Effect of Hydrophilic Gums on the Quality of Frozen Dough:
II. Bread Characteristics
R. Sharadanant2 and K. Khan2,3
ABSTRACT
Increase in proofing periods of frozen dough subjected to extended
frozen storage and freeze-thaw cycles and finally a lower loaf volume is
attributed to the changes in rheological properties of frozen doughs.
These changes occur due to the physical damage on the gluten network
caused by ice recrystallization. The major objective of this research was
to reduce ice crystallization and recrystallization in frozen dough by
incorporating hydrophilic gums such as carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC),
gum arabic, kappa carrageenan ( carrageenan), and locust bean gum at
three different levels with flour derived from a Hard Red Spring wheat
cultivar. The doughs were stored frozen for up to 16 weeks. Bread char-
acteristics were analyzed after day 0, day 1, and after 4, 8, 12, and 16
weeks of frozen storage for specific loaf volume, external and internal
appearance, color, texture, and shelf-life. Specific loaf volume increased
significantly with the addition of different levels of all the four gums
compared with the frozen control. Doughs with locust bean gum had the
For ages, it has been believed that there is no substitute for
fresh baked goods. With lapse of time, a crispy crust of a fresh
baked product develops a moist and leathery texture while the soft
crumb becomes firm and dry. The fresh flavor is also lost within
hours of baking, which has made bakers work midnight or early
morning to provide the consumers with fresh bread on a daily
basis. Transportation of baked products from large automated
bakeries has also posed problems (Inoue and Bushuk 1991).
Mixed and molded frozen dough that could be quickly trans-
formed into fresh-baked product was suggested as a solution to
the existing problem. The advantages of frozen dough made it
popular since the 1970’s. However, research was initiated in this
area due to the disadvantages of frozen dough over the conven-
tional baking. Some of the disadvantages are its variable perfor-
mance, increased expenses, and also loss of stability during
extended frozen storage periods and freeze-thaw cycles during
transportation (Berglund 1988). Loss of stability refers to increase
in proof time, decrease in loaf volume with poor bread charac-
teristics, and loss of shelf-life (Wolt and D’Appolonia 1984). Due
to the processing stresses on the frozen dough during freezing,
frozen storage and freeze-thaw cycles, product quality deteriorates.
This is a consequence of loss of dough strength and yeast stability.
Ice crystal formation is a natural phenomenon in frozen foods with
an appreciable amount of water that produces changes in dis-
tribution of solutes and structure.
Gums are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides. They
have water-holding capacity and retard moisture migration in the
dough (Ward and Andon 1993). Ward and Andon (1993) have
further suggested that gums improve the quality of frozen dough
and the final baked product. These hydrocolloids have been used
in many other types of bakery products as well.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of
hydrophilic gums on breadmaking quality of frozen doughs by
1
Published with the approval of the Director, Agricultural Experimental Station,
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105.
2 Department of Cereal and Food Sciences, Harris Hall, North Dakota State
University, Fargo, ND 58105.
3 Corresponding author: E-mail: Khalil.Khan@ndsu.nodak.edu.
Publication no. C-2003-1010-03R.
© 2003 American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
Cereal Chem. 80(6):773–780
highest loaf volume followed by doughs with gum arabic treatment.
Although the external and internal characteristics of bread deteriorated
with storage time, addition of gum arabic, CMC, and locust bean gum
improved the characteristics compared with the control after each storage
period. Carrageenan gave an inferior appearance to the bread and
decreased crumb quality, while locust bean gum gave the best appear-
ance. Bread loaves made with locust bean gum had a brighter crust color
and lighter crumb color as indicated by higher L color values of the
chromameter. In contrast, bread made with carrageenan had the lowest
L values. Bread shelf-life evaluated through bread crumb moisture and
bread firmness values showed that bread loaves prepared with locust
bean gum retained moisture to a greater extent and were softer when
compared with the frozen control. In general, locust bean gum, gum
arabic, and CMC improved bread characteristics to varying degrees.
Only carrageenan showed a detrimental effect on the frozen dough.
baking thawed doughs after various periods of frozen storage.
Frozen doughs were prepared for storage up to 16 weeks with
various levels of hydrophilic gums such as CMC, gum arabic, 
carrageenan, and locust bean gum.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The Hard Red Spring wheat cultivar Grandin was used in this
study. It was tempered to 15.5% moisture content for 24 hr and
milled on a Miag pilot mill to obtain a 70% extraction. The gums
used were CMC (Hercules, Wilmington, DE), gum arabic (Gum
Arabic A-23, Hi-Tek Polymers, Clifton, NJ), carrageenan
(Carravis 88, Carrageenan Co., Santa Ana, CA), and locust bean
gum (Dycol 2600, National Starch and Chemical Co., Bridge-
water, NJ). Compressed yeast was procured periodically from
Fleischmann’s Yeast Limited, Fenton, MO, and used within one
week of receipt.
Flour Quality
Approved Methods (AACC 2000) were used to determine
moisture (44–15A), protein (46–16), ash (08–01), wet gluten and
gluten index (38–12), farinograph (54–28A), extensigraph (54–
10), alveograph (55–21), mixograph (54–40A), and falling number
(56–81B) of the flour. A Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) (Newport
Scientific Ltd., Warriewood, Australia) and the procedure described
by Deffenbaugh and Walker (1989) were used to analyze starch
pasting properties. Peak, trough, and final viscosities were measured
and recorded in rapid viscosity units (RVU).
Levels of Gums
Levels of gums used in this study were chosen based on the
farinograph results and the baking performance. To find the
optimum levels of each gum, farinograph curves were obtained
with various levels of each gum at 0–15%. From the farinograph,
absorption (%), peak or dough development time (min), stability
(min), and mixing tolerance index (BU) were calculated. The
optimum levels were 1, 2, and 3% of gum arabic, CMC, 
carrageenan, and locust bean gum. Also, specific loaf volume was
measured from the bread loaves prepared with each level of the
four gums (Sharadanant and Khan 2002).
Vol. 80, No. 6, 2003 773
Dough Formulation and Preparation of Frozen Doughs
The straight no-time dough formulation procedure of Inoue and
Bushuk (1991) with 5% yeast, 2.5% sugar, 1.5% shortening, 1%
salt, 100 ppm of ascorbic acid, and optimum amount of water
based on farinograph absorption was used for the preparation of
frozen dough. The ingredients including gums were weighed on a
flour weight basis. Dough (1 kg from each batch) was mixed in a
Hobart mixer for 1 min at low speed, 1 min at medium speed, and
the rest at high speed until optimum dough development was
obtained. To avoid lumping, the gums were added to the other
ingredients in the mixer and mixed at low speed for 15 sec before
adding water. The dough was divided into 160-g pieces, rounded,
and rested in a fermentation cabinet at 28°C. The procedure was
modified. 1) The fermentation time or the resting time for dough
relaxation was reduced from 20 min to 10 min to minimize yeast
activity because the metabolized cells in the activated yeast after
dough mixing and fermentation lead to greater freeze-damage
(Bruinsma and Giesenschlag 1984). 2) The relative humidity in
the proofing chamber was maintained at 70–75% rh instead of 85–
90% rh. The doughs were molded on a sheeter-molder and imme-
diately frozen in a quiescent freezer (–72°C) at a rate of 1.14°C/min
until the core temperature reached 0°C. Furthermore, the freezing
rate was reduced to 0.68°C/min until the core of the dough reached
–16°C. The doughs were then double-bagged in polyethylene
bags, vacuum-sealed, and stored at –23°C (Brummer 1995).
The study was based on 16 dough treatments (three levels each
of gum arabic, CMC, carrageenan, and locust bean gum, and a
respective control treatment without gum additives was prepared
with each of the four gum treatments giving a total of four control
treatments). These 16 treatments were done in triplicate and used
for the preparation of bread and analysis of bread characteristics
and shelf-life studies. Each dough sample was analyzed at day 0
(unfrozen) and after 1 day, and 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks of frozen
storage. Therefore, the doughs were studied after six storage
times. For each of the analyses, the doughs were sampled twice
after thawing the doughs for 16 hr at 4°C. The control doughs
were proofed in the fermentation cabinet for 45 min at 28°C and
70–75% rh. The heights of the control doughs were measured and
used as the standard proofing height of reference for the analogous
frozen dough pieces. After final proofing, the doughs were baked
at 218°C for 25 min.
Specific Loaf Volume of Bread
After 30 min of cooling, the loaf weight (g) was measured and
loaf volume (cm3) of the loaves was determined using rapeseed
displacement. Specific loaf volume (cm3/g) was calculated.
Color
Crust and crumb color of all the samples were evaluated for L,
a, and b values using a Minolta chromameter (CR-300 series)
equipped with a DP-301 data processor. L value is the lightness
variable while a and b values are the chromaticity coordinates
(instruction manual). Crust color was determined at the top and
center of the loaf. Crumb color evaluation was determined at the
center of the sliced bread.
Bread Quality Score
External characteristics such as symmetry, break and shred, and
internal characteristics such as crumb softness, and grain were
subjectively evaluated by an experienced evaluator and scored on
a scale of 1 (least favorable) to 10 (most favorable).
Bread Firmness
Bread firmness was determined  3–5 hr after baking using
Approved Method 74-09 (AACC 2000). Bread firmness is the
force required in grams to compress a bread sample 25 mm thick
by 25%. The bread firmness values were obtained using a texture
analyzer (TA.XT2, Texture Tech. Corp., Scarsdale, NY).
774 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
Shelf-Life of Bread
The bread loaves prepared from frozen doughs with different
gum additives were stored in polyethylene bags at room temper-
ature and evaluated 3–5, 24, 48, and 96 hr after baking for shelf-
life by monitoring the moisture content and bread firmness. Crumb
moisture was measured in two stages. First,  6 g of crumb was
air-dried for 24 hr and loss of moisture was estimated by using
Approved Method 62-05 (AACC 2000). Then, the dried crumb
was ground using a Wiley mill (Arthur H. Thomas, Co., Phil-
adelphia, PA) and further dried in an air oven at 130°C for 1 hr.
The loss of moisture was calculated according to Approved Method
44-15A (AACC 2000). The sum of the moisture contents deter-
mined in stage 1 and 2 is the bread moisture. The bread firmness
was measured using Approved Method 74-09 (AACC 2000).
Statistical Design and Analysis of Data
A randomized complete block design (RCBD) with a factorial
arrangement of dough treatment and storage time was used for the
statistical analysis for all data. Differences in dough and bread
characteristics due to the addition of gums were tested for
significance using analysis of variance techniques. Analysis of vari-
ance was performed using the general linear model (GLM) procedure
of the Statistical Analysis System computer software package, and
the least significant differences were calculated (SAS Institute,
Cary, NC). A level of significance of P ” 0.05 was used
throughout the analysis. The design was based on 16 gum treat-
ments, six storage treatments, three replicates, and two samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Specific Loaf Volume
Specific loaf volume reported in cm3/g is affected by many
factors such as the type of ingredients, including the quality of
flour, and the processing conditions. Specific loaf volume should
not be too small or too large because it affects the crumb grain.
Too small loaf volumes give a very compact and closed grain struc-
ture and too large loaf volume gives a very open grain structure.
The interaction between gum treatment and storage time with
reference to specific loaf volume was significant. However, on
further investigation it was found that the significant differences
were due to differences in magnitude of the means between
storage times. So the main effects of treatment and storage will be
discussed. As shown in Table I, specific loaf volume decreased
significantly with an increase in frozen storage for all treatments
from day 0 to 16 weeks. A decrease in specific loaf volume is
typically seen in frozen doughs. Specific loaf volume was greatest
for the unfrozen bread dough and decreased as duration of frozen
dough storage increased. Berglund et al (1991) observed that with
longer storage periods, dough proof times increased, bread loaf
volumes decreased, and bread firmness increased. They reported
that the cause for extended proof times of frozen doughs could be
the ultrastructural changes in the starch and gluten. Frozen storage
causes starch damage (Berglund 1988), which may contribute to
increased moisture retention resulting in increased loaf weight and
lower loaf volume. Damaged starch in flour absorbs more water
and produces bread with decreased loaf volume (Farrand 1972).
Lorenz and Kulp (1995) stated that the decrease in loaf volume
with frozen storage may be caused from decreased yeast viability
as well as damage to gluten and starch.
Table II shows the main effects of gum treatments. The specific
loaf volume was significantly affected by the addition of gum
additives. It was observed that the specific loaf volume increased
significantly with the addition of different levels of all the four
gums. Locust bean gum gave the highest loaf volume, followed by
gum arabic treatment. Bread dough supplemented with locust
bean gum had the largest loaf volume and specific loaf volume,
but lowest loaf weight. A 3% level of locust bean gum was
superior to 3% level of gum arabic. CMC and carrageenan had
the lowest specific loaf volume compared with gum arabic and
locust bean gum. However, compared with the control treatments,
the addition of CMC and carrageenan significantly increased the
specific loaf volume. A 3% level of carrageenan gave a signi-
ficantly greater specific loaf volume than 3% level of CMC, 1%
level of gum arabic or 1% level of locust bean gum. The 1% and
2% levels of carrageenan gave significantly greater specific loaf
volumes compared with 1 and 2% levels of CMC.
Addition of different levels of gum additives significantly
improved the specific loaf volume ranging from the highest at 3%
locust bean gum and lowest at 1% CMC. Control treatment
without the gum additives had the lowest specific loaf volume.
Therefore, the addition of gums improved the quality of frozen
dough as evident from the specific loaf volumes of bread loaves
with and without the gum additives. Locust bean gum gave the best
loaf volume followed by gum arabic, carrageenan, and CMC.
External Characteristics of Bread
The external characteristics of bread were graded on a scale of
1 to 10, ranging from least favorable to most favorable. The
external characteristics include appearance and size of the loaf.
Usually much attention is paid to the uniformity of the loaves and
break and shred of the crust. The preferences for color of the crust
depend greatly on the geographic areas being served (Jackel
1986). Usually defects such as shell tops, shanty tops, and key
holes are considered while scoring.
The scores recorded in Table I show significant deterioration in
the external appearance of all the bread loaves as storage time
increased. However, the addition of gum arabic, CMC, and locust
bean gum improved the external characteristics of the bread signi-
ficantly when compared with the control as shown in Fig. 1. In
contrast to results of gum arabic, CMC, and locust bean gum, 
carrageenan gave an inferior appearance to the bread in terms of
crust color. Addition of carrageenan imparted a darker color to
the crust with white spots. The 3% levels of CMC, locust bean
gum, and gum arabic gave the best external appearance. It may
also be noted that there was no significant difference between the
2 and 3% levels of locust bean gum.
The main effects of gum treatments shown in Table II indicates
that the loaves with 3% locust bean gum and 3% gum arabic,
averaged across all the frozen storage periods, had high scores of
8.33 and 8.36, respectively, compared with the control scores of
6.83–6.97. Lorenz and Kulp (1995) stated that the decrease in loaf
volume coincided with the decrease in quality of bread produced
from frozen dough similar to the results obtained in this study.
Breads with locust bean gum and gum arabic treatments had the best
loaf volumes and showed the best external bread characteristics.
Internal Appearance of Bread
The internal crumb characteristics such as texture, grain, and
cell wall structure, color, and softness were graded on a scale of 1
to 10, ranging from least favorable to most favorable. A soft creamy

TABLE I
Effects of Storage of Frozen Doughs on Bread Characteristicsa
Appearancec Crust Color Crumb Color
Storage SLVb (cm3/g) External Internal L a b L a b
0 day 6.10 9.59 9.07 56.44 11.09 29.22 77.84 0.40 14.92
1 day 5.55 8.20 8.54 53.77 12.67 29.32 76.07 0.57 15.79
4 weeks 4.86 7.49 7.65 51.07 13.33 28.02 74.62 0.75 16.65
8 weeks 4.41 6.84 6.68 47.15 14.55 26.40 73.19 1.00 18.02
12 weeks 3.97 6.34 5.94 44.23 14.84 24.23 71.93 1.28 18.76
16 weeks 3.46 6.03 4.95 41.80 14.32 22.19 70.68 1.64 19.47
LSDd 0.02 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.35 0.45 0.04 0.01 0.03
a Each value is a mean value of 16 gum treatments, three replicates, and two samples.
b Specific loaf volume.
c Scale of 1 to 10, ranging from least favorable to most favorable.
d Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with any other mean within a column.

TABLE II
Effects of Gum Treatment of Frozen Doughs on Bread Characteristicsa

SLVb Appearancec Crust Color Crumb Color

Storage (cm3/g) External Internal L a b L a b
Gum arabic control 3.64 6.89 6.72 51.09 14.31 28.71 74.42 0.82 17.06
1% 4.55 7.42 7.14 52.25 13.73 29.30 75.04 0.71 16.68
2% 5.64 8.00 7.11 52.48 13.48 29.56 75.19 0.68 16.60
3% 5.93 8.36 8.39 52.78 13.36 29.08 75.35 0.66 16.52
CMCd control 3.75 6.83 6.61 50.82 14.55 28.71 74.27 0.84 17.18
1% 4.07 7.81 7.42 51.43 14.23 29.16 74.66 0.77 16.88
2% 4.34 7.86 8.11 51.67 13.98 29.15 74.79 0.75 16.81
3% 4.97 8.53 8.06 51.98 13.89 28.66 74.92 0.73 16.75
Carrageenan control 3.74 6.97 6.72 50.81 14.01 28.34 74.44 0.81 17.02
1% 4.42 6.00 5.47 34.78 11.83 15.71 69.09 1.98 20.03
2% 4.86 6.47 6.03 35.29 13.06 15.91 69.31 1.94 19.90
3% 5.12 6.00 5.47 35.62 12.80 15.80 69.51 1.90 19.83
Locust bean control 3.67 6.86 6.86 50.41 14.37 28.02 74.23 0.85 17.21
1% 4.74 8.06 8.00 54.40 12.64 29.46 76.30 0.55 16.05
2% 5.89 8.28 7.56 54.62 12.72 29.73 76.51 0.53 15.97
3% 6.24 8.33 8.53 54.78 12.55 29.71 76.82 0.49 15.78
LSDe 0.04 0.18 0.17 0.11 0.58 0.73 0.07 0.01 0.04
a Each value is a mean value of 16 gum treatments, three replicates, and two samples.
b Specific loaf volume.
c Scale of 1 to 10, ranging from least favorable to most favorable.
d Carboxymethyl cellulose.
e Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with any other mean within a column.

Vol. 80, No. 6, 2003 775

white crumb color is favored for white breads. However, in some
geographic areas, a bright white color to an off-white color is
preferred. Thin cell walls with uniform, elongated cells are pre-
ferred over thick cell walls and round cells. Open grain means
large cells, and closed grain means small cells (Jackel 1986).
Tables I and II show the main effects of frozen storage and gum
treatments on internal characteristics of bread, respectively. Crumb
grain was best for day 0 loaves and least desirable for the 16
weeks frozen dough loaves. As duration of frozen dough storage
increases, deterioration in bread quality is commonly observed
(Wolt and D’Appolonia 1984; Berglund and Shelton 1993; Inoue
and Bushuk 1996). The overall bread score for the internal appear-
ance of bread loaves stored for 16 weeks and averaged across all
gum treatments was 4.95 compared with 9.07 for day 0 loaves
(Table I). However, the addition of 3% locust bean gum and 3%
gum arabic gave a high score of 8.53 and 8.39, followed by 2%
CMC with a score of 8.11 compared with control values ranging
from 6.61 to 6.86 for internal appearance of bread averaged across
all the storage periods (Table II). The carrageenan treated
loaves, showed similar results for internal characteristics as were
obtained for the external appearance of the bread, where decreased
quality of bread was obtained for the same loaves of bread. Breads
containing locust bean gum, CMC, and gum arabic showed the
best internal characteristics.
Figure 2 illustrates the interaction between gum arabic
treatment and storage time with reference to the internal appear-
ance of bread. The differences due to the addition of gum arabic at
day 0 were not significant. However, as storage time increased,
the crumb characteristics significantly improved due to the addi-
tion of 3% gum arabic compared with the frozen control evaluated
after 1 day, and after 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks of frozen storage. A
similar trend was seen with locust bean gum and CMC treatments.
Bread loaves prepared with carrageenan had a coarse crumb
grain with thick cell walls and creamish color. There was a very
distinct hydrophilic gum taste for bread loaves made with 2 and
3% carrageenan. This observation was not part of the experi-
ment. Crumb quality decreased due to the addition of this gum.
The best internal appearance was obtained with locust bean gum
and gum arabic which corresponded to their high loaf volumes.
Bread Firmness
Bread firmness is the force required to compress a slice of
bread 25 mm thick by 25%. The value obtained (as force in g),
Fig. 1. Interaction of gum treatment and storage on external appearance
of bread (score 1–10). Bars represent mean value of three replicates and
two samples (P ˆ 0.05). A, gum arabic; B, carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC); C, carrageenan; D, locust bean gum. Any mean may be
compared with any other mean for all treatments
776 CEREAL CHEMISTRY
indicates the softness of the bread. The lower the value, the softer
and more desirable the bread. Bread firmness values obtained using
the texture analyzer showed trends similar to the observations
made through subjective evaluation of bread loaves.
An increase in firmness values was observed with an increase in
frozen storage as shown in Fig. 3. Berglund (1988) reported rapid
firming when the doughs were stored for longer periods in the
freezer, similar to the results obtained in this study.
Incorporation of all levels of gums, except Farrageenan, decreased
the bread firmness values. Figure 3 shows the interaction between
each gum treatment, with storage time, and bread firmness. The
firmness values decreased due to the addition of locust bean gum
compared with the frozen control. Similar trends were seen with
CMC and gum arabic. Breads with locust bean gum had the best
results followed by gum arabic and CMC. Breads with carra-
geenan had extremely high firmness values compared with locust
bean gum, gum arabic, and CMC-treated loaves. However, these
values were still significantly lower than the frozen control breads
without gums.
Crust Color
Crust color of the bread was evaluated using a Minolta chroma-
meter. The L scale ranges from 0 black, to 100 white; a scale
ranges from negative value green hue to positive value red hue;
and b scale ranges from negative blue to positive yellow.
As shown in Table I, the L value for crust color was the highest
(56.44) for the day 0 bread and lowest (41.80) for the 16 weeks
frozen dough bread, indicating an increase in darkness with frozen
storage time. Table II shows the main effects of gum treatments
averaged across all the frozen storage periods. Locust bean gum
had the highest L values followed by gum arabic and CMC treat-
ments. The higher the L value, the lighter the crust color, and
more desirable.
The a value was the lowest (11.09) for day 0 and highest (14.84)
for 12 weeks frozen dough bread as shown in Table I. Because the
values obtained were all positive, this indicates an increase in red
hue of the bread with frozen storage time. The a value reflects the
color of the bran (Kurimoto and Shelton 1988). Higher a value
indicates an increase in red hue of the bread crust, which is not
desirable. From Table II, the a value was the lowest for locust
bean gum and carrageenan, and highest for CMC.
The b value was positive for all the loaves with the highest (29.22)
for day 0 bread and lowest (22.19) for 16 weeks frozen dough
Fig. 2. Interaction of gum treatment and storage on internal appearance
of bread (score 1–10). Bars represent mean value of three replicates and
two samples (P ˆ 0.05). A, gum arabic; B, carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC); C, carrageenan; D, locust bean gum. Any mean may be
compared with any other mean for all treatments.
bread, indicating a decrease in yellowness of the bread crust color
with frozen storage (Table I). For the b value, carrageenan
showed a highly significant decrease in values compared with the
control. Gum arabic, CMC, and locust bean gums had similar b
values but were significantly higher than the control values (Table
II). Addition of these gums increased the yellowness of the bread
crust, which is desirable (Brackelsberg 1996).
Frozen storage and gum treatment had a very significant impact
on the color of the crust as shown by the interaction of these two
treatments in Fig. 4. As storage period increased, L color value
decreased due to increased darkness of the crust. The addition of
carrageenan gave the lowest color values because the loaves
were darker and less desirable, whereas the addition of locust bean
gum gave the highest values because these loaves were lighter in
color and more desirable.
Crumb Color
Crumb color was also evaluated using the Minolta chroma-
meter. Higher L scale values indicate a whiter and more desirable
crumb. As shown in Table I, with frozen storage time, the L value
decreased from 77.84 to 70.68. The main effects of gum treat-
ments shown in Table II, indicate a significant increase in L value
with the addition of locust bean gum followed by gum arabic and
CMC. These gums gave a whiter crumb color than the control.
The addition of carrageenan gave significantly lower values com-
pared with the control, showing that this gum imparted a darker
color to the crumb, and was less desirable.
The a value increased from 0.40 to 1.64 as shown in Table I,
indicating that the red hue of the crumb increased with frozen
storage time. The a values were the lowest (less red) for locust
bean gum supplemented breads and highest (more red) for breads
supplemented with carrageenan (Table II). Lower a values are
more desirable because they are less red.
The b value (Table I) increased from 14.92 to 19.47, indicating
that crumb color became more yellow with increased frozen
storage time. Similar to the a values, locust bean gum supple-
mented breads had the lowest b values, indicating less yellowness
of crumb color due to the addition of this gum (Table II). 
Carrageenan gave the highest b values due to increased yellow-
ness of the crumb color, which was not desirable.
Figure 5 shows the interaction between the different gum treat-
ments and storage periods for crumb color. Similar to the crust
color values, carrageenan had very low L values compared with
Fig. 3. Interaction of gum treatment and storage on bread firmness
(force, g). Bars represent mean value of three replicates and two samples
(P ˆ 0.05). A, gum arabic; B, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC); C, 
carrageenan; D, locust bean gum. Any mean may be compared with any
other mean for all treatments.
the other treatment loaves as shown in Fig. 5. Bread supplemented
with locust bean gum had the best crumb color compared with the
other treatments in terms of its brightness and whiteness.
Moisture Content
Changes in bread moisture were monitored 3–5 hr after baking
until 24, 48, and 96 hr after baking. As shown in Table III, the
main effects of frozen storage indicate a significant decrease in
moisture content of bread baked from day 0 and until after 16
weeks of frozen storage. The loss of moisture in the bread and
increased staling are highly correlated (He and Hoseney 1990).
They suggested that the decrease in moisture content of bread
results in accelerated formation of cross-links between starch and
protein molecules causing the bread to firm faster. Bread products
baked for a shorter time showed a slower rate of firming due to
their higher moisture content.
During the cooling stage of a bread loaf, consistent changes in
the moisture content occur that contribute to a temperature
gradient within the bread (Piazza and Masi 1995). Usually, the
interior of the bread has more moisture than its outer layers. This
results in a difference in vapor pressure between the crust and
crumb, resulting in moisture migration during the cooling stage
(Stear 1990). Part of the moisture travels from the crust to the
surrounding atmosphere. The mass transfer resistance that exists
at the interface between the bread crust and the atmosphere around it
influences the rate of moisture migration (Piazza and Masi 1995).
Bread moisture content measured 3–5 hr after baking was the
lowest (31.4%) for loaves baked after 16 weeks of frozen storage,
whereas doughs prepared on day 0 had 42.78%. The keeping
quality of bread, indicated by the moisture content of bread,
deteriorated for each frozen storage time as the time after baking
increased from 3 to 5 hr until 96 hr after baking. These results
agree with those of Brackelsberg (1996), who reported that bread
prepared from unfrozen dough had a significantly higher moisture
content of 40.17% than bread prepared after various periods of
frozen storage.
Bread loaves prepared from frozen doughs stored up to 16
weeks showed the lowest moisture content (23.80%) at 96 hr after
baking. This clearly showed that the increase in frozen storage
time decreased the moisture holding capacity of the bread. Also,
the bread lost its moisture progressively 3–5 hr after baking to 96
hr after baking for all loaves. Due to frozen storage, the ability of
the starch and gluten structure to retain moisture appeared to have
Fig. 4. Interaction of gum treatment and storage on crust color (L value).
Bars represent mean value of three replicates and two samples (P ˆ
0.05). A, gum arabic; B, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC); C, 
carrageenan; D, locust bean gum. Any mean may be compared with any
other mean for all treatments.
Vol. 80, No. 6, 2003 777
changed. Berglund et al (1991) observed changes in both the the time after baking increased, 1, 2, and 3% levels of locust bean
distribution of water as well as the structure of starch and gluten. gum had the highest moisture contents, followed by the 3% level
Freezing and frozen storage may affect the distribution of free as of gum arabic and the 3% level of CMC. Bread loaves prepared
well as bound water. with locust bean gum had a greater ability to retain the moisture
Table IV shows the main effects of gum treatment on bread content. Bechtel and Meisner (1954) reported that bread with a
moisture content. Addition of locust bean gum showed the higher moisture content was significantly fresher than bread with
maximum moisture content in bread loaves measured 3–5 hr after lower moisture. Maleki et al (1980) reported that breads with
baking. The 3% level of locust bean gum had the highest moisture higher moisture contents were initially softer and remained softer
content (40.72%) compared with the control, which had 36.35%. up to three days of storage longer than breads lower in moisture.
Apling et al (1978) reported that the moisture content of guar Therefore, it would seem that doughs treated with locust bean
wheat bread increased to 45–48%, compared with bread without gum had the best shelf-life in terms of bread moisture content.
gum additive with a moisture content of 35%. Leung et al (1983)
mentioned that keeping quality of bread is directly influenced by Bread Firmness
the physical properties of water. Firmness values, indicating the main effects of frozen storage,
Bread loaves with 3% gum arabic retained bread moisture the are listed in Table V. Frozen storage affected bread firmness
best (38.01%) followed by 3% CMC (37.88%) moisture content. significantly for all the gum treatments. The bread loaves prepared
Carrageenan had a lower bread moisture content compared with from these frozen doughs were stored at room temperature for
the control. The 3% level of carrageenan had the lowest bread further evaluation of shelf-life. As storage time of baked loaves
moisture content compared with all the other treatments, including increased from 3 to 5 hr after baking until 96 hr after baking, the
the control measured 3–5 hr after baking. Bread moisture measured bread loaves firmed significantly. Furthermore, it was observed
24, 48, and 96 hr after baking showed a consistent decrease in that an increase in storage time of the frozen doughs significantly
moisture content for all the gum additives. The 3% level of locust firmed the bread loaves from day 0 to 16 weeks of frozen storage.
bean gum had the highest moisture content (33.11%) 96 hr after Firmness values of bread loaves measured 3–5 hr after baking
baking compared with the other treatments, including the control, from day 0 doughs were the lowest (88.63 g force), whereas the
while 3% carrageenan had the lowest moisture content. values obtained 96 hr after baking of loaves prepared from doughs
Although the bread loaves lost moisture content progressively as frozen 16 weeks were the highest (829.00 g force). Changes in
protein structure (Ponte et al 1962; Maleki et al 1980) and starch
TABLE III
retrogradation (Schoch and French 1945) were attributed to the
Effects of Storage of Frozen Doughs on Bread Moisturea increase in bread firmness. Berglund and Shelton (1993) and
Brackelsberg (1996) also observed increased firmness with
Bread Moisture (%) increasing duration of frozen storage.
Storage 3–5 hr 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr Gum treatments had a very significant impact on bread
0 day 42.78 39.86 37.40 35.17 firmness values (Table VI). The control bread firmness values
1 day 39.79 36.87 34.41 32.19 ranged from 176.31 to 176.76 g force for loaves evaluated 3–5 hr
4 weeks 37.30 34.38 31.92 29.70 after baking. The different levels of each gum decreased the
8 weeks 36.13 33.21 30.75 28.53 firmness values. The softest bread with a firmness value of 165.02
12 weeks 33.60 30.68 28.22 26.00 g force was obtained for the bread supplemented with 3% locust
16 weeks 31.40 28.48 26.02 23.80
LSDb 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 bean gum followed by 2 and 1% levels. The loaves supplemented
a
with gum arabic were the second best followed by loaves treated
Each value is a mean value of 16 gum treatments, three replicates, and two with CMC. Carrageenan produced firmer breads than the other
samples.
b Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with treatments, but still significantly less firm than the control breads.
any other mean within a column. The bread loaves evaluated 24, 48, and 96 hr after baking
showed a progressive increase in bread firmness values. Typically,
TABLE IV
Effects of Gum Treatment of Frozen Doughs
on Bread Moisture Contenta
Bread Moisture (%)
Treatment 3–5 hr 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr
Gum arabic control 35.77 32.85 30.39 28.17
1% 36.57 33.65 31.19 28.97
2% 36.94 34.02 31.56 29.34
3% 38.02 35.10 32.64 30.41
CMCb control 35.62 32.70 30.24 28.01
1% 36.44 33.52 31.06 28.83
2% 36.81 33.89 31.43 29.20
3% 37.88 34.96 32.50 30.28
Carrageenan control 34.78 31.86 29.40 27.17
1% 34.74 31.83 29.37 27.14
2% 34.70 31.78 29.32 27.10
3% 34.61 31.69 29.23 27.01
Locust bean control 36.35 33.43 30.97 28.74
1% 39.46 36.54 34.08 31.86
2% 39.96 37.04 34.58 32.36
3% 40.72 37.80 35.34 33.11
LSDc 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
a Each value is a mean value of six storage treatments, three replicates, and Fig. 5. Interaction of gum treatment and storage on crumb color (L
two samples. value). Bars represent mean value of three replicates and two samples (P
b Carboxymethyl cellulose. ˆ 0.05). A, gum arabic; B, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC); C, 
c Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with carrageenan; D, locust bean gum. Any mean may be compared with any
any other mean within a column. other mean for all treatments.

778 CEREAL CHEMISTRY

the texture and firmness values increase in bread loaves with soon after they are removed from the oven. It is accelerated in a
increased storage time (Baker et al 1986, 1987; Baruch and Atkins bread with lower moisture content due to the enhanced retro-
1989). The bread loaves evaluated 96 hr after baking were the gradation and formation of cross-links between starch and protein
most firm. However, among all the values obtained, the loaves molecules (He and Hoseney 1990). The reason for the softer
containing 3% locust bean gum were the softest, as indicated by texture with gum treatments observed in this study might be that
the lowest firmness value of 389.89 g force. The loaves supple-
mented with locust bean gum that were initially softest followed
by gum arabic and CMC when evaluated 3–5 hr after baking TABLE VI
Effects of Gum Treatment of Frozen Doughs on Bread Firmnessa
likewise remained softer in comparison to the loaves supple-
mented with carrageenan and control loaves when evaluated 24, Bread Firmness (force, g)
48, and 96 hr after baking. Treatment 3–5 hr 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr
Starch recrystallization or the retrogradation of the gelatinized
Gum arabic control 176.31 323.26 237.78 515.04
starch has been identified as one of the causes of bread staling or 1% 171.36 217.24 229.98 437.10
bread firming. This process occurs progressively in bread loaves 2% 170.57 212.59 229.65 431.10
3% 170.09 208.30 229.33 421.78
CMCb control 176.76 328.66 237.33 504.89
TABLE V 1% 173.44 237.73 232.76 455.15
Effects of Storage of Frozen Doughs on Bread Firmnessa 2% 172.91 230.53 231.98 448.87
3% 172.18 223.33 231.07 444.07
Bread Firmness (force, g) Carrageenan control 176.58 308.27 236.71 509.27
Storage 3–5 hr 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr 1% 175.06 271.53 235.04 490.09
2% 174.50 260.44 234.22 481.63
0 day 88.63 149.90 205.03 291.70 3% 173.92 250.44 233.33 466.17
1 day 128.59 159.57 213.54 324.64 Locust bean control 176.76 294.80 237.37 523.50
4 weeks 169.66 167.88 222.91 357.68 1% 166.05 186.30 224.81 400.34
8 weeks 214.58 177.17 235.79 420.61 2% 165.59 178.80 224.01 395.23
12 weeks 297.05 185.30 248.07 519.50 3% 165.02 172.31 223.35 389.89
16 weeks 565.69 194.08 265.42 829.00 LSDc 0.21 12.85 0.24 6.52
LSDb 7.87 0.13 0.15 3.99 a Each value is a mean value of six storage treatments, three replicates, and
a Each value is a mean value of 16 gum treatments, three replicates, and two two samples.
samples. b Carboxymethyl cellulose.
b Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with c Least significant difference (P = 0.05). Any mean may be compared with
any other mean within a column. any other mean within a column.

Fig. 6. Bread loaves baked after various periods of frozen storage. A, Day 0 (unfrozen), B, after 12 weeks of frozen storage; C, After 16 weeks of
frozen storage.

Vol. 80, No. 6, 2003 779

the hydrophilic gums were holding more water, which led to
higher moisture content in the final baked product and, as a
consequence, retrogradation of the starch and bread firming was
retarded.
Bread Loaves
Figure 6A–C shows bread loaves at 0 day unfrozen and bread
made from frozen doughs after 12, and 16 weeks of frozen storage
to demonstrate the changes in the external loaf characteristics. As
frozen storage time increased, a decrease in loaf volume was
observed for all the frozen dough treatments. However, after each
frozen storage time, loaf volumes of the bread made from thawed
frozen dough with gum additives increased compared with the
frozen control. In carrageenan, a darker crust color was very
evident compared with the other treatments.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Gum additives do not completely counteract the negative
effects of frozen storage. However, gum arabic, locust bean gum,
and CMC improved loaf volume, internal and external appearance
of bread, and bread firmness compared with the frozen control
after each frozen storage period. Although the specific loaf volume
decreased for all the gum treatments from day 0 to 16 weeks of
frozen storage, the addition of different levels of all four gums
significantly increased the loaf volume compared with the control
when evaluated after day 0, day 1, and after 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks
of frozen storage. Locust bean gum gave the best results followed
by gum arabic and CMC. Although breads with carrageenan had
good loaf volume, the overall bread quality was poor.
Frozen storage deteriorated the external and internal charac-
teristics of bread. However, compared with the control after each
storage period, addition of gum arabic, CMC, and locust bean
gum improved these characteristics. Crumb quality decreased due
to carrageenan, whereas bread with locust bean gum had the
best external and internal appearance. Color values for L showed a
brighter crust and lighter crumb for bread with locust bean gum
added. Conversely, carrageenan had the lowest L values indicating
a dull crust and dark crumb color.
The texture analyzer gave bread firmness values that agreed
with the subjective evaluation of internal and external bread scores.
Bread moisture and firmness values indicated a loss of shelf-life
with increased frozen storage time of the doughs and also with
increased storage time (at room temperature) of the loaves, baked
from these frozen doughs. The addition of gums did not alleviate
the problems associated with frozen storage completely. The
quality of the fresh bread could not be retained in doughs frozen
for longer periods of time. However, compared with the frozen
control, locust bean gum retained bread moisture to a greater
extent, and loaves were softer, followed by gum arabic, and CMC.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The North Dakota Wheat Commission is thanked for financial assistance.
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