" l'italiano, si deve evitare di
"storpiare" anche il sardo, a meno che non si sia giustificati in
partenza dal fatto di non essere etnicamente sardi, o non si tratti
di scelte stilistiche consapevoli per particolari generi
testuali/discorsivi diversi dal normale parlato quotidiano.»
Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 213–214.
384. «La situazione del sardo in questi ultimi decenni risente da un
lato degli esiti del processo di italianizzazione linguistica,
profondo e pervasivo, e dall'altro di un processo che si può
definire come risardizzazione linguistica, intendendo con questo
una serie di passaggi che incidono sulla modifica dello status
del sardo come lingua, sulla determinazione di una regola
scritta, sulla diffusione del suo uso nei media e nella
comunicazione pubblica e, infine, sullo sviluppo del suo uso
come lingua di comunicazione privata e d'uso in set
d'interazione interpersonale dai quali era stato precedentemente
bandito o considerato sconveniente». Paolo Caretti; et al. (2017).
Regioni a statuto speciale e tutela della lingua. G. Giappichelli
Editore. pp. 67–68.
385. "Il bilinguismo perfetto è ancora solo un miraggio" (https://www.la
nuovasardegna.it/regione/2021/02/22/news/il-bilinguismo-perfett
o-e-ancora-solo-un-miraggio-1.39943043). La Nuova Sardegna.
23 March 2021.
386. «Ciò nonostante non si è potuto né frenare l'italianizzazione
progredente attraverso la scuola e gli ambiti ufficiali, né restituire
vitalità al sardo in famiglia. La trasmissione intergenerazionale,
fattore essenziale per la riproduzione etnolinguistica, resta
seriamente compromessa.» Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch,
Daniela Marzo (2017). Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of
Romance Linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 40.
387. Martin Harris, Nigel Vincent (2003). The Romance languages.
London, New York. p. 21.
388. «If present trends continue, it is possible that within a few
generations the regional variety of Italian will supplant Sardinian
as the popular idiom and that linguists of the future will be
obliged to refer to Sardinian only as a substratal influence which
has shaped a regional dialect of Italian rather than as a living
language descended directly from Latin.» Martin Harris, Nigel
Vincent (2003). The Romance languages. London, New York.
p. 349.
389. «il sardo continua ad agire anche nelle menti dei sardi che il
sardo non lo conoscono né lo parlano, che non l'hanno mai
appreso e imparato; il sardo agisce se non altro nelle strutture
linguistiche d'ogni livello dell'italiano regionale di Sardegna, che
è il codice usato dai più (agisce nella fonetica, nella sintassi e in
ampi settori del lessico)...» Virdis, Maurizio (2003). La lingua
sarda oggi: bilinguismo, problemi di identità culturale e realtà
scolastica, cit. in Convegno dalla lingua materna al
plurilinguismo, Gorizia, 6.
390. Maurizio Virdis (2012). Prospettive identitarie in Sardegna, in
Contarini, Silvia. Marras, Margherita. Pias, Giuliana. L'identità
sarda del XXI secolo tra globale, locale e postcoloniale. Nuoro: Il
Maestrale. p. 34.
391. Loporcaro, Michele (31 July 2015). Vowel Length From Latin to
Romance (https://books.google.com/books?id=-e8pCgAAQBAJ
&pg=PA40). OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-163053-8.
392. Adams, J. N. (13 December 2007). The Regional Diversification
of Latin 200 BC - AD 600 (https://books.google.com/books?id=yu
9zSREo0bkC&pg=260). Cambridge University Press. pp. 260,
647. ISBN 978-1-139-46881-7.
393. Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (10 July 2017). "2.2 Il latino e la
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anticscholar.org/paper/Developments-of-the-lateral-in-occitan-dia
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97. Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo; Koch, Peter; Marzo, Daniela (10 July
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& Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-027461-5.
98. Loporcaro, Michele (31 July 2015). Vowel Length From Latin to
Romance (https://books.google.com/books?id=-e8pCgAAQBAJ
&lpg=PA56&pg=PA56). OUP Oxford. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-
163053-8.
99. Jones, Michael Allan (1988). Sardinian. The Romance
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00. Mura, Riccardo; Virdis, Maurizio (2015). Caratteri e strutture
fonetiche, fonologiche e prosodiche della lingua sarda.
Condaghes.
01. Katz, Jonah; Pitzanti, Gianmarco (26 September 2019). "The
phonetics and phonology of lenition: A Campidanese Sardinian
case study" (http://www.journal-labphon.org/articles/10.5334/labp
hon.184/). Laboratory Phonology: Journal of the Association for
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s://doi.org/10.5334%2Flabphon.184). ISSN 1868-6354 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/issn/1868-6354).
02. "Ditzionàriu in Línia" (http://ditzionariu.sardegnacultura.it/agiudu/t
rassas). ditzionariu.sardegnacultura.it. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
03. Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (10 July 2017). "2.1 Paleosardo: Sostrati
e toponomastica" (https://books.google.com/books?id=QuEsDw
AAQBAJ&pg=PT127). Paleosardo: Sostrati e toponomastica (in
Italian). De Gruyter. p. 80. doi:10.1515/9783110274615-005 (http
s://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110274615-005). ISBN 978-3-11-
027461-5.
04. "Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, Declamationes Minores 1.4.14-15"
(https://latin.packhum.org/loc/1002/1/5/4886-4903#5).
latin.packhum.org. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
05. Barbato, Marcello (10 July 2017). "2.6 Superstrato catalano" (http
s://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110274615-0
10/html). Manuale di linguistica sarda (in Italian). De Gruyter.
p. 161. doi:10.1515/9783110274615-010 (https://doi.org/10.151
5%2F9783110274615-010). ISBN 978-3-11-027461-5.
06. Sampson, Rodney (5 September 2016). "Sandhi phenomena" (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=L3p9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA670).
In Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (eds.). The Oxford Guide to
the Romance Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 736–748.
ISBN 978-0-19-106325-1.
07. Limba Sarda Comuna (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/documenti/
7_108_20090205122432.pdf) (PDF)
08. Arrègulas po ortografia, fonètica, morfologia e fueddàriu de sa
norma campidanesa de sa lìngua sarda (http://www.provincia.ca
gliari.it/ProvinciaCa/resources/cms/documents/arregulas.pdf)
(PDF) (1st ed.). Alfa. 2009. ISBN 9788885995475.
09. Frigeni, Chiara (1 January 2005). "The development of liquids
from Latin to Campidanian Sardinian: The role of contrast and
structural similarity" (https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twp
l/article/view/6192). Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics. 24.
ISSN 1718-3510 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1718-3510).
10. Frigeni, Chiara (2009). "Sonorant relationships in two varieties of
Sardinian" (https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/1776
2/1/Frigeni_Chiara_200906_PhD_thesis.pdf) (PDF). TSpace
Repository. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
411. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, Peter Koch, Daniela Marzo (2017).
Manuale di linguistica sarda. Manuals of Romance Linguistics.
De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 308–309.
412. Wolfe, Sam (2015). "Medieval Sardinian: New evidence for
syntactic change from Latin to Romance" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=X_GNCgAAQBAJ&q=Old+Sardinian&pg=PA303).
In Haug, Dag, T. T. (ed.). Historical Linguistics 2013: Selected
papers from the 21st International Conference on Historical
Linguistics, Oslo, 5–9 August 2013. John Benjamins Publishing
Company. pp. 303–324. ISBN 9789027268181.
413. Wolfe, Sam. "Verb-initial orders in Old Romance: A comparative
Account." (https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/31674939/Paper
_for_ICHL.pdf?1375667383=&response-content-disposition=inli
ne%3B+filename%3DMedieval_Sardinian_New_Evidence_for_
Synt.pdf&Expires=1612051241&Signature=S5XIjvqt3RwG2f2K
WXDUNak4WNtWFOCfzx2ckKIRCvr19MHHC85NahxQF10GO
7c-uR-oAm9YfMCEt5S~V8lsL~4729FtN4~YT9jwOuB5rY-yfRQn
Y6xr7cwemI2tULJA8vRrHor97QHT3~ZdVPiiDUxSrC9bdbAGN
dX-2YIlSr8yzmtBSVLvpjLjqo9QYdQ6aiU2011yLnqiyG5MVO2T
dRHMxC4cgj0cLmMC4fKVu-KJ0vtzpErqsDcmJTRDdwStBvQ~
VJVWy9PTrIPcX1Ebg9qwjeCQT~DgC~sSkgOTPSMpU2n-M5q
RBqapICv7B6ReyNRBz9UrSxeWo2Xa2ovzPQ__&Key-Pair-Id=
APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA) Revue roumaine de linguistique
60.2–3 (2015): 147–172.
414. "Marinella Lőrinczi, Confini e confini. Il valore delle isoglosse (a
proposito del sardo)" (http://people.unica.it/mlorinczi/files/2007/0
4/5-sappada2000-2001.pdf) (PDF).
415. Bolognesi, Roberto (2013). Le identità linguistiche dei sardi (in
Italian). Cagliari: Condaghes. p. 141. ISBN 978-88-7356-225-2.
OCLC 874573242 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/874573242).
"In altre parole, queste divisioni del sardo in logudorese e
campidanese sono basate unicamente sulla necessità -
chiarissima nel Cetti - di arrivare comunque a una divisione della
Sardegna in due "capi". [...] La grande omogeneità grammaticale
del sardo viene ignorata, per quanto riguarda gli autori
tradizionali, in parte per mancanza di cultura linguistica, ma
soprattutto per la volontà, riscontrata esplicitamente in Spano e
Wagner, di dividere il sardo e i sardi in varietà "pure" e "spurie".
In altri termini, la divisione del sardo in due varietà nettamente
distinte è frutto di un approccio ideologico alla variazione
dialettale in Sardegna"
416. Corongiu, Giuseppe (2013). Il sardo: una lingua normale:
manuale per chi non ne sa nulla, non conosce la linguistica e
vuole saperne di più o cambiare idea (in Italian). Cagliari:
Condaghes. ISBN 978-88-7356-214-6. OCLC 856863696 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/856863696).
417. Massimo Pittau. "Sardo, Grafia" (http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/grafia.
html).
418. «The phonetic differences between the dialects occasionally
lead to communicative difficulties, particularly in those cases
where a dialect is believed to be 'strange' and 'unintelligible'
owing to the presence of phonetic peculiarities such as laryngeal
or pharyngeal consonants or nazalized vowels in Campidanese
and in the dialects of central Sardinia. In his comprehensive
experimental-phonetic study, however, Contini (1987) concludes
that interdialectal intelligibility exists and, on the whole, works
satisfactorily.» Rebecca Posner, John N. Green (1993).
Bilingualism and Linguistic Conflict in Romance. De Gruyter
Mouton. p. 287.
419. <<Queste pretese barriere sono costituite da una manciata di
fenomeni lessicali e fonetico-morfologici che, comunque, non-
impediscono la mutua comprensibilità tra parlanti di diverse
varietà del sardo. Detto questo, bisogna ripetere che le varie
operazioni di divisione del sardo in due varietà sono tutte basate
quasi esclusivamente sull'esistenza di pronunce diverse di
lessemi (parole e morfemi) per il resto uguali. [...] Come si è visto,
non-solo la sintassi di tutte le varietà del sardo è praticamente
identica, ma la quasi totalità delle differenze morfologiche è
costituita da differenze, in effetti, lessicali e la percentuale di
parole realmente differenti si aggira intorno al 10% del totale.>>
Bolognesi, Roberto. Le identità linguistiche dei sardi,
Condaghes, 2013, p. 141
20. Mar Vanrell, Maria del; Ballone, Francesc; Schirru, Carlo; Prieto,
Pilar (2015). "Sardinian intonational phonology: Logudorese and
Campidanese varieties" (http://prosodia.upf.edu/home/arxiu/publi
cacions/2015%20OUP%20INTONATION%20IN%20ROMANCE/
09-Frota%20&%20Prieto-Chap09-v2.pdf) (PDF). In Frota, Sónia;
Prieto, Pilar (eds.). Intonation in Romance. Oxford University
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doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685332.003.0009 (https://doi.or
g/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199685332.003.0009).
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21. "Sardegna Cultura – Lingua sarda – Il sardo" (http://www.sardeg
nacultura.it/linguasarda/ilsardo/). Retrieved 28 November 2015.
22. Contini, Michel (1987). Ètude de géographie phonétique et de
phonétique instrumentale du sarde, Edizioni dell'Orso, Cagliari
23. Bolognesi R. & Heeringa W., 2005, Sardegna fra tante lingue. Il
contatto linguistico in Sardegna dal Medioevo a oggi,
Condaghes, Cagliari
24. <<L'esistenza di una striscia di "terra di nessuno" (fatta
eccezione, comunque, per i dialetti di Laconi e Seneghe) tra
dialetti meridionali e settentrionali, come anche della tradizionale
suddivisione della Sardegna in due "capi" politico-amministrativi
oltre che, ma fino a un certo punto, sociali e antropologici (Cabu
de Susu e Cabu de Jossu), ma soprattutto della
popolarizzazione, condotta dai mass media negli ultimi
trent'anni, di teorie pseudo-scientifiche sulla suddivisione del
sardo in due varietà nettamente distinte tra di loro, hanno
contribuito a creare presso una parte del pubblico l'idea che il
sardo sia diviso tra le due varietà del "campidanese" e del
"logudorese". In effetti, si deve più correttamente parlare di due
tradizioni ortografiche, che rispondono a queste denominazioni,
mettendo bene in chiaro però che esse non-corrispondono a
nessuna varietà reale parlata in Sardegna.>> Bolognesi,
Roberto (2013). Le identità linguistiche dei sardi, Condaghes, p.
93
25. Bolognesi, Roberto (9 January 2018). "Una lingua unitaria che
non ha bisogno di standardizzazioni" (https://bolognesu.wordpre
ss.com/2018/01/09/una-lingua-unitaria-che-non-ha-bisogno-di-st
andardizzazioni/). Bolognesu: in sardu (in Italian). Retrieved
14 November 2020.
26. Bolognesi, Roberto (2013). Le identità linguistiche dei sardi,
Condaghes, p. 138
27. "Journal of Language Relationship" (https://jolr.ru/index.php?artic
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попытка лексикостатистического подхода / Language vs.
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526837/2017_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B
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D0%BA_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D
0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%B8_%D0%
BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0
_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D
0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8
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External links
Media related to Sardinian language at Wikimedia Commons

Ditzionàriu in línia de sa limba e de sa cultura sarda - Online Sardinian Dictionary (https://ditzionariu.nor-web.eu/en/) (in Sardinian,
Italian and English)
CROS – Curretore regionale ortogràficu sardu in lìnia (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/cds/cros-lsc/) (Sardinian spell checker)
Apertium (https://www.apertium.org/index.eng.html?dir=ita-srd#translation). Automatic translation software from Italian and Catalan to
Sardinian.
Grammar of Limba Sarda Comuna (standardized form adopted at institutional level) (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/documenti/7_25_200
60427093224.pdf)
The Sardinian language: Basic phrases & pronunciation, Nativlang (http://www.nativlang.com/sardinian-language/sardinian-basic-phras
es.php)
An extract in Sardinian from (http://www3.germanistik.uni-halle.de/prinz/sprachen/114.htm) The Little Prince
List of Sardinian given names (from it.wiki)
Antoninu Rubattu's site (http://www.antoninurubattu.it/). In addition to vocabularies of each Sardinian variety of the language and non-
Sardinian languages, the site provides the reader also with some basic grammar guides and etymology dictionaries as well.
The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, Sardinian (http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_srd)
Lessico etimologico sardo (http://www.filologiasarda.eu/les/index.php?sez=38)
SardegnaCultura in sardu (http://www.sardegnacultura.it/sar/index.html) – Sardinian version of the official cultural site from the Regional
Sardinia administration.
Apertium (https://www.apertium.org/index.eng.html?dir=ita-srd#translation). Automatic translation software from Italian to Sardinian.
University of Berlin (http://www.lingrom.fu-berlin.de/sardu/) – Contains many links and other information about the language.
Grammar of Nuorese Sardinian – Wikibooks (English-incomplete)
Grammar of Nuorese Sardinian – Sardinian Wikipedia (Sardinian-incomplete)
Grammar of Nuorese Sardinian – Wikibooks (Italian-complete) (https://it.wikibooks.org/wiki/Sardo)
Arrègulas: Grammar of Campidanese Sardinian (http://academiadesusardu.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/arregulas.pdf)
A mailing list for Sardinian-speakers (http://sa-limba@uni-koeln.de)
Acadèmia campidanesa de sa lìngua sarda (http://www.acalisa.org) (in Campidanese Sardinian)
Memorie in lingua sarda, Sardegna Digital Library (http://www.sardegnadigitallibrary.it/index.php?xsl=648&s=17&v=9&c=4460&na=1&n
=24&nodesc=1&c1=Memorie+in+lingua+sarda&idtipo=2&xctl=1&mtd=67)
Interactive Atlas of Romance Intonation, Sardinian from Ittiri (http://prosodia.upf.edu/iari/enquestes/sardinian/ittiri/index.html) and Sinnai
(http://prosodia.upf.edu/iari/enquestes/sardinian/sinnai/index.html)

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