Lecture 2: Plate tectonics,

earthquakes, volcanism & minerals

Dr Sérgio D.N. Lourenço
Contents
 Part 1: Geology review
 Plate tectonics
 Volcanism & earthquakes

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The Earth’s internal structure
Late Permian - 255Ma
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics - boundaries
Plate tectonics - convergent plate
boundaries

Hong Kong was made by a convergent plate boundary

Plate tectonics - divergent plate boundaries
 Great Rift Valley (example)

http://ethiopianrift.igg.cnr.it/img/Figura3DENG.png
Plate tectonics - hot spots
 Intra-plate areas with active volcanism
 Hawaii & Yellowstone (US)
Volcanoes
 Landforms from which lava, gas or ashes escape from the
ground
 Two major types of magma:
 Basaltic, producing mostly effusive eruptions
 Lava flow
 Rhyolitic, producing mostly explosive eruptions
 Material expelled includes ash, lapilli, blocks and bombs

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Volcanoes - examples

VIDEO https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/may/08/hawaii-volcano-eruption-latest-news-kilauea-leilani-estates-federal-help
Hawaii, 2018
Effusive eruptions
Volcanoes - examples

VIDEO https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/13/philippines-lava-gushes-from-taal-volcano-as-alert-level-raised
Taal (Phillipines), 2020
Explosive eruptions
Volcanoes - hazards
 Major hazard for:
 Population (e.g. Pompeii, Italy)
 Infrastructure
 Aviation (high hardness of SiO2 particles)
 Associated hazards:
 Pyroclastic flows: downward movement of gas and particles on
the flank of a volcano
 Lahars: downward movement of water and particles on the
flank of a volcano, mostly induced by heavy rainfall on
unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits

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Volcanoes - hazards

Lahars

Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

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Volcanoes - hazards
 Landslides are shallow but frequent in response to rainfall
 Susceptible to static liquefaction (complete loss of
strength leading to a flow-like failure)
 Shirasu in Kyushu (Japan) and Campania (Italy)

volcano.oregonstate.edu

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Earthquakes
 Caused by vibrations produced by rapid release of energy
from stored elastic energy
 The point where the energy is released is called the
‘focus’
 Aftershocks are regional adjustments to strain
 Elastic rebounds theory – rubber band analogy
Earthquakes – seismic waves
Earthquakes – seismic waves
 Three types
 Primary wave – p wave
 Secondary wave – s wave
 Surface wave – L wave
 Can use these waves to calculate where earthquakes are
and also properties of earth

S-waves

P-waves
Earthquakes - hazards
 Liquefaction (dynamic)

2011 Christchurch earthquake

VIDEO https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/343-liquefaction

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Earthquakes - hazards
 Landslide-induced earthquakes
2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Beichuan, Sichuan province

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Part 2
 Rock-forming minerals

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Mineral formation/magma crystallization
 As the magma cools crystallization occurs into minerals
 Each compound in the magma has it’s crystallization and
melting point
 Mineral formation/magma crystallization
 The sequence by which minerals are formed as
temperature reduces is know as the Bowen’s reaction
series
~1200degC

~750degC
Mineral groups
 Silicates (SiO2) (-SiO4) (-Si3O8) (-SiO3)
 Carbonates (-CO3)
 Hydrous aluminum silicates (Clay minerals)
 Oxides (-O)
 Hydroxides (-OH)
 Sulfides (-S)
 Sulfates (-SO4)
 Phosphates (-PO4)
 Halides (-Cl, -F)
 Native elements

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Minerals - identification
 Hardness
 Crystal form
 Colour
 Streak
 Cleavage
 Lustre
 Specific gravity
 Fluorescence etc…….
Minerals - hardness scale (or Mohs scale)
 Hardness is controlled by the strength of bonds between
atoms and is measured by the ease or difficulty with
which it can be scratched.

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Minerals - hardness scale

MINERAL HARDNESS
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar (common in HK) 6
Quartz (common in HK) 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
Minerals - colour
 Color results from a mineral’s chemical composition, and
impurities that may be present
 Red, blue, green, pink, purple, orange ... Different minerals
can have the same colour…

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Minerals - form
 Minerals may have geometric forms (or shape or habit)
 Cubic
 Octahedral
 Dodecahedral
 Basal
 …

jmu.edu

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Minerals - cleavage
 Cleavage is the tendency of crystalline materials to split
along definite crystallographic structural planes

open.edu

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Common minerals in igneous rocks
Mineral Composition Colour Hardness Features

Quartz SiO2 Clear 7 Mosaic

Feldspar (K,Na,Ca)(Al,Si)4O8 White/ 6 Mosaic or laths.

Pink

Muscovite K(Al2AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Clear 2.5 Splits into thin

sheets, perfect
cleavage
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2 Black 2.5 Splits into thin
sheets, perfect
cleavage
Mafic Fe-Mg silicates Black 5-6 Long/short
(others) prisms.
Common minerals in igneous rocks
 Quartz
 SiO2
 Hardness 7
 Chemically stable
 Specific gravity 2.6
 Translucent

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Common minerals in igneous rocks
 Feldspar
 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 (lighter)
 Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8-CaAl2Si2O8 (darker)
 Hardness: 6

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Common minerals in igneous rocks
 Mica
 K, Mg, Fe, Al silicates
 Muscovite KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 (lighter)
 Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (darker)
 Specific gravity 2.76-3.2
 Common in igneous rocks
 Basal form (layered)

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Common minerals in igneous rocks
 Olivine
 (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
 Green
 Hardness: 6.5–7
 Transparent to translucent
 Specific gravity: 3.27–3.37

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Other common minerals
 Calcite in sedimentary rocks
 CaCO3
 Hardness 3
 Specific gravity 2.71
 Dissolves in acidic solutions
CaCO3 + HCl -> CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

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Minerals with economic value
 Cooper (Cu)
 Lithium (Li)
 Nickel (Ni)
 Manganese (Mn)
 Cobalt
 Fluorspar
Storage of mine tailings (mine waste) is also a
 Platinum geotechnical and geoenvironmental problem
 Tungsten
 Uranium

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Summary
 Geology review
 Plate tectonics
 Earthquakes and related hazards
 Volcanoes and related hazards
 Minerals
 Identification
 Common minerals

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Next lecture
 Igneous rocks

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