GENETICS

WEISMANN- Proposed the germplasm theory

MORGAN- Demonstrated that chromosomes many genes
ARISTOTLE- Proposed the theory of pangenesis in 384 BC
DARWIN- Supported the theory of pangenesis in 19th century
AVERY, MC LEOD & MC CARTY- Identified that DNA as a heredity material
DE LAMARCK- Proposed the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics
MENDEL- Discovered that hereditary characteristics were determined by genes.
CORRENS- Duplicated the work of Mendel
SUTTON & BOVERI - Suggested the associated of genes with the chromosomes.
WATSONS & CRICK- Identified the DNA's chemical properties.
KINETOCHORE PROTEIN- Proteins that attached the chromosomes at the centromere.
CHROMOMERES- The smaller "BEADS ON STRING"
SYNAPTINEMAL COMPLEX- An organelles that mediates the close pairing between homologous
regions of chromatids during prophase I.
TERMINALIZATION- Process where the chiasmata appear to move forward the end.
METACENTRIC- When the centromere located in the middle
PRAGMOPLASTS- In the plant, cytokinesis Pragmoplasts is formed at the metaphase plate
INTERKINESIS- It is brief transitional stage which occurs before the cell proceeds to the next
stage.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- Double-walled membrane folded in layers appears connected with
cell membrane.
RIBOSOMES- Site where protein synthesis occurs.
NUCLEOLUS-ORGANIZING REGION- Region where the nucleolus is attached and it is visible.
BIVALENT- Two homologues chromosomes that pair during prophase I and metaphase I.
CHIASMA- The point of exchange of homologues segments of non-sister chromatids, where
crossing over has taken place.
NUCLEUS- Primary director of cellular activity and inheritance.
GOLGI APPARATUS- Net-like staining bodies commonly found in cells engaged in secretion.
MITOCHONDRIA- Small bodies whose primary function is to provide cellular energy.
G2 PHASE- Synthesis of RNA & proteins
G1 PHASE- Cell increases in volume by imbining water & nutrients.
PROPHASE- Appearance of coiled contracted threads.
S-PHASE - Occurs DNA synthesis & replication.
METAPHASE- Alignment of chromosomes at the equatorial plate.
CONCORDANT- If both members show the character
PLEIOTROPY- A situation in which one gene has multiple phenotypic effects.
PENETRANCE - Refers to the proportion of genotypes that show an expected phenotype.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE- Dominance is absent
PHENOTYPE- Appearance of organism in morphology, physiology & behaviour.
OVERDOMINANCE- The heterozygote exceeds the phenotypic measurements of the
homozygous parents.
EXPRESSIVITY- The degrees to which a particular phenotypic effect is expressed by the
individual.
ISOALLELES- When the alleles act within the same phenotypic rage.
PHENOCOPY- An environment mimic of gene action.
ALLELES - One of the two or more alternative forms of a gene which are usually recognizable by
phenotypic.
EPISTASIS- Interaction between two or more genes so that one of them interferes with or even
inhibits the phenotypic expression of the other gene.
RECESSIVE- An allele or the corresponding trait that is expressed only in the homozygotes.
MODIFIERS- Genes that change the phenotypic effects of other genes.
CO-DOMINANCE- When each alleles of a gene is associated with the specific substance.
LETHAL GENES- Certain genes that can cause death of an organism.
GENOTYPE- The genetic constitution that an individual inherits.
PSUEDOALLELES- Mutations that are allele to one another on the basis of complementation but
are separable from one another by recombination.
DOMINANT LETHALS - Are genes whose lethal effects occur when a dominant allele is present
in a homozygous or heterozygous condition
DOMINANCE- The corresponding trait determine by an allele.
RECESSIVE LETHALS- Are those that are lethal when in the homozygous recessive condition.
All heterozygous round seed, round seeds, & Rr seeds.
The cross between round-seeded plants & wrinkled seeded ones yielded a first
generation progeny of.
RECIPROCAL CROSSES GAVE DIFFERENT RESULTS- This is not a result of Mendel’s hybridization
works.
SUTTON & BOVERI- Scientist found correlations between the behaviour of the allele in the gene
pair during meiosis.
CO-DOMINANCE- M-N blood groups in men
OVERDOMINANCE- Higher amount of flourencent pigments in heterozygous w+/w in
drosophilia.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE- intermediate F1 in four oclock plant
MULTIPLE ALLELES- ABO blood groups in human
RECESSIVE LETHALS - example is Xeroderma pigmentosum
PERMISSIVE- Some lethal genes may be influenced by the environment in the sense that the
organism may be able to survive under PERMISSIVE conditions.
BATESON & PUNNET- Scientist that discovered that genes were not merely separate elements
producing distinct individual effects.
DOMINANT EPISTASIS- Dominate white hides the effects of yellow or green in fruit color in
summer squash
BIRTH- Usual age of onset of ALCAPTONURIA
SPINA BIFIDA- Frequently occurs in women.
GENETICS- branch of biology deals with the principles of heredity and variation in all living
things.
Genetics from Greek word “gen”- to become or to grow into something.
Coined by William Bateson in 1905
KOLREUTOR (1733-1806) - hybrids between species might have shown uniform appearance,
their fertile offsprings would usually produce considerable diversity.
GARTNER, NAUDIN, and DARWIN- none of them took the numerical ratios into account
PISUM VATUM- choice of garden peas as the experimental material was an advantage
AVERY, MacLeod and McCarty- identified that DNA as the hereditary material.
THOMAS HUNT MORGAN
1.Attributed the non-random segregation of linked genes with regards to their location of the
chromosomes.
2. the closer the gene are located on the chromosome the greater the probability that they
would like to inherit.
Linkage segregating genes of a dihybrids leads to deviation from the 9:3:3:1 F2 phenotypic ratio
just as leads to deviations from the test cross ratio of 1:1:1:1
Example: Neurospora Crassa
The four products of meiosis are linearly arranged in the form of ordered tetrads so that
distinction can be mode between 1st and 2nd division segragation.
COMPLETE LINKAGE- genes are closely associated that always inherited together , linkage
between them is complete.
INCOMPLETE LINKAGE- Not complete , gene pairs assort at least partially independent of each
other.
HARTMAN- Proposed the SEXUALITY THEORY
GENETIC SEX DETERMINATION- Sex determination is a genetically regulated process
BRIDGES- Theory of genic balance.
Sex determining gene were located througout the genome.
1900 MC CLUNG- Association of sex characteristics & the presence or absence of a particular
chromosomes.
XX-XO MECHANISMS- the male PROTENOR is XO & forms 2 kinds of gametes w/ or w/out the X
chromosomes.
Male XY gametes.
Female XX gametes
XX-XY GAMETES- found in mammals and insects.
2 TYPES OF SEX LINKED INHERITANCE
1. X linked inheritance for the gene located on the X chromosomes
2. Y linked inheritance can be found on Y chromosomes.

2 IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTES OF THE GENE

1. The gene is inherited from generation to generation in such a fashion that each progeny has
a physical copy of this material

2. The gene provides information regarding the structure, function and other biological
properties of the characteristic or trait it controls

THEORY OF PANGENESIS- theory that semen was formed everywhere in a man’s body and such
semen reflected the characteristics of body parts from where is was formed.

GERMPLASM THEORY - germplasm perpetuated themselves in reproduction generation after

generation

THE CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE - was the discovery of chromosomes and by the
demonstration of association between specific genes and chromosomes

THEORY OF INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS - was proposed to be the

fundamental mechanism of revolutionary change

3 BRILLIANT INSIGHTS & METHODOLOGIES OF MENDEL’S EXPERIMENT.

1. Mendel introduced the quantitative approach in his experiments: classifying hybrid progenies
and determining their respective frequencies

2. Formulated theories and explained his experimental results

3. Mendel formulated appropriate experimental tests tp validate his theories

ONE APPLICATION OF GENETICS IN THE FOLLOWING FIELD:

a. PLANT - improvements of crops by breeding

b. MEDICINE - determining disease and abnormalities to prescribe appropriate preventive
measures

c. GENETIC COUNSELING - knowledge of the inheritance of certain desirable or undesirable

characteristics of

d. LEGAL APPLICATION - helped solve problems disputed of parentage. DNA fingerprints or

profiles

e. RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY - joining DNA segment from different biological sources
producing genetically modified offspring

SCOPE OF GENETICS.

1.  For the species ability to transfer these systems to the other generations is the primary
requirement for continued existence
2. The definition of similarities and differences in the patterns encountered within the
human species

CYTOPLASM- organelles are suspended; organelles are concerned with active cell function and
their presence or size may vary between different organisms and different tissues.
MITOCHONDRIA- small body whose primary function is to provide cellular energy through
respiration and oxidation.
GOLGI APPARATUS- net-like staining bodies commonly found in cells engaged in secretion.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM or ERGASTOPLASM- Cytoplasmic double-walled membrane folded
in layers that appear to be connected with the CM. In certain areas ER is associated with
ribosomes.
RIBOSOMES- small particles which may be free floating in the cytoplasm or attached to ER; Play
an important roles in the synthesis of proteins.
CENTROSOME & THE ACCOMPANYING CENTRIOLE- Duplicates itself and shows the continuous
inheritance between cell generations.
CHLOROPLASTS- plastids in plant cell which contain chlorophyll and serve as the photosynthetic
factory of plants.
NUCLEUS- primary director of cellular activity and inheritance; surrounded by double
membrane
CHROMATIN NUCLEOLI- spherical bodies may be found attached to specific chromosome
regions
CHROMOSOMES- linear units of DNA; thread-like structure inside nucleus; each chromosome is
made of protein and a molecule of DNA; come in pairs (homologous pairs); human has 23 pairs
of chromosome; 22 are autosome; one is sex chromosome
CENTROMERE- permanent well-defined region of the chromosomes
KINETOCHORE PROTEINS- attached to centromere; the spindle fibers bind to kinetochore and
the depolymerization to the spindle fibers enable the chromosome during cell division.
SHAPE OF CHROMOSOME DURING CELL DIVISION
METACENTRIC- centromere is located at the middle
SUBMETACENTRIC- close to the middle
ACROCENTRIC- located near one ends
TELOCENTRIC- at the end of the chromosome
SECONDARY CONSTRICTION- pinching off of a small chromosomal section forms the satellite
NUCLEOLUS-ORGANIZING REGION- the function of a specific point on a particular
chromosome.
CHROMOMERES- smaller “beads on the string”
KNOBS- larger
CELL DIVISION- cell divide to give rise to a new cell and it is through cell division that the
mechanism of genetic transmission could be explained.
MITOSIS- genetic and chromosome composition of a cell is faithfully reproduced in each of the
daughter cells; process of the reproduction in unicellular organisms and a means of growth and
replacement in multicellular organisms
MEIOSIS- chromosome number of cells is reduced to half its usual number
M PHASE- structural changes of chromosomes are visible
ANAPHASE- chromatids become functionally double and chromatids begin to move toward the
opposite poles.
TELOPHASE- chromosomes regroup into two nuclear structures
CYTOKINESIS- accomplished by the formation of a cell plate
PHRAGMOPLAST- formed at the metaphase plate
LEPTOTENE STAGE- chromosome are slender and long with many bead-like structures along
their length
ZYGOTENE STAGE- pairing of homologues chromosomes begins; form bivalents
PACHYTENE STAGE- chromosomes are thickened owing to coiling and are so closely appressed
that they may not be easily resolved
DIPLOTENE STAGE- longitudinal separation of the bivalents initiates diplonema; homologues
starting from the centromere and proceed toward both ends except at the chiasmara.
DIAKINESIS- chromosomes become more contracted and assume unique configurations due to
the repulsion of the chromatid pairs; nucleolus begins to disintegrate and spindle formation
begins.