SOIL ORIGIN AND

DEVELOPMENT
IN GENERAL
DISIAPKAN OLEH:
PROF. IR. INDRASURYA B. MOCHTAR MSC., PHD
PROF. IR. NOOR ENDAH MSC., PHD
MUSTAIN ARIEF ST., MT
 2

ORIGIN OF THE SOIL

 3
ORIGIN OF THE SOIL
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small
amount produced by man). The nature and structure of a given soil
depends on the geological processes that formed it:
- breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
- transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water,
ice, wind.
- environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial,
marine.
- subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no
surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits,
change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
 4
TYPE OF PARENT ROCK
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust:
1- igneous rocks
crystalline bodies of cooled magma e.g. granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro,
syenite, porphyry
2- sedimentary rocks
layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies
of water (seas, lakes, etc.) e.g. limestone, sandstones, mudstone, shale,
conglomerate
3- metamorphic rocks
formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous
intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal
movement (e.g. slate, schist, gneiss).
5
 BREAKDOWN OF PARENT ROCK BY WEATHERING
1- Physical weathering
Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the Earth's surface, including the actions
of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice; cause disintegration and wearing. The
products are mainly coarse soils (silts, sands and gravels). Physical weathering produces
Very Coarse soils and Gravels consisting of broken rock particles, but Sands and Silts will be
mainly consists of mineral grains.

2- Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by
decomposition and/or alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils
with separate mineral grains, such as Clays and Clay-Silts. The type of clay mineral depends
on the parent rock and on local drainage. Some minerals, such as quartz, are resistant to the
chemical weathering and remain unchanged.
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
a. FRACTURING due to expansion and
contraction
 Frost Wedging - freezing and thawing of water
 Heating and cooling
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING (Con’t)

b. EROSION or wearing down of rock

 Water

 Wind
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
DISSOLUTION

WaterDISSOLVES minerals into

SOLUTION
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING (Con’t)
 HYDROLYSIS – Water reacts with minerals
in rock create NEW, SOFTER
COMPOUNDS
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING (Con’t)
 OXIDATION – O2 reacts with
minerals in rock to form NEW
COMPOUNDS
3. PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 PLANTS ….can also PHYSICALLY and
CHEMICALLY WEATHER ROCK
 ROOT WEDGING – Plant roots PHSICALLY force
open cracks by ROOT GROWTH
 LICHENS
– exude acid which CHEMICALLY
WEATHERS rock
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Ringkasan jenis utama batuan beku (Igneous Rocks) Diluar Logam Si masih ada 8 unsur lagi yang paling banyak
Extrusive Intrusive membentuk batuan beku . Urutannya adalah sebagai berikut :
Keterangan Dibanding dari total batuan yang ada
Kadar Si Rocks Rocks
Unsur Simbol
Batuan beku yang asalnya % berat % Volume
Periodotite dari magma dibawah Oxygen (o) 46.6 91.97
Sekitar 24% Basalt Gabbro dasar samudra umumnya Silicon (Si) 27.72 0.8
mempunyai kadar Si Aluminium (Al) 8.13 0.77
Andesit Diorite rendah (bersifat basalt) Besi (Fe) 5 0.68
Calcium (Ca) 3.63 1.48
Rhyodacite Granodiorite Natrium (Na) 2.83 1.6
Yang asalnya dari benua Kalium (K) 2.59 2.14
Sekitar 34% Rhyolite Granite umumnya bersifat Granit Magnesium (Mg) 2.09 0.56
(Kadar Si tinggi) Titanium (Ti) 0.44 0.03
Trachyte Syenite
Lain-lain 0.97 -
Total 100% 100%
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Jenis mineral yang paling umum pada batuan beku :
• Olivine - Mg2SiO4 atau Fe2SiO4
• Pyroxene - MgSiO3 atau FeSiO3
• Plagioclase (Na- & Ca-FELDSPAR) – NaAlSi3O8 atau
CaAl2Si2O8
• Amphibole – (Mg,Fe)7Si8O22 (OH)2
• Biotite (MICA) –
• Quartz – Susunan molekul SiO2
• Potassium Feldspar (K-Feldspar) – KaAlSi3O8
CRYSTALLIZATION OF SILICATE MINERALS FROM MAGMA
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TEXT BOOK Proses Kimia pada Pelapukan Kimiawi
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 TEXT BOOK
PENGANTAR GEOLOGI DTS-ITS Sepetember 2022

Jadi pelapukan kimiawi pada

17 IKHTISAR PROSES PELAPUKAN KIMIAWI prinsipnya memisahkan unsur-unsur
logam seperti Si, Al, Fe & Ti dengan
Mineral Dasar Komposisi Hasil Mineral Padat Bahan Yang Masih Na, Ca , K & Mg. Unsur Si, Al, Fe & Ti
Terlarut (Oleh Air) terbawa air dalam bentuk padat
QUARTZ SiO2 QUARTZ Asam Silikat mengendap didekat pantai (Offshore)
sedangkan Unsur Na, Ca , K & Mg
FELDSPAR
- Na-Feldspar NaAlSi3O8 Lempung Kaolin Asam SIlikat, Ion Na+, terlarut dalam air.
Ion Bikarbonat Karena air menjadi penyebab utama
- Ca-Feldspar CaAl2Si2O8 Lempung Kaolin Ion Ca++, Ion pelapukan kimia maka air juga
Bikarbonat menjadi pembawa hasil-hasil
- K-Feldspar KAlSi3O8 Lempung Kaolin Asam SIlikat, Ion K+,
pelapukan kimia. Hasil-hasil
Ion Bikarbonat
AMPHIBOLE (Mg,Fe)Si8O22 (OH)2 Goethite Asam SIlikat, Ion pelapukan kimia berupa zat-zat padat
Mg++, Ion Bikarbonat dan unsur-unsur yang sangat kecil,
PYROXENE (Mg,Fe)SiO3 Goethite Asam SIlikat, Ion jadi tidak mungkin mengendap
Mg++, Ion Bikarbonat didaratan.
OLIVINE (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Goethite Asam SIlikat, Ion
Pengendapan hasil pelapukan kimiawi
Mg++, Ion Bikarbonat
terjadi di tempat yang kecepatannya
nol yaitu: - danau, dan
Unsur yang paling Unsur yang paling
utama Si, Al, Fe, Ti utama Na, Ca, K,& Mg - laut
 PERBEDAAN
TEXT BOOK KOMPOSISI
PENGANTAR GEOLOGI DTS-ITS LARUTAN KIMIA DI SUNGAI DAN DI Sepetember
LAUT2022

18
Dapat ditarik kesimpulan
bahwa:
1. Ca++ & Bikarbonat HCO3-
berkurang dengan drastic
dari air sungai ke air laut
➔ pasti ada pengendapan
atau terjadi “pengambilan”
kedua unsur tersebut
secara besar-besaran dari
air laut.
2. Na+ & Cl- meningkat
secara drastis, berarti
kedua ion tersebut yang
paling sukar mengendap.
Kemana “ Larinya” Ca++ & HCO3- ??
Kemana “Larinya” asam silikat H4SiO4 ??
Untuk itu marilah kita meninjau bentuk-
bentuk sedimen kimiawi
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19 SEDIMEN KIMIAWI
Sedimen kimiawi dibagi menjadi dua yaitu:
1. Organic Sedimen, dan
2. Inorganic Sedimen
1. Organic Sediment (disebabkan oleh organisme hidup seperti tumbuhan dan hewan laut)
a).

Quartz mengendap berupa:

• Tanah Quartz
• Dipakai oleh tumbuh-tumbuhan atau hewan dilaut yang bernama
Radiolaria & Diatom (Diatomeae)
Semua H4SiO4 “ habis digunakan oleh tumbuh-tumbuhan / hewan laut
tersebut.
Sedimennya berupa tanah diatom (diatom-earth), Flint, & Jasper, dll.
TEXT BOOK SEDIMEN KIMIAWI (LANJUTAN)
PENGANTAR GEOLOGI DTS-ITS Sepetember 2022

20 b) Binatang-binatang laut seperti foraminfera, ikan ,dll melakukan/membuat persenyawaan

sebagai berikut :
Ca++ + HCO3- + On ➔ CaCO3 + H2O
Mg++ + HCO3- + On ➔ MgCO3 + H2O
Binatang-binatang tersebut memakai CaCO3 & MgCO3 untuk membuat rumah-rumah mereka,
tulang, gigi, tubuh (shell), kulit , batu coral, dll.
terbentuk : Pulau karang dll.
Jadi senyawaan kapur CaCO3 & MgCO3 (senyawaan karbonat) umumnya berasal dari hewan-
hewan laut (product dari hewan-hewan laut).
Karena disebabkan :
▪ Gerakan tektonik, dasar laut muncul diatas permukaan laut;
▪ Lau mongering
Maka timbul tanah-tanah kapur carbonate. Contoh :
o Pulau Atol (Pulau Karang)
o Semenanjung Florida di USA
o Pulau Madura, Pegunungan kapur utara & selatan di Pulau Jawa, dll.
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2. Inorganic Sediment
Terjadi karena :
a) Air laut didaerah tersebut “Jenuh” dengan larutan garam, ➔mengendap ➔ terjadi sedimentasi.
b) Air laut menguap karena peristiwa alam (mongering perlahan-lahan).

Penguapan air laut menghasilkan garam-garam sebagai berikut ;

1. CaCo3 = Calcium Carbonate
2. Gypsum (Gips) = CaSO4 . 2H2O
3. Garam dapur (Halite) = NaCl
4. Bahan padat bernama Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
Karena reaksi : 2CaCO3 + Mg++ ➔ CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca++
Karbonat Mg++ terlarut dolomite

Semua garam-garam tersebut berbentuk padat ➔ mengendap ➔ membatu ➔ membentuk

sedimentary rock (batuan sedimen)
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RINGKASAN MINERAL-MINERAL PEMBENTUK BATUAN SEDIMEN
(YANG ASALNYA DARI MINERAL BATUAN BEKU)
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BATUAN SEDIMEN YANG ASALNYA BUKAN PRODUCT LANGSUNG DARI
BATUAN BEKU.

BATU BARA (Coal)

Mula-mula tumbuh-tumbuhan→mati→membusuk → tanah gambut (peat)→ penumpukan →
tekanan yang besar → membatu (batu bara) → Coal

JENIS BATU BARA:

- Lignite : Batu bara muda, kadar arang (carbon) < 75%
- Bituminous Coal : Kadar Carbon 80 – 90%
- Anthracite : Batu bara Tua, kadar karbon 90 – 95%
 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
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24 THREE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

a. Clastic,
b. Chemical, and
c. Biochemical
They are identified by materials that make up the rock and / or process
by which they formed.
 PENGANTAR GEOLOGI DTS-ITS Sepetember 2022

a. CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

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1st. Stage of Formation: GENERATION

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2nd. Stage of Formation: TRANSPORTATION

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3rd. Stage of Formation: LITHIFICATION

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Clastic Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rock

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Rock names reflect on grain size
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Clastic Sedimentary Rock Names Based on Grain Size

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31 Clastic Sedimentary Rock Names Based on Grain Size

 b. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
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 b. CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Cont’)
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c. BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

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c. BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Cont’)

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c. BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Cont’)

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c. BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Cont’)

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c. BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Cont’)

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 SEDIMENTARY ROCK AND FOSSIL FUEL
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 SEDIMENTARY ROCK AND COAL
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 41

SOIL FORMATION
 42
SOIL FORMATION

Based on the formation process, there are

3 types of soil:

1. SEDIMENTARY SOIL
2. RESIDUAL SOIL
3. FILL SOIL – done by human
 SEDIMENTARY SOIL: 43
The individual particles were created at one location, transported, and finally deposited at
another location.
1. Sediment Formation: the formation of sediment is by the physical and chemical weathering of
rocks on the surface of the earth. Generally silt, sand, and gravel sized particles are
formed by the physical weathering of rocks and clay-sized particles are formed by the
chemical weathering of rocks.
2. Sediment Transportation: sediments can be transported by any of five agents (they are water,
air, ice, gravity, and organisms). The effects of transportation on sediments are Alters
particle shape, size, and texture by abrasion, grinding, impact, solution; sorts the
particles.
3. Sediment Deposition: the particles are deposited to form sedimentary soil. The causes of
deposition in water are: -
 velocity reduction, solubility decrease, and electrolyte increase.
 44

SEDIMENTARY SOIL
ERODED, TRANSPORTED, AND DEPOSITED BY WATER

ALLUVIAL SOIL
THE GRAND CANYON NATIONAL PARK, DI ARIZONA, USA
THE ZION NATIONAL
PARK, UTAH, USA
THE BRYCE CANYON NATIONAL PARK, UTAH, USA
NGARAI SIANOK, SUMATRA BARAT,
INDONESIA
DAS (Daerah Aliran Sungai) Brantas
dan Delta S. Brantas
 61

SEDIMENTARY SOIL
ERODED, TRANSPORTED, AND DEPOSITED BY ICE

GLACIAL SOIL
ATHABASCA GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, ALBERTA,
CANADA
ALETSCH GLACIERS, SWISS
Rhone Glaciers, Swiss
GLACIERS BAY NATIONAL PARK, ALASKA,USA
 69

SEDIMENTARY SOIL
ERODED, TRANSPORTED, AND DEPOSITED BY WIN

AEOLIAN SOIL
THE GREAT SAND DUNE NATIONAL PARK,
COLORADO, USA
BUKIT-BUKIT PASIR DI GURUN SAHARA, AFRIKA
AEOLIAN DEPOSIT
 75
RESIDUAL SOIL

 Residual soil results when the products of rocks weathering are not transported
as sediments but accumulate in place. If the rate of rock decomposition exceeds
the rate of removal of the products of decomposition, an accumulation of
residual soil results.

 The factors influencing the rate of weathering are: climatic (like temperature
and rainfall), time, type of source rock, vegetation, drainage, and bacterial
activity.
THE YOSEMITE NATIONAL, PARK, CALIFORNIA, USA
THE DEVIL’S TOWER, WYOMING, USA
THE MOUNT RUSHMORE NATIONAL MONUMENT, SOUTH DAKOTA,
USA
FILL 81

 Fill is man-made soil deposit. A fill is actually a “sedimentary” deposit for which man
carried out all of the formation processes.

 The fill soil can be left as dumped (such as rock toe in the earth dam), or can be
processed and densified – compacted – as for the core in the earth dam.

 Borrow Soil: is the soil obtained from a source or made by blasting, transported by land
vehicle (such as truck, scraper, pan or bulldozer) or water vehicle (barge) or pipe, and
then deposited by dumping.
 82

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION
The TYPE of SOIL developed depends on:
1. PARENT MATERIAL
2. CLIMATE
3. VEGETATION (LIFE)
4. TOPOGRAPHY
5. TIME
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION:
“PARENT MATERIAL”
PARENT MATERIAL – broken up rocks that start to process by WEATHERING

1. RESIDUAL SOILS - are soils formed in PLACE

 Less common
 Form SLOWLY from weathering
2. TRANSPORTED SOILS –soils that have been
TRANSPORTED and DEPOSITED from the
original site to another
 more common

 Form FASTER

 GLACIAL ICE

 WIND

 WATER

 GRAVITY

 VOLCANIC ACTION
3. CUMULOSE SOILS – soils that accumulate in one
spot
 Usually formed under WATERLOGGED conditions

 Containing > 20% organic matter

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION:
“CLIMATE”
– CLIMATE
• Temperature
– Decreased Temp >>> decreases weathering >>> soil forms slower
– Decreased Temp >>> decreases decomposition >>> increases OM overall

• Rainfall
– Increased rainfall >>>increases leaching of nutrients
– Increased rainfall >>>increases plants >>> increases OM
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION:
“VEGETATION (LIFE)”
 VEGETATION (LIFE)
 PLANTS affect soils
GRASSLANDS vs. FORESTS
 SOIL BIOLOGY – all sorts of ORGANISMS that aid in
mixing, OM decomposition, holding and releasing of
WATER and NUTRIENTS
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION:
“TOPOGRAPHY”

 TOPOGRAPHY- lay of the land

 SLOPE – steepness of site
 ASPECT – which direction the slope faces
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION:
“TIME”

- TIME
 The longer the TIME, the
MORE DEVELOPED the
SOIL PROFILE
 0 year – when soil first
exposed to atmosphere
 YOUNGER SOILS show
fewer layers in the profile
 OLD SOILS show more
layers
 91

SOIL PROFILE
SOIL PROFILE

To Study Soil Profile, It dig a pit called a PEDON (3’

x 3’ x 5’ deep)
 SOILSchange over time in
response to 4 processes…
 ADDITIONS
 LOSSES
 TRANLOCATIONS
 TRANSFORMATIONS
 Because of these processes… LAYERS are formed in
soils called HORIZONS
 95

PENGARUH KECEPATAN ALIRAN TERHADAP

UKURAN BUTIRAN YANG TERBENTUK
BAHAN-BAHAN SEDIMENTASI MENURUT TEMPATNYA
 97

SOIL COMPOSITION
 Soil Composition:

Soil is a mixture of four materials:

Weathered rock particles (Main ingredient)
It has been discussed earlier

Organic matter (5 Percent)

Water (20 to 30 percent of soil)

Air (20 to 30 percent of soil)

Organic Matter
 The word Organic means, “coming from living organisms.”
 It comes from the remains and waste products of plants,
animals, and other living organisms.
 (example: leaves fall to the forest floor, decay, and
become part of the soil.)
 This decayed organic matter is called Humus.
 SOIL TYPE
There are four world soil types
1. Tropical Soils
2. Desert Soils
3. Temperate Soils
4. Arctic Soils
Climate will control what types of soil you find in that area.
The shape of the land also affects soil. Mountainous regions can be very
different from soils found in valleys.
 TROPICAL SOIL

 Tropical soils form in warm

and rainy regions. Heavy
rains wash away minerals,
leaving only a thin surface
layer of Humus.
 Tropical soils are not suitable
for growing most crops.
 DESERT SOIL

 Desert Soils form in dry

regions. These soils are
shallow and contain little
organic matter. With low
rainfall and chemical
weathering, soil formation
occur very slowly.
 TEMPERATE SOIL

 Temperate soils form in

regions with moderate
rainfall and temperatures.
Some temperate soils are
dark colored, rich in organic
matter and minerals. This
soil is good for growing
crops.
 ARCTIC SOIL

 Arctic soils form in cold,

dry regions where
chemical weathering is
slow. They usually don’t
have well developed
horizons.
Kind of soil depends on many
factors
 The kind of rock in the area
 The area’s climate or weather pattern
 The landforms in the area
 The plant cover in the area
 The animals and other organisms.
 Time (how long it has to form.)
Layers Upon Layers

 Soil Horizon: is a layer of soil with properties that are different from
those of the layer above.
 Soil Profile: in any location there can be different horizons that make
up a profile.
Basic Soil Profile
O Horizon - The top, organic
layer of soil, made up mostly of
leaf litter and humus
A Horizon - The layer called
topsoil; is made up of humus
mixed with mineral particles.
E Horizon - This layer is light in
color; It is made up mostly of sand
and silt, having lost most of its
minerals and clay as water drips
through the soil
Old B Horizon - Also called the
Al subsoil - It contains clay and
Eats mineral deposits (like iron,
Beans aluminum oxides, and calcium
Corn and carbonate).
Rhubarb C Horizon - slightly broken-up
bedrock
R Horizon - The unweathered
rock (bedrock) layer that is
beneath all the other layers.
 Soil Horizons
 O Horizon - The top, organic layer of soil, made up mostly
of leaf litter and humus
 A Horizon - The layer called topsoil; is made up of humus
mixed with mineral particles. (black soil)
 E Horizon - This layer is light in color; It is made up mostly of
sand and silt, having lost most of its minerals and clay as
water drips through the soil
 B Horizon - Also called the subsoil - It contains clay and
mineral deposits (like iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium
carbonate).
 C Horizon - slightly broken-up bedrock
 R Horizon - The unweathered rock (bedrock) layer that is
beneath all the other layers.
 Properties of Soil

Texture:
Color:
Pore
Space:
Chemistry:
 Soil Texture

 A soil’s texture Is determined by the size of weathered rock particles.

 The particles are classified as either
 Sand- the largest particle, gritty feeling, doesn’t hold water well.
 Silt – smaller, is smooth and silky when wet, it holds water better than
sand.
 Clay- The smallest, sticky when wet, absorbs the most water. (dries very
hard.)
  Dirt Knowledge
 Not all dirt is the same. Based on it's
components the suitability for planting can
be very different.
 Things like a very high clay content may
mean it holds water very well or if there is
too much clay then it could actually
create a real problem and not allow any
water to pass creating ponding.
 Too high a sand content can cause the
opposite effect It will not hold enough
water to support the plant in hot weather
or high wind.
 Silt is an in-between situation in that it's
particle size is smaller than sand, it is less
plastic than clay and often has a higher
organic content associated with it.
 What are the differences between the two soils, think about how soil
is made.
 Soil Color

 The color of the soil is a clue to it’s other properties.

 Black or brown soils usually contain a lot of humus.
 Reddish soil usually contains more Iron.
Different Soils:

 Different soils are made of different ingredients

and different amounts.
 (Black soil- which is much darker tends to have
more humus, or decayed organic matter.)
 Black soil- also contains more water.
 The combination of these two things make
darker soil much better for growing things.
 Pore Space

 Pore space
is the space between soil particles.
has two things, Air and Water
 Plants will grow the best when the
pore space has 50% air and 50%
water.
 Soil Chemistry

 The water in soil has a specific PH level.

This term PH is a measurement of acidity.

When water reaches a certain PH level,
it is best to help plants grow.
By knowing this about soil, farmers can
make soil more acidic or less acidic to
help plants grow.
PH scale and nutrient availability
Test the two soil’s PH

 Follow the instructions carefully.

 Inthe clear tube, pour 3 ml of the pH indicator
solution.
 Put only a small pinch (1 ml) of soil into the tube.
 Put the cap on the tube and shake for 30 seconds.
 Allow the soil to settle and the solution should
change colors.
 Compare the color of the solution to the Ph color
chart.
 How would being about to do this be useful?
(summary)