INFORMATION TO USERS

This reproduction was made from a copy of a manuscript sent to us for publication
and microfilming. While the m ost advanced technology has been used to pho­
tograph and reproduce this manuscript, the quality of the reproduction is heavily
dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. Pages in any manuscript
may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed.

The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify notations which

may appear on this reproduction.

1. Manuscripts may not always be complete. When it is not possible to obtain

missing pages, a note appears to indicate this.

2. When copyrighted materials are removed from the manuscript, a note ap­
pears to indicate this.

3. Oversize materials (maps, drawings, and charts) are photographed by sec­

tioning the original, b ^ in n in g at the upper left hand comer and continu­
ing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each oversize
page is also filmed as one exposure and is available, for an additional
charge, as a standard 35mm slide or in black and white paper format.*

4. Most photographs reproduce acceptabfy on positive microfilm or micro­

fiche but lack clarify on xerographic copies made from the microfilm. For
an additional charge, all photographs are available in black and white
standard 35mm slide format. *

*For more information about black and white slides or enlarged paper reproductions,
please contact the Dissertations Customer Services Department

UmvETsity
A&axmlms
ùtenmüomal
 8504589

Rahmani, Monireh

ETHNOGRAPHY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE: AN ETHNOLINGUISTIC SURVEY

OF THE GILAKI LANGUAGE

The University of Oklahoma Ph.D. 1985

University
Microfilms
Internâtionâl 300 N. Z eet Road, Ann Artwr, Ml48106

Copyright 1985
by
Rahmani, Monireh
All Rights Reserved
 TH2 OHIVEBSITI OP OKLAHOMA

6BAD0AÎÊ COLLEGE

ETENÔÛBÂPMÏ O r LANGUAGE CHANGE

AN ETBBOLINGDISTIC SOBVET OP THE GILAKI LANGUAGE

A OISSEFTATION

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE COLLEGE FACULTY

in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e re q u ire m e n t f o r th e

degree of

DOCTOB OF PHILOSOPHY

By

HONIBEH BAHMANI

Norman, O k la h o m a

1985
 ETBKOGBâPBT OP lABGDAGE CHANGE

AN ETHHOLINGOISTIC SOFVEI OF THE GILAKI LANGUAGE

A pp ro ve d By

p / A Li

^ -M .

DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
 (c) 1985

H O S I P E R PAHHANI

ALL E I G H T S RESERVED
 COHTEITS

L I S T OF T I B L B S ........................................................................................................i v

ACEBOflLEDSEBEHTS .......................................................................................... v ii

CHAPTER page

I. IBTBODOCTIOB . . . 1

S ta te m e n t of t h e Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Language and The R a t i o n a l Q u e s tio n • • • • . . 4
LANGUAGE CHANGE IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTEIT . . 6

II. LITEBATOBE R E T I E l ................................................. 15

L in g u is tic C la s s if ic a tio n of G ilaki . . . . . . 26

III. B I S T O R T ........................................................................................................ 29

O rig in o f G ilaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
H is to ry of C o n ta c ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5

IT . THE GILAKI LANGUAGE ........................................................... * 8

In tro d u ctio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
I n v e n to ry of B asic Sounds . . . . . . . . . 4 9
T o w e ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
C onsonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 0
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
Towels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
C onsonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6
Consonant C l u s t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8
S y llab le S tru ctu re . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3
P honological P ro cesses . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4
Towels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4
C onsonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6

T. MORPHOLOGY A5D S 7 S T A I ....................................... _ . . ^ . c ?0

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0
Word F o r m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0
R eduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0
Compounding . . . . . . . . . ..................... 77
A ffix atio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6
Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6

-ii-
 The P r e f i x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
In fix es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2
Bonn P h r a s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3
T h e Roan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3
The P r o n o u n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4
P e r s o n a l pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5
D em onstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . 9 5
I n t e r r o g a t i v e Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . 9 8
I n d e f in ite Pronoss . . . . . . . . . . ICC
R e flex iv e Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . 101
Houn B o d i f i e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1C6
B u rn e ra ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
D eterm iners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
P lu ral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
U niversal Q u a n tifie rs . . . . . . . . . 109
In d e fin ite Q uan tifiers . . . . . . . . 109
R elativ e C lauses . . . . . . . . . . . 110
The A d j e c t i v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
C om parative A d je c tiv e . . . . . . . . . 113
A d p o s itio n s ( P r e p o s i t i o n s and
Postpositions) . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
P ostposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
P repositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Verb P h r a s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
T h e V e r b ....................................................................................... 122
Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
A spect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
M odality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
N egation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
P assive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Verb M o d i f i e r s (Adverbs) . . . . . . . . . 141
Adverb o f tim e . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
L ocative adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . 143
A d v e r b o f M anner . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Adverb o f f r e q u e n c y . . . . . . . . . . 145
I n te n s if ie r adverbs . . . . . . . . . . 145
in te rro g a tiv e adverbs . . . . . . . . . 145
N e g a tio n a l Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . 146
The C l a u s e 147
Th e S u b j e c t ............................................................................. 149
The O b j e c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Word O r d e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Order o f M o d ifie rs . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
C onjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Compound C l a u s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
D e l e t i o n of P a r t s o f Speech . . . . . . . 162
D ir e c t/I n d ir e c t speech . . . . . . . . . . 166

V I. ETHNIC POLICIES I I IBA9 ( 1 9 2 0 TO 1 9 7 8 ) ..................... 167

Tran and n o r l d # a t x . . . . . . . . . . . . *68

R e z a Sha h (1925 t o 1 9 4 1 ) .................................................... 172
Mohammad R e z a Sha h (1941 t o 1978) . . . . . . 177
N ational L ib e ra tio n M o v e m e n ts . . . . . . . . 178

-iii-
 R e o c o l o o i a l P o l i c y - O i l Er a . . . . . . . . . 182

V II. THE SOCIAL STATOS 0 1 CILAXI ..................................190

In tro d u ctio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Hot hodoXoQy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
I n v e s tig a t iv e Procédures in to th e S o c ia l
S t a t u s o f G i l a k i .....................................................191

V III. LAHG0A6E C H A H G E ................................................................................... 21*

In tro d u ctio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21*

oêL U V U V ixO g/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 13
I m p a c t s o f O u t s i d e C o n t a c t s on G i l a k i . . . . 217
lo a n w o rd s ( L e x i c a l Borrowing) . . . . . . 217
Lo a n T r a n s l a t i o n ( c a i q u e ) . . . . . . . . 229
C h a n g e s i n t h e Sound S y s t e m : Phonology . 230
I n t e r n a l Sound Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
M orphology and S y n ta x . . . . . . . . . . . 235
S tab le P a rts of G ilaki . . . . . . . . . . 2*1
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2*1

II. C O I C L O S I O B S ...................................................................... 2**

Im p licatio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Appendix page

A. GLOTTOCBBOHOLOGT OT GILAKI BITH OTHER IRABIAI

LAHGOAGES.................................................................................. 25*

B. S U S V E T S ........................................................................................................261

C. 1982 IHT5BVIBB QOESTIOBKAIBE ................................................ 262

D. T A L E S .............................................................................................................265

B1BII0GBAPH7 ..................................................................................................... 270

-IV -
 L IS T OP TABLES

T ables Page

1 - co rrelatio n o f tc -'c Is according to a lf f e r e o t

s t u d i e s on G i l a k i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2. B asic consonants of G ila k i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. C o a b in a tio n s o f c o n so n a n ts in m edial p o s i t i o n . . . . . 60

0. C om binations of c o n so n a n ts in f i n a l p o s i t i o n . . . . . . 61

5. Noun c a s e s i n G i l a k i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6 . P e rs o n a l pronouns in G ilaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

7. D em o n strativ e pronouns in G ila k i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

8 . Sam ples o f t h e q u e s t i o n s and r e s p o n s e s . . . . . . . . . . 195

9. Sam pleso f t h e q u e s t i o n s a nd a n s w e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

10. Sam ples o f t h e q u e s t i o n s and a n s w e r s .................... 193

11. T e st o fG ilaks a t t i t u d e s tow ard j o k e s a b o u t th e m .. 20O

12 . Com parison o f F a r s i and G i l a k i i n r e s p e c t t o

change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

- Y -
 U S S R

T ^ r .n •'•-

Isfahan

Kuwait

- V I -
 w <9 « O 11

G IL A N

- VIX -
 ICEIOVLEDGEBEITS

T h i s work i s the r e s u lt of t w e n t y y e a r s o f s t u d y t o w a r d un­

d e r s t a n d i n g la n g u ag e change and a d e v e lo p i n g r e s p e c t f o r t h e

language and c u l t u r e of the d iffe re n t eth n ic/n atio n ality

groups in Ir a n .

The c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o v i d e s me w i t h

an o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o a l a r g e g r o u p of

p e o p l e who h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o th is work a n d h a v e s u p p o r t e d

me i n my e f f o r t s throughout.

I am d e e p l y g r a t e f u l t o P r o f e s s o r J o h n Dunn f o r many

reasons. It w o u ld h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o c o m p l e t e t h i s re­

sea rc h w ithout h is h e lp . As my t e a c h e r he b r o a d e n e d my p e r ­

s p e c t i v e tow ards l i n g u i s t i c s and a s my a d v i s o r he p a t i e n t l y

a n d c a r e f u l l y g u i d e d me i n my r e s e a r c h f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g i n

t h e F a l l o f 1981 t o i t s c o m p l e t i o n Summer 1985.

I m u s t e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o members o f my d i s ­

s e r t a t i o n com m ittee; J o h n Moore, Dragon H i l i v o j e v i c , S te­

phen Thompson, and J a n e L a n c a s t e r , f o r t h e i r encouragement

and g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h t h i s s t u d y . I owe p a r t i c u l a r t h a n k s t o

J o h n M oo re, fo r his v a lu ab le c o n tr ib u tio n t o t h i s s t u d y and

h is th e o re tic a l guidance t h r o u g h my years of study a t the

U n i v e r s i t y o f O k la ho m a.

- v iii -
 I wish t o thank th e g ra d u a te c o lle g e f o r providing

me w i t h l i b r a r y r e s e a r c h f u n d s w hic h e n a b l e d me t o c o m p l e t e

t h i s p ro ject.

In a d d itio n , I am g r a t e f u l t o my h u s b a n d R e h d i f o r -

o u g h i r a d i n a num be r o f w a y s : a s a G ilak [ n a tiv e of Gilan)

he has in flu e n c e d my f e e l i n g s o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e G i l a k i l a n ­

guage, a s my c o l l e a g u e h e h a s w o r k e d w i t h me i n p r e p a r i n g a

G ila k i-E n g lis h d ic tio n a r y of about 4500 e n t r i e s ( s t a r t e d in

D e cem be r 1 9 7 9 ; th is project is s t i l l u n d e r w a y ) , a n d he h a s

a s s i s t e d me i n p e r f o r m i n g f i e l d work i n B a s h t a n d X o s b i j a r .

Above a l l , I w ish t o th an k him n o t o n l y f o r p r o v i d i n g me

w ith th e books and o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e on G ila k i- - h e searched

in Iran f o r any a v a i l a b l e piece of l i t e r a t u r e ab o ut G ilan

and G i l a k s an d m a i l e d them t o me— b u t a l s o f o r h i s e x t r a o r ­

dinary patien ce and f o r th e f in a n c ia l support th a t he has

g i v e n me t h r o u g h o u t my y e a r s o f s t u d y i n t h e O n t i e d S t a t e s .

I have a v e ry s p e c i a l thank you f o r my son A t t i l a

a n d my d a u g h t e r , Asmar fo r th e ir p atien ce, understanding,

love, and c o o p e r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h i s s t u d y , e s p e c i a l l y Asmar

who t y p e d t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

- II -
 CBIPTEB I

IITBODOCTIOH

1= 1 STITEMEST Q? ÎH 2 PHOBLSg

D u rin g t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y one o f t h e f o c a l p o i n t s

of lin g u istic a n t h r o p o l o g y h a s be en th e study of language

change. A n th ro p o lo g is ts b e lie v e t h a t language can r e v e a l a

p e o p le 's h is to ry even more su re ly than a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ma­

terials, and th e y assume t h a t i n la n g u a g e th ere are liv e ,

v i v i d , and u n s t a b l e f o s s i l s — phonem es, m o rp h e m e s, sentenc­

e s — through which th e y can study p eoples' an cien t h is to ­

ries. The l i n g u i s t i c a n th ro p o lo g is t's major c o n c e rn in

s tu d y in g la n g u a g e change i s to in v e s tig a te the d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f a la n g u ag e and i t s genetic c la s s if ic a tio n to give in s ig h t

t o p o p u l a t i o n movements, t r a d e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n q u e s t s , and

o t h e r forms o f c o n t a c t betw een s p e a k e r s o f v a r io u s id io m s .

G ilan, a province in n o rth ern Iran, is l o c a t e d on

th e southern c o ast o f t h e C a s p i a n S e a a nd has a p o pulation

o f approxim ately 1.5 m i l l i o n . S e v e n ty - f iv e p e r c e n t of the

population i s G i l a k , and t h e i r la n g u a g e i s G i l a k i .

G i l a n h a s b e e n an a r e a o f e x t e n s i v e c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n

speakers of d iffe re n t languages, in c lu d in g T urkish {Mongol-

— 1 —
 2

Turks, 1307-1370 A . D . ) , B ussian (1723-1730 I . D . ) , E nglish,

and o t h e r E uropean l a n g u a g e s . These c o n t a c t s r e s u l t e d f r o n

c o n q u e st, dom ination, c o l o n iz a tio n , and tr a d e . Furtherm ore,

t h e k in g s o f I r a n have i n th e p a s t f o r c i b l y e x i l e d t o G ilan

several d iffe re n t ethnic groups— Kurds, Armenians ,and

Jews.

G ila k i belongs t o the n o r th w e s te r n group o f I r a n i a n

languages. It i s e s p e c ia lly i n t e r e s t i n g because i t has a

d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n of s y n t a x when c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r c o n t e m p o ­

r a r y Ir a n ia n languages. It i s a l s o unique in r e s p e c t to i t s

cu ltu rally s p e c ific term in o lo g ies. G ilaki i s of i n t e r e s t to

s o c io l i n g u i s t s because i t is c o n s i d e r e d by n o n - G ila k I r a n i ­

ans t o be "in fe rio r" to F a rsi, w hi ch i s the o f f i c i a l lan­

guage o f t h e I r a n i a n governm ent. It i s l o o k e d up o n as a

c o r r u p t e d form o f F a r s i by P a r s , and i t s use im p lie s a lack

o f m anliness to F a r s i s p e a k e rs . Because o f th e s e a t t i t u d e s

t o w a r d i t G i l a k i h a s c h a n g e d more r a p i d l y t h a n o t h e r I r a n i a n

languages, and i t has F a r s i z e d s i n c e th e beginning of th e

tw e n tie th cen tu ry .

Th e a b o v e h i s t o r i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c evidence i n d i ­

c a t e s t h a t G i l a n w ould b e a good l a b o r a t o r y f o r t e s t i n g t h e

mechanism o f lan gu ag e change and t h e co n tin u ity th a t has

m aintained thro u g h ou t c o n t a c t s w ith s p e a k e r s of other lan­

guages.
 3

My h y p o t h e s i s is th at s o c io p o litic a l pressure has

played a m ajor ro le in language acculturation in G ilan.

Furtherm ore, in tern al lin g u istic change and s o c i o p o l i t i c a l

pressure from w ithout in teract dynam ically to produce

change. Thus, a h i s t o r i c a l and d i a l e c t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e

p o l i c i e s pursued by v a r i o u s I r a n i a n governm ents during the

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a s r e g a r d s n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s may l e a d t o

g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m e c h a n is m o f c h a n g e .

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e n , i s n o t o n l y t o un­

derstand G ila k i, but to assess the e ffe cts of d ifferen t

forms o f c o n ta c t — m a te r ia l, i d e o l o g i c a l , s p i r i t u a l — through

conguest, c o lo n iz a tio n , an d m i g r a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e more

s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s of G i l a k i l a n g u a g e change. I also in ­

t e n d t o a s c e r t a i n which p a r t s o f th e la n g u a g e h av e u n dergone

th e g r e a t e s t change and which p a r t s have r e m a i n e d t h e mos t

stab le. I hope t o g i v e a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f some o f t h e c u l ­

t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t o b t a i n between G ila k s and P a rs so to

prom ote an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f G i l a k s t h a t may help to e lim i­

n a te th e condescending a t t i t u d e s h e ld to w a rd s them.
 4

1.2 LIlSOIGg tlD THE llTIOHAl QOESTIOM

Language has an im portant value a s a symbol o f na­

t i o n a l a nd e t h n i c i d e n t i t y . Language a s a b a s i c component

of a nation i s th e product of the n a tio n 's coarse of h is to ­

ry. 1 h i s t o r i c a l review o f m u l ti n a t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s in the

M iddle E a s t , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e s o f n a t i o n a l minor­

i t i e s have had a p a r a l l e l d e v e lo p m e n t w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n of

n a t i o n s which i s c l o s e l y t i e d t o th e n a t i o n a l q u e s t i o n .

The d e v e l o p m e n t of the n a tio n a l question and la n ­

guage in th e M id d le-E a st, especially I r a n may b e c o n s i d e r e d

in three stag es: t h e f i r s t i s fe u d a lis m and independency o r

sem i-independency o f th e n a t i o n a l / e t h n i c groups t h a t a s s o c i­

a t e l a n g u a g e w ith c u l t u r a l autonomy.

Th e s e c o n d s t a g e is the period of th e esta b lish m e n t

of cap italism and t h e d e c l i n e of feudalism , the epoch o f

transform ation of many n a t i o n a l i t i e s in to a sin g le nation

state. In t h i s era c o lo n ia l powers a t t e m p t t o c o n s o l i d a t e

t h e i r i n f l u e n c e by s u p p o r t i n g a c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t t h a t r e p ­

r e s e n t s o n l y on e n atio n ality . The n e w l y f o r m e d n atio n is

not the o b je c tiv e outcom e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l fo rm a tio n of a

state; rath er, it is artificia lly f o r m e d on th e b a s is of

prescribed p o litic a l boundaries, and i s u s u a l l y a b l i n d / n a r ­

row n a t i o n a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t t h a t must t a k e c o n t r a d i c t o r y po­

sitio n s in regards to the sp e c ia l in te re sts th at it pro­

 5

m otes. In o rd e r to suppress other n a tio n a l m inorities

w ith in the boundaries o f th e s t a t e and t o unify i t s people

around a new p r e s c r i b e d nationalism , the new c e n t r a l i z e d

power p l a y s t h e r o l e o f a n a t i o n a l i s t i c governm ent p rom oting

natio n al in te re s ts , w hile rem aining subservient to outside

c o l o n i a l powers.

T h i s new n a t i o n a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t i s unconcerned w ith

the so c ia l needs of i t s people; it subordinates a l l such

concerns to a n a t io n a lis t ic p o sture. H ow e v e r, a t t h e same

tim e i t prom otes the in-group as being su p erio r in all

t h i n g s and s u b j u g a t e s and n e g le c ts th e r i g h t s o f o t h e r na­

tio n alities w ithin i t s boundaries. T his re su lts in the

w o r s t k in d o f n a t i o n a l c h a u v i n i s m , u n d e r which t h e l a n g u a g e s

and c u l t u r e of other n a tio n a l m in o rities are subjected to

h u m i l i a t i o n and a s s e r t i o n s o f t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y .

The t h i r d s t a g e i s t h e p e r i o d o f t h e s p r e a d o f c a p i ­

talism in search o f a homogeneous consum er s o c i e t y and i t s

form ation in to im p erialism . It is th e epoch of i n t e r n a t i o n ­

a l i z a t i o n o f c a p i t a l and l a b o r i n which d e v e lo p e d c a p i t a l i s ­

tic powers evolve i n t o a n e o c o l o n i a l sy ste m which in turn

creates a w orld m arket t h a t n o t only c o n s o l i d a t e s th e nation

econom ically as a consumer community b u t also e s ta b lis h e s

econom ic t i e s between a l l nations th a t u l t i m a t e l y form a

w o rld economic s y s te m . T h i s l e a d s t o c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m which

 6

stan d s against a ny n a t i o n a l u n i t y . It j u s t i f i e s economic

and p o l i t i c a l sn b m issiv e n e ss tow ard th e exp an sionist p o li­

c i e s o f t h e g r e a t w orld pow ers u n d e r t h e p r e t e x t o f abandon­

in g n a tio n a l d iffe re n c e s [K onstantinov e t a l . 1974:396-401).

C osm opolitanism r e s u l t s in a ho m o g e n e o u s consumer

w orld o f a c c u I t e r a t e d n a t i o n s in which p r e s t i g e i s g i v e n t o

t h e l a n g u a g e and c u ltu re of the o u tsid e dom inating powers.

The outcom e o f c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m , t h e n , i s a n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f

t h e l a n g u a g e and c u l t u r e o f n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s and e v en e n ­

tire nations. For a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c o n n e c tio n

b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e and the n a tio n a l q u estio n o f n a t i o n a l mi­

n o r i t i e s se e chapter 6 o f t h i s study.

1 .3 LAHGOIGE CHANGE IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTEXT

Language change has been w id ely s t u d i e d , a n d many

s c h o l a r s have p u t f o r t h c o n t r a s t i n g e x p la n a tio n s of th e pro­

c e s s o f c h a n g e b a s e d on t h e i r v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s .

U n t i l t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ­

r i e s th ese stu d ies of l a n g u a g e s and language change were

gen erally re s tric te d t o a c o m p a r a t i v e a p p r o a c h t h a t w as u s e d

in the stu d y and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of Indo-European and o t h e r

language fa m ilie s . F erdinand de S aussure (1867-1913), a

Sw iss l i n g u i s t , was t h e f i r s t t o i n t r o d u c e a m a j o r s h i f t i n

e m p h a s i s by t u r n i n g from t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o m e t h o d s
 7

of recording and d e s c r i b i n g i n d i v i d u a l la n g u a g e s . He saw

each language as a sy ste m i n which every p art r e l a t e s to

every o th e r p a r t. H ow ev e r, h i s view o f l a n g u a g e c h a n g e was

as a process

a p p l y i n g n o t d i r e c t l y t o t h e s y s te m a s a whole b u t
only t o i n d i v i d u a l e le m e n ts of i t , and t h i s i n
c o m p l e t e l y u n m o tiv a te d and f o r t u i t o u s f a s h i o n , is
a resu lt, alth o u g h each i n d iv id u a l change w i l l
b r i n g a b o u t a new s y n c h r o n i c s y s t e m c a p a b l e o f d e ­
s c r i p t i o n i n s t r u c t u r a l i s t t e r s e , t h e r e L z no s n c h
m e a n in g fu l r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u c c e s s i v e lan­
guage s t a t e s and l a n g u a g e c h a n g e i s t h e r e f o r e n o t
am enable t o d e s c r i p t i o n in term s of th e system s.
( J a k o b s o n 1 9 7 2 a ; 122)

American s t r u c t u r a l i s t s B lo o m f i e l d (1933) a n d H oc k-

e tt (1958) m a i n t a i n t h a t l i n g u i s t i c c h a n g e i s t o o slow t o be

d ir e c tly observable over a r e la tiv e ly s h o r t p eriod o f tim e.

T h e y vie w lan g u ag e as d i s t i n c t and s e p a r a b l e from other

system s o f b e h av io r, and th e y d e s c r i b e a language w ithout

any p a rtic u la r reference to the so cial context in w hi c h

speaking ta k e s p la c e . I n s u m m a ry , t h e y v i e w c h a n g e a s v a r i ­

ous u t t e r a n c e s w i t h no t e m p o r a l , sp atial, or so c ia l order.

On t h e o t h e r ha nd s o c i o l i n g u i s t s v ie w l a n g u a g e a s " a

for m o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o r " (Labov 1 9 7 2 a ; 1 8 3 ) , and t h e y i n v e s ­

t i g a t e language change in i t s s o c ia l c o n tex ts giving c lo se

a tte n tio n to s o c ia l f a c t o r s and t h e use of a c tu a l perform ­

ance data in e x p la in in g change. They m aintain th a t the

study o f ongoing change i s a p ra c tic a l stra teg y to use in

in terp retin g h i s t o r i c a l changes t h a t have tak en p la c e .

 8

Th e various areas of so cio lin g u istics are:

m icro lin g u istics, which d e a l s w ith t h e v a r i a t i o n i n language

w i t h i n a s p e e c h community i n r e la tio n to sex , age, educa­

tio n , n atio n al o rig in , and g ro u p s which c o m p ris e t h e s o c i o l ­

o g i c a l sakeup of the c o m m u n i t y an d m a c r o l i n g u i s t i c s w h ic h

d e a l s w ith l a r g e - s c a l e s o c i a l f a c t o r s such a s " t h e s o c io lo g y

o f la n g u a g e " and th e m utual i n t e r a c t i o n w ith l a n g u a g e s an d

dialects. Fishman J1 972 : 1) s a y s :

th e s o c io lo g y o f a language exam ines t h e i n t e r a c ­

t i o n between ... t w o a s p e c t s o f human b e h a v i o r :
use o f l a n g u a g e and t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f b e ­
h av io r.... The s o c i o l o g y o f l a n g u a g e f o c u s e s up o n
t h e e n t i r e g a m ut o f t o p i c s r e l a t e d t o the s o c i a l
o rg a n iz a tio n of language b e h a v io r, in clu d in g not
only lan g u ag e u sag e p e r se but also a ttitu d e s ,
o v ert behavior tow ard la n g u a g e , an d tow ard l a n ­
guage u s e r s .

Scholars in t h i s area of so cio lin g u istics ( F is h m a n

1969; B e l l 1976) a t t e m p t t o d e a l w i t h many p r a c t i c a l p r o b ­

lem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith la n g u a g e p la n n in g , b i l i n g u a l i s m , stan­

d a r d i z a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e , an d r a p i d c h a n g e o r a s s i m i l a t i o n o f

m in o rity languages. I t i s t h i s perspective of so c io lin g u is­

t i c s t h a t I w ill ap p ly in t h i s study.

H isto rical lin g u is ts (Lehman 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 8 2 ; By non 1977)

have added a h i s t o r i c a l (diachronic) dim ension t o th e in v e s ­

tig a tio n of language change. They b e l i e v e t h a t language

c h a n g e can be s t u d i e d o v e r tim e as a system in continuity

and a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e h i s t o r y an d d e v e l o p m e n t o f c e r t a i n

lan g u ag es o r groups o f lan g u ag es.

 A tw o-fold s tr a te g y fo r the in v e s tig a tio n
o f lan g u ag e change i s n e c e s s a ry : F irstly
we Bust s t u d y i t s re su lts as abstracted
fr o m t h e gram m atical d e s c r ip tio n of suc­
c e s s iv e language s t a t e s ; a n d , . . . o f r e l a t e d
languages; an d s e c o n d l y we m u s t i n v e s t i ­
g a t e t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e a s an
o n g o i n g phen om en o n t h r o u g h t h e m e t h o d s o f
so c io lin g u istic an aly sis. (Bynon 1 9 7 7 : 6 )

H i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t s use th e d ia c h ro n ic r u l e s i n an­

aly z in g the c o r r e l a t i o n between lan g u ag e change and s o c i a l

geographical space, in cluding c o n t a c t s between d ifferen t

la n g u ag e s through tr a d e , m igration, and d o m i n a t i o n . They

concern them selves w ith th e im pacts of th e se f a c to r s on a

la n g u ag e t h a t ta k e s such form s a s lo an words, loan tr a n s la ­

tio n , sem antic e x te n s io n , etc.

The h i s t o r i c a l approach p ro v id es a c o m p l e t e method

to i n v e s t i g a t e language c h an g e, and I w i l l apply i t to the

in v e s tig a tio n o f change in G ila k i. But t o be a b l e t o u n d e r­

s t a n d G i l a k i a n d G i l a k c u l t u r e I i n t e n d t o u s e a m or e h o l i s ­

tic approach {anthropological) to give i n s ig h t i n t o the c u l­

tu ral v alues, the "w orld view" of the people. An

a n th r o p o l o g i c a l approach t o w a r d l i n g u i s t i c s may h e l p t o v e r ­

i f y a people’s ru le s of e tiq u e tte . "How do t h e y g r e e t , ad­

vise, encourage, p raise, o r i n s u l t one a n o t h e r . What a r e

th e ir prayers, o ratio n s, lo k es, and p o e tr y r e a l l y like?"

(H ickerson 1980:5). L i n g u i s t i c s t u d y from an a n t h r o p o l o g i ­

cal p e r s p e c t i v e was f i r s t promoted by F ra n z Boas. His " I n ­

 10

troduction" i n The Handbook o f A m e r ic a n I n d i a n Languages

(191 1 ) i s b a s e d on t h e r e l e v a n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s t u d y t o a n ­

thropology. Be r e c o g n i z e s t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l a n ­

guage and th o u g h t and p o i n t s out t h a t t h e r e a r e " u n c o n s c io u s

ph e n o m e n a " s u c h a s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i d e a s and t h e i r ex­

p ressio n th a t are apparent in t h e m e ta p h o ric a l use o f te rm s

t h a t can only be approached through th e study of language.

(Boaz 1911)

B ro n islaw M alinowski (1889-1942), a B ritish so cial

anthropologist, em phasized the im portance o f language fo r

f i e l d ethnology to his m ethodology f o r c u ltu ra l research.

In h i s stu d y o f M elanesia. M a l i n o w s k i (1922) ch aracterized

th e "verbatim rec o rd in g " of native term inology as "ethno­

g raphic statem en ts, c h arac te ristic n arrativ es, t y p i c a l ut­

terances, item s of f o l k l o r e , and m a g ic a l f o r m u l a " which

should be sp ecifically v aluable as documents of native

th o u g h t to supplem ent th e c u l t u r a l s tu d y o f p e o p le .

Benjamin W h o rf's h y p o t h e s i s i s b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p ­

tio n th a t there is a c lo se connection b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e an d

cu ltu re, and t h a t th e stu d y of a l a n g u a g e g i v e s an i n d i c a ­

tio n of the " w o r l d v i e w " — u t i l i z e d by s p e a k e r s of the lan­

guage. E dw a rd S apir, famous c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t and

lin g u ist, h e l d t h e same v ie w . B ut, i h o r f (1941) fu rth er ar­

gued t h a t d i f f e r e n t form s o f th e verb i n d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s

 11

go beyond t h e language i t s e l f and r e l a t e to d ifferen c es in

wa ys o f t h i n k i n g and p e r c e i v i n g w h i c h h e c a l l e d the "rnought

w orld" o f an i n d i v i d u a l o r th e m i c r o c o s m t h a t e a c h man c a r ­

r i e s w ithin h im self.

The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f a l a n g u a g e i s a two way

approach: F irst, it h e l p s t o u n d e r s ta n d c u l t u r e from l a n ­

guage; second, i t v e r i f i e s "the way l a n g u a g e i s a f f e c t e d by

the r e s t of th e c u ltu re " ^Burling 1 9 7 0 ;v ).

p o i n t s o f c u l t u r a l em phasis are u s u a lly r e f l e c t e d

in la n g u ag e through the s i z e , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and
d if f e r e n tia tio n of vocabulary. That i s , th e re a re
more s e p a r a t e t e r m s , more f i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s made
i n r e f e r e n c e t o f e a t u r e s o f an e n v ir o n m e n t or c u l ­
t u r e w ith w h ic h t h e speakers a re t h e most c o n ­
cerned. T h e r e a r e f e w e r t e r m s a n d t h e y t e n d t o be
m ore g e n e r a l i z e d when t h e y r e f e r t o f e a t u r e s w h i c h
are given l e s s c u l t u r a l em phasis. Ç H ic k e rs o n
1980: 108)

" C u l t u r a l e m p h a s i s " may r e f e r t o en v iro n m e n t such as

do t h e many sp ecialized term s r e l a t i n g to snow, ice, and

s e a l s i n t h e Eskimo la n g u a g e (Boas 1 9 1 1 ) ; o r i t may i n d i c a t e

e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e more t h a n 100 s p e c ia liz e d term s

th a t r e la te to fis h , r i c e , and r i c e farm ing i n G i l a k i . An­

o t h e r example o f s t r o n g economic em phasis i n la n g u ag e i s r e ­

p o r t e d by E. E vans-Prichard tl9U0) on t h e N u e r o f E a s t A f r i ­

ca. Th e language of t h e Nue r is a re fle c tio n of th eir

in terest, appreciatio n , and c o n c e r n f o r c a t t l e . Te rm s f o r

c attle a r e used as in d iv id u al na m es a nd term s of praise

w hic h r e f l e c t s t h e i r outlook in a life d o m i n a t e d by pasto-

ralisE .
 12

I n o t h e r a r e a s t e r m s t h a t show c u l t u r a l e m p h a s i s a r e

b a se d on r e l i g i o u s i d e o l o g y ; ex am p les o f t h i s h ave been r e ­

p o r t e d by many a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . For a d is c u s s io n of c u l t u r ­

a l e m p h asis on i d e o l o g y s e e c h a p t e r 8 o f t h i s work.

In summary, t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r h e r e i s t h e e t h n o g r a ­

phy o f c h a n g e i n t h e G i l a k i l a n g u a g e , a n d w h i l e i t i s b e yo nd

th e scope o f t h i s s tu d y to d e v elo p a ground theory of lan­

guage change, I w ill attem pt t o i d e n t i f y th e problem a r e a s

i n language change a nd a p p l y a n e t h n o g r a p h i c a l approach to

th e ir so lu tio n .

D a t a f o r t h i s s t u d y w ere g a t h e r e d d u r i n g tw o p e r i o d s

o f fie ld w o rk in I r a n , th e f i r s t i n 1879, when I was p r i v i ­

leg ed to have a c c e s s to a la rg e G ilak community i n T e h ra n .

There I conducted a s e r i e s of i n t e r v i e w s w ith G i l a k s fr o m

t h r e e age g ro u p s : g r a n d p a r e n t s , p a r e n t s , and c h i l d r e n . The

s e c o n d a n d f i n a l p a r t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was d o n e i n 1982 when

I v isited G i l a n a nd interview ed fo rty -s e v e n o th e r G ilaks.

My i n t e n t i o n was t o make a com prehensive a n a l y s i s of G ila k i

n a tio n a l fe e lin g during th e th re e years fo llo w in g th e revo­

lu tio n of 1979. To t e s t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard G ilaks I

a ls o interview ed f i f t y T ehranic i n 1982.

I n a d d i t i o n t o my tw o p e r i o d s in th e f i e l d , I ha ve

had s i x G i l a k i i n f o r m a n t s t u d e n t s i n t h e O n i t e d S t a t e s whom

I h a v e u s e d t o c o m p a r e t h e fo r m a n d d e g r e e o f t h e i r l i n g u i s ­
 13

tic a c c u ltu ra tio n to G ilaks in Ira n . I have a l s o conducted

l i b r a r y re s e a rc h fo r a com plete r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on

th is subject. F i n a l l y , I h a v e s u p p l e m e n t e d f i e l d s t u d y and

lib r a ry research w ith e x te n s iv e reading in the l i t e r a t u r e ,

f o l k l o r e , and so n g s o f t h e G i l a k s .

To p u t G i l a k i i n p e r s p e c t i v e , c h a p te r 2 d e a l s w ith

the c la s s if ic a tio n o f G i l a k i and a r e v ie w of the p e rtin e n t

lite ra tu re .

C hapter 3 c o v ers t h e geography and h i s t o r y of G ila n

and d i s c u s s e s the h is to r y of con tacts between G i l a k s and

memb ers o f o t h e r l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s t h r o u g h t r a d e , conquest,

dom ination, e t c .

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f an y l a n g u a g e change i s n o t pos ­

s i b l e w ithout a c a r e f u l d e s c r ip tio n o f the language. Since

n o n e o f t h e s t u d i e s on G i l a k i p ro v id e s a com plete a n a l y s i s ,

I in te n d to do a c a r e f u l and com plete d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s

o f th e language. T h u s, c h a p t e r s 4 and 5 d e a l w i t h p h o n o lo ­

g y , m orphology, and s y n t a x .

C hapter 6 is a b rief modern h i s t o r y o f I r a n f r o m t h e

beginning o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . I t in cludes a h i s t o r i ­

c a l and d i a l e c t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f the e t h n i c p o lic ie s of the

g o v e r n m e n t s o f I r a n a n d t h e i r i m p a c t on t h e l a n g u a g e s o f na­

tio n a l m in o rities.
 14

C hapter 7 w ill f o c u s on a d e s c r i p t i v e sociology of

the G ilak i lan g u ag e. I w ill e x p l o r e what a c c o u n t s f o r t h e

s h i f t i n l a n g u a g e u s e norms a nd i d e n t i f y t h e o v e r t b e h a v i o r

to w a rd s G i l a k i and G i l a k s .

C hapter 8 w i l l f o c u s on the in te rp la y betw een so -

cial, i d e o l o g i c a l , and l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s t h a t have a f f e c t e d

lang u ag e change in G ilan, esp ecially d u r i n g th e p e r i o d from

th e beginning of the tw en tieth century u n til the present

tim e.
 CB&PTEB II

IITZBiTOBE lETIEB

S t u d i e s on t h e G i l a k i l a n g u a g e a r e n u m e r o u s a n d d a t e

back to th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y . H ere, however, o n ly m ajor

w o r k s o f i n t e r e s t a n d p r i m a r y s o u r c e s may b e m e n t i o n e d .

Th e e a r l i e s t of t h e s e works d o n e on G i l a k i i s T r a v ­

e ls in R ussia w r itte n in 1775 by S.G . G m elin, a Russian

s c h o l a r who v i s i t e d G ilan during h i s t r a v e l s through the

C aucasus and t o t h e s o u th s h o r e o f t h e C a s p ia n S e a . He r e ­

c o r d e d t h e names o f a n i m a l s and p l a n t s i n G i l a k i .

In 18Q2 A l e x a n d e r chodzko w ro te Specim ens of the

P opular P o e tr y in P e r s i a . T h i s work i n c l u d e s a c h a p t e r e n ­

title d "P opular Songs o f th e In h ab itan ts of the Southern

C oast o f t h e Caspian S e a ." These songs were p a r t of a c o r­

pus o f u n w r i t t e n A s i a t i c p o e tr y t h a t were, i n t h e main, p a r t

of the o ral tra d itio n s of the in h ab itan ts of Iran and t h e

c o a s t o f t h e C a s p ia n Sea. He c o l l e c t e d t h e m d u r i n g d i f f e r ­

ent periods of his eleven year s ta y in those a r e a s "from

o r a l com m unications w ith th e people g e n e r a l l y , t h e lower

classes, who d i d n o t know how to read o r w rite" [Chodzko

1842:v i i ) . C h o d z k o ' s work i n c l u d e s G i l a k i s o n g s and t h e i r

- 15 -
 16

t r a n s l a t i o n s fr om G i l a k i i n t o E n g l i s h as v e il a s clim atolo -

g i c a l and a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e r e g i o n and a

sm all G ilaki-E nglish word l i s t .

Ch odzko o r g a n i z e d t h e s o n g s in to three gen eral d ia­

le c tic a l categ o ries: the T aulish d ialect, spoken from t h e

d e s e r t o f flogban t o t h e mo uth o f th e r i v e r D inachal, sepa­

r a t i n g t h e G i la n d i s t r i c t o f B a s h t from t h a t o f G a sk e r; the

G hilek [G ilaki) d ialect, s p o k e n a l o n g t h e C a s p i a n c o a s t fr om

t h e D i n a c h a l t o t h e mouth o f the r i v e r P ilo ru d (big r i v e r ) ;

and f i n a l l y th e H azandarani d i a l e c t , u s e d fr o m t h e r i v e r P i -

l o r u d t o t h e mouth o f t h e r i v e r K a r a s s o u .

In h i s a n a ly sis of G ilaki, Ch odzk o in d icates that

t h e Zen d l a n g u a g e i n a n c i e n t P e r s i a h a d b e e n w i d e l y u s e d and

c a n b e t r a c e d by c o m p a r i n g t h e p u r e l y Zend o r S a n s c r i t w o r d s

w i t h G i l a k i , F a r s i , and T a u l i s h i . In o rd e r to s u b s t a n t i a t e

th e re la tio n sh ip between Z end, G ilaki, and F a r s i , C ho d zk o

s u r v e y s t h e to p o n o m y o f t h e r e g i o n a n d c o m p a r e s t h e s i m i l a r ­

i t i e s among t h e s t i l l e x i s t i n g p l a c e names. He u s e s " d i f ­

f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f lemons and o r a n g e t r e e s , d i s t i n g u i s h e d by

s p e c i a l n a m es in order to point out a rem arkable circum ­

stance th a t a ll these f r u i t s are known i n I n d i a under the

same a p p e l l a t i o n s " (1842: 457-60). He c o n c l u d e s t h a t Zend

was s p o k e n by a l l P ersian s not ju s t a p riv ile g e d c l a s s but

also by "ignorant fo resters of G hilan and Mazandaran"

[ 1P42: 461) .
 17

One a p p a r e n t m istake in C h o d zk o 's a n a l y s i s is his

claim t h a t c e r t a i n G i l a k i lexem es h a v e become obsolete in

m od e rn F a r s i , however, t h e s e sam e w o r d s a r e u s u a l l y G i l a k i

s p e c i f i c and are s t i l l commonly u s e d by G i l a k i speakers.

T herefore, l e x e m e s t h a t h e t h o u g h t t o b e " o b s o l e t e " i n mod­

e r n F a r s i may n o t be F a r s i a t a l l a nd m ight n e v e r h a v e been

a p a rt of th e F arsi lexicon, is a n I r a n i a n n a t i o n a l who h a s

had lo n g a c c e s s t o F a r s i and G ilaki speakers, I have never

known a F a r s i sp eak er t o use any o f t h e s e words. I have

a s k e d many F a r s i s p e a k e r s t o i d e n t i f y some o f C h o d z k o ' s " o b ­

so lete" F a r s i words, a n d n o n e whom I c o n s u l t e d w er e a b l e t o

g iv e meanings f o r th e n . Follow ing i s a p a r t i a l l i s t of the

lexem es in q u e s tio n .

3sp>l 're fl-fis h /ro e '

aYoz 'w alnut*

gos/zka 'fro g '

lab t/d an 'ro p e '

zàak 'c h ild '

)ukul 'u n rip e r i c e '

A n o t h e r s h o r t c o m i n g i n C h o d z k o ' s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t he

a t t e m p t e d t o u s e modern F a r s i s y n t a x a s a mode l i n h i s a n a l ­

y s is of G ila k i d ata. H o w e v e r , when he f o u n d t h e p o s t - p o s i ­

t i o n nou n o r d e r o f G i l a k i he b e l i e v e d t h a t i t was b a s e d on

T urkish. F o r e x a m p l e he a n a l y s e s t h e G i l a k i s e n t e n c e :

b ijar sar-a-dar
 18

rice fie ld o n/at tre e

•The t r e e i n t h e r i c e f i e l d . *

And s a y s :

A strange in v ersio n ; according to th e ru le s of

mode rn P e r s i a n s y n t a x , i t ought t o be c o n s tr u c te d
i d ara-sara-b iiar. . . . S im ilar i n v e r s i o n s happen
v e r y o f t e n i n G h i l a k i a n d d e m o n s t r a t e ho* c o n s i d ­
erably th is i d i o m was i n f l u e n c e d by T u r k i s h .
(1842:537-538)

T here a r e f u r t h e r exam ples o f h i s m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ;

h e a p p l i e s t h e p o s s e s s i v e a d j e c t i v e t o t h e sam e F a r s i s y n t a x

model and a g a i n c o n c l u d e s t h a t G i l a k i word o r d e r r e p r e s e n t s

t h e in f lu e n c e of T urkish sy n tax . For ex am p le:

G ilaki Farsi

mi aya aïay-e-nxn

my b o s s , m ister m ister lia is o n

•my m i s t e r *

mi barart kaS à?us-e-b % rad zr-e- mam

my b r o th e r* s bosom boson o f b roth er o f me
•my b r o t h e r ' s bosom*

ti dina su rx t-e-to

your fa c e f a c e o f you *your face*

T here w i l l be a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r C hodzko's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

G i l a k i s y n t a x b e lo w i n c h a p t e r 8 .

D u rin g t h e y e a r s i860 and 1861 B. A. Dorn, a R u ss ia n

s c h o l a r who was an e x p e r t on I r a n , co llected G ila k i data

from t h e c i t i e s o f P a s h t , L ahijan, a n d Fuman. H is d a ta in -

 19

clode poetry, the tra n s la tio n of F arsi s to rie s in to G ilaki,

a F a rsi-G ila k i g lo ssary , and a g ra m m a tic a l o u t l i n e o f Gi­

lak i.

In a p u b l i c a t i o n d a te d 1898-1901, 8. G e ig e r pub­

lish ed his essay e n t i t l e d "K leinere D i a l e k t e und D ialek-

tgru p p en ." G e ig e r's w o rk s u m m a r i z e s th at of many e a r l i e r

r e s e a r c h e r s s u c h a s B. D o r n ( 1 8 6 0 - 6 1 ) , G. Belgounof (1868),

I. Eeresine ( 1 8 5 3 ) , A. C h o d z k o ('•8U2) , a n d G m e l i n (1775) an d

is, therefore, a m ajor c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e s tu d y of C aspian

languages, e sp e c ia lly G ilaki. He c o m p a r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s o f a l l C aspian lan g u ag es such a s H azandarani, G ilak i,

T aly sh i, T a ti, and Semnani w ith F a r s i . He a l s o s u m m a r i z e s

th e data on p h o n e t i c s a n d gra m m a r in G ilaki th a t h a d be en

g a t h e r e d by r e s e a r c h e r s f r o m t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y un­

til th e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

A lthough G e i g e r 's wo rk i s t h e b e st source f o r the

a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on G i l a k i a t the tu rn of th e century,

t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l problem s w ith i t . The G i l a k i s o u n d s y s t e m

is n o t r e p r e s e n t e d i n mode rn p h o n e t i c o r t h o g r a p h y , and f u r ­

th er, some c o n f u s i o n i n h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G i l a k i p h o n o l ­

o gy r e s u l t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e vowels

s i n c e he i s not c o n s is te n t in th e s y m b o l s he u s e s in the

tex ts. Prom a g ra m m a tic a l p o i n t o f view , t h e r e a r e many

o th e r shortcom ings. For i n s t a n c e , the p o ssessiv e case fo r

 20

p e rs o n a l nouns has n o t been g iv e n , t h e le x ic o n i s v e ry lim ­

ited , an d e n t r i e s h a v e n o t b e e n used in s e n t e n c e s f o r con­

t e x t u a l meaning.

A mor e r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f G i l a k i i s

t h e 1939 C ontributions a i a D i a l e c t o l o q i e I r a n i e ne by the

D anish s c h o l a r i . C h r i s t e n s e n who c o l l e c t e d a l l o f h i s d a t a

w h i l e he was i n I r a n (G ilan) d u rin g th e y e a r o f 1929. The

book c o n t a i n s a b r i e f but c a r e f u l d e s c r ip ti o n of the G ila k i

sound system , the gram m atical s t r u c t u r e of G ila k i, several

short sto rie s in G ila k i, t h r e e po em s, and a s h o r t word l i s t

in th e Sashty d i a l e c t . F urther, he a d d e d a s m a l l s y s t e m a t i c

v o c a b u la ry t h a t compares G i l a k i w ith th e I r a n i a n d i a l e c t of

F arizandi, T arani, and S a t a n z i t r a n s l a t e d into F a r s i and

French. F i n a l l y he g i v e s a l i s t o f t h e m a in v e r b s i n which

a l l verbal form s a r e a cc o u n te d f o r i n paradigm w ith t h e i r

system o f d e c le n s io n s . A lthough th e re c o rd ed t e x t s a r e g iv ­

en in a p h o n o lo g ical system , the vowels a r e s t i l l not c le a r ­

l y presented.

I n 195U M an u c h e h r S o t u d e h p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t exten­

s iv e G ilaki- Farsi d ic tio n a ry in Ira n . It h a s a b o u t 4600

words that w e re co llected during his years of contact

M 9 41-1 9 5 3 ) w ith G ila k i s p e a k e rs . I n some c a s e s a f u l l i n ­

terp retatio n o f e a c h word i s g i v e n , a n d he h a s e v e n i n c l u d e d

illu stra tio n s for bird s sp ecific to the region of G ilan.

 21

Th e G i l a k i v o c a b u l a r y i s w ritten in A rabic o rth o g rap h y w ith

t r a n s c r i p t i o n s on L a t i n bases, an d s i n c e he co llected h is

d a t a in d i f f e r e n t re g io n s of G ila n , he n o te s th e p ro v en ien ce

o f each lexem e. It i s a n a d m i r a b l e a n d u s e f u l work f r o m a n

e c o lo g i c a l and a c u l t u r a l perspective. I t in c lu d e s alm ost

a l l th e G ila k i term s th a t r e f e r t o r e g i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t and

G ilak m a t e r ia l c u l t u r e p lu s d e s c r i p ti o n s o f some f o l k games

s p e c i f i c to G ilaks.

However, S o t u d e h * s work c o n t a i n s many r e d u n d a n c i e s

and i s n o t a c o m p le te l e x i c o n o f G i l a k i b e c a u s e he i n c l u d e d

d a t a o n l y on G i l a k i w o r d s w i t h w hic h h e p e r s o n a l l y was n o t

fam iliar.

Again from a phonetic p e rs p e c tiv e , the wo rk l a c k s

th e necessary inform ation sin ce i t is w r i t t e n in an A ra b ic /

F arsi o rth o g ra p h y and b a s e d on the A ra b ic /F a rs i phonemic

system . o n l y a few w o rd s h a v e keen used i n s e n t e n c e s , so

most a r e g iv e n in iso la tio n w i t h no in fo rm a tio n ab o u t syn­

tax .

Among t h e m ajor c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the study of the

G i l a k i la n g u ag e by l i n g u i s t s i n th e O .S .S .R . a r e an a r t i c l e

b y V .S . S o k o l o v a i n T . R . P a i a l i n a ' s Gi l i a n s k i i T a z i k f The Gi­

lak i Language! (1957} « the d i s s e r t a t i o n o f V .I. Zavialova

F onetika G i l i a ns k o v o i M az an de r a n s k o v o Y azikov, A btoref

( P h o n e t i c s o f t h e G i l a k i an d H a z a n d a r a n i L a n g u a g e s ) (1955),
 22

a n d a 1956 a r t i c l e b y Z a v i a l o v a e n t i t l e d H o v i e S e v e d e n i v a Po

F o n e t i k a I r a n s k i » Yaz i k o v . g ilian sk ii i a a z a n d e r a o s k i i %a

zik ii (New I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e P h o n e t i c s o f I r a n i a n Languag­

es, t h e G i l a k i an d H a z a n d a r a n i l a n g u a g e s ) b a s e d on h e r d i s ­

sertatio n .

P u b l i c a t i o n s d u rin g t h e 1950s by l o c a l w r i t e r s ha ve

helped th e people of G ilan to preserve th e ir language in

S p it e o f th e a c u te s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p re s su re s brought a g ain st

the re te n tio n of G ilaki. Chalangar and P o ro u ah w e r e two

p o p u l a r j o u r n a l s w h ic h d e a l t w ith t h e problem s of lab o rers

and p e a s a n t s . T h e y w e r e b o t h w r i t t e n i n G i l a k i w i t h a modi­

fied A r a b i c o r t h o g r a p h y a n d made a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e

s p r e a d o f G i l a k i poems a n d i d i o m .

L. H obaseri has a l s o p u b lis h e d a c o l l e c t i o n of songs

w ith m usical n o ta tio n (A h a n g h a 1959) . Poems i n G i l a k i c a n

a l s o be found o n f i v e p a g e s o f a n 1981 m anuscript t h a t has

b e e n e d i t e d by M. Ho ha geq (1959).

O t h e r a r t i c l e s by S o t u d e h h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d : "The

Winds o f G i l a n , " " T h e Names o f F i s h , " and so n g s a n d poems

p ublished by S o t u d e h and E. Seraj (A fshar 19 61: nos.

aiR 3-U 2ii) .

K e s h a v a r z * s w o rk G i l a n (1963) has a sectio n on t h e

G ila k i language th a t includes a b rie f ex p lan atio n about i t s

typology, the o rig in o f t h e name G i l a n , a n d some r e m a r k s on

G i l a k i g ra m m a r.
 23

rin ally P. A a c i a n i (196 U-6 5) has w ritten four

a r t i c l e s on t h i s language a s spoken in a v i l l a g e i n Budsar

which i n c l u d e s p h o n e t i c s , s t o r i e s , c a s e s o f th e months, and

a g lo s s a ry in t r a n s c r i p t i o n . These a r e a l l I r a n ia n s c h o la rs

who h a v e a d d e d t o t h e e x t e n s i v e k n o w l e d g e o f G i l a k i .

Pros 1964 t o 1966 a n o t h e r g ro u p o f l i n g u i s t s 5c th e

Ira n ia n study s e c to r of th e L in g u istic I n s titu te o f t h e So­

v i e t Academy o f S c i e n c e s (A.A. K erim ova, V .S. B astorgoeva,

A.K. A aaedzade, L.A . P i r e i k o , and D.E. E de lm a n) gathered

d a ta f o r G i l i a n s k i i Tazik (t h e G i l a k i language) from G i l a k i

inform ants, n a t i v e s fr o m B a s h t , who w e r e l i v i n g i n Moscow.

T h e i r w o rk c o n s is ts of the G i l a k i sound system , lexicon,

m orphology, and s y n t a x . I t also g iv e s tw enty s e p a r a t e t e s t s

w r i t t e n in G i l a k i and a b a s i c v o c a b u l a r y t h a t c o m p a r e s some

G ila k i lexem es w ith th o s e of o t h e r I r a n i a n languages such as

T a t i , T a le s b i, K urdi, P a r s i, A vestan, and B a l u c h i. Included

are also G ilaki le x ic a l b o r r o w i n g s fr o m Prench, T urkish,

A rabic, B ussian, a n d A z a r b a i j a n i . The bo ok i s a c o m p l e t e d e ­

sc rip tiv e a n aly sis of t h e G i l a k i la n g u ag e w ith one s e r io u s

flaw , th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sound system f a i l s to consider

th e v e la r n a sa l /j?/. A nother shortco m ing i s t h a t , w ith th e

ex ception o f th e l a s t tw o, t h e t e x t s do n o t r e p r e s e n t the

speech of th e r u r a l , uneducated, o r p o o rly ed u cated people

in G ilan. They a r e l a r g e l y b a s e d on t h e s p e e c h o f t h e a i d -
 24

die c lass and a r e lim ited to the Eashty d i a l e c t th at has

b e e n m os t s u s c e p t i b l e t o c h a n g e .

Eva I p o c , a B ungarian s c h o l a r mho c o l l e c t e d verses

i n G i l a k i from L a n g r u d i (a c i t y i n G ilan) d u r i n g 1971 p r e ­

s e n t e d them in phonetic tran scrip tio n s of g re a t accuracy.

The a r t i c l e i n c l u d e s an E n g l i s h tra n slatio n of the verses

and a g lo s s a ry .

Sore r e c e n t l y , i n 1980, t h e s e c t i o n o f I r a n i a n Lan­

g u a g e s a t t h e I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s o f t h e S o v i e t Academy

o f S ciences has p u b lish e d th e G ilia n s k i-B u s s k i S lo v a r w ith a

E u ssian -S ila k i index. The d a t a for th is d i c t i o n a r y mere

p a r t i a l l y t a k e n from t h e m a t e r i a l s i n t h e t e x t s o f G i l i a n s k i

Y a z i k a n d o t h e r w o r k s by S o v i e t l i n g u i s t s . T h i s Gi l a k i - E u s -

s i a n D i c t i o n a r y h a s 10,000 e n t r i e s w h i c h c o v e r n o t o n l y Gi­

l a k i b u t F a r s i a nd A r a b i c . In f a c t , o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e

r e p o r t e d lexem es a r e not G i l a k i s p e c i f i c a t a l l b u t a r e loan

w o r d s fr om F a r s i a n d m o d i f i e d A r a b i c . H o w e v e r, i t n o t o n l y

giv es in d iv id u a l term s b u t explains t h e i r fu n ctio n s. It

d iscu sses G ilaki morphology i n c l u d i n g morphemes, affix es,

word e n d i n g s , and t h e i r places in G ila k i syntax by u s in g

them i n p h r a s e s and s e n t e n c e s so th a t the fu n c tio n o f th e se

words i s c l a r i f i e d . I t also g i v e s t h e p h o n e t i c v a r i a t i o n of

lex em es found i n G i l a k i . No d o u b t , i t i s a g r e a t c o n t r i b u ­

t i o n to th e study o f th e G ilaki language, but, again, it

 25

c o v e rs only t h e Bashty d ia le c t as i t i s spoken by m i d d l e

c l a s s and e d u ca te d G ila k s . T herefore, i t does not re p re se n t

a l l spoken d i a l e c t s in G ila n , a n d t h e /} ) / i s s t i l l n e t men­

tio n ed .

Another s t u d y o f G i l a k i a s a G i l a k i - E n g l i s h d i c t i o n ­

a r y c o m p i l e d by B e h d i P o r o u g b i r a d a n d me. He b e g a n t o c o l ­

l e c t the data fo r t h i s w ork i n 1979, and th e pro ject i s

s t i l l incom plete. Through o u r c o l l e c t i o n o f G i l a k i lex em es,

v e have so f a r been a b l e to com pile a d i c t i o n a r y o f about

4 ,5 0 0 w ords.

I, to o , have d e c i d e d t o f o c u s m a in ly on t h e B ashty

d i a l e c t in t h i s stu d y , s i n c e t h e r e i s s u c h wide d i a l e c t i c a l

d iv ersity in G ilan, but th is stu d y re p re s e n ts a v a r ie ty of

speech p a tte rn s e l i c i t e d fr om a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s . F o r some

p arts of th e vocabulary I did c o n su lt speakers fr o m o t h e r

a re a s o f G ilan in clu d in g those of th e v i l l a g e X o s b i j a r a nd

o t h e r s who re s id e near B asht. The s p e a k e r s who liv e in

these v illag es are lin g u istically more c o n s e r v a t i v e than

those th a t liv e in o th e r a re a s of G ilan. Each lexem e i s

given p h o n e tic a lly a s i t i s p r o n o u n c e d by a t l e a s t f o u r d i f ­

f e r e n t inform ants according to t h e i r age, sex, and e d u c a ­

tio n .

As we h a v e seen, t h e r e a r e many s t u d i e s on G i l a k i

t h a t h a v e b e e n d o n e by lin g u ists. They a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n ­

 26

cerned w ith th e form al d e s c r i p t i o n of th e la n g u ag e , includ­

ing i t s stru ctu re, phonology, and l e x i c o n and i n c l u d e t h e

com plex g r a m m a t i c a l s y s te m which r e l a t e s sound and meaning.

S till, a ll of t h e s e s t u d i e s do n o t p ro v id e a c o m p le te de­

sc rip tiv e an aly sis of G ilak i.

2 .1 L IIG O IS T IC C L IS S IF IC A T lO ll O f G I U K I

S e v e ra l approaches have teen used t o classify the

G ila k i lan g u ag e. Some s t u d i e s h a v e c l a s s i f i e d G ila k i along

w ith w estern Ir a n ia n la n g u ag e s. V oegelin [1977:183), group­

in g I r a n i a n la n g u a g e s i n d i c a t e s "C om parative l i n g u i s t i c e v i ­

dence r e f l e c t s an e a r l i e r s p l i t from P r o t o - I r a n i a n in to lan­

guages which a r e now classified as E astern and iestern

r a t h e r than p a th s of d escen t." Be g o e s on to p la c e G ila k i

among w e s t e r n I r a n ia n lan g u ag es in th e northw estern type

subgroup. O ther l i n g u i s t s P a ra h v a sh i (1965:1), B astorgoeva

e t a l . [1971 a nd 1 9 8 0 ) , The Great S o v i e t E n c y c lo p e d i a and

C hristensen [1930:3) s u p p o r t t h a t view.

Some S c h o l a r s , who c o n s i d e r G i l a k s t o be n o n - A r y a n

from a g e n e a l o g i c a l p o in t of view , make a d istin ctio n be­

tw een la n g u a g e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and genealogical c l a s s if i c a ­

tio n . P iguloskaya e t a l . (1975:205) believe th a t "G ilan

and D e yl am a n w e r e o c c u p i e d by t w o l o c a l g r o u p s who s p o k e a

s p e c i f i c language of th e Ira n ia n lan g u ag es."

 27

G eiger ( 1 9 0 3 : 3«6-3U8) has c l a s s i f i e d G ilaki as a

sabgroQp o f t h e C asp ian lan g n ag e s w ith H azandarani, T ati,

T alesh i, and Semnani i n "Der K a sp isc h en D ialekte.** Be a d d s

th a t th e L ah ijan i d ia le c t v a rie s s l i g h t l y fr o m the G ilaki

language. Thomas &. S e b e o k (1970:111) h a s c l a s s i f i e d G i l a k i

along w ith H azan d aran i a s a C aspian d ialect. C hristensen

(1930:3) p l a c e s G i l a k i among t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n d i a l e c t s s p o ­

k e n by p e o p l e on t h e C a s p i a n S e a l i t t o r a l .

Some r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t G i l a k i o r i g i n a t e d fr om

Ze nd ( t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e Av e s t a i n t h e

l i t e r a r y P a h la v i language) and F a r s i .

A c c o r d i n g t o Ch od zk o (184 8 : 4 5 3 - 4 5 4 ) the:

id io m s, or d iffe re n t pato is, spoken by t h e s e na­

t i o n s ( i n h a b i t i n g t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t s o f t h e Cas­
pian S e a ) , seen a l l to have a z e n d o -P e rsia n o r i ­
g i n , m i n g l e d more o r l e s s w i t h T u r k i s h a l l o y ; a n d ,
i n some d e g r e e , v a ry i n alm ost ev ery v i l l a g e of
the d if f e r e n t d i s t r i c t s of G ilan and Hazandaran.
They, however, can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t h r e e g e n e r a l
divisions: The T a u l i s h ( T a l e s h ) d i a l e c t . T h e G h i -
la k d i a l e c t . The Hazandaran d i a l e c t .

S t i l l o t h e r s have c o n sid e re d G ila k i t o be a d i a l e c t

of F arsi. Babino (1916-17:33) views "G ilaki as a d ia le c t

which i s n o t e r a p i d and l e s s v o c a l i c t h a n o th er F a rs i dia­

le c t s in o th e r regions of I r a n . I t v aries in differen t

p a rts of G ilan ."

Sotudeh (1957:7) c o n sid e rs G ilaki to b e one o f th e

lo cal Iranian d ialects, and he r e f e r s t o G i l a k i a s one of

 28

th e la n g u a g e s spoken in t h e la n d of G ilan. He d i v i d e s Gi­

l a k i i n t o tw o d i a l e c t s : 1) G ila k i Bi p s (Basht) which i s

spoken in a p a r t of G ilan t h a t i s lo c a te d in Best Sefidrud

a n d 2) G i l a k i Bi p i s (L ahijan) w h i c h i s s p o k e n by p e o p l e i n

E ast Sefidrud (B hite B iw er).

Keshavarz (1977:70) a s s e r t s :

we d i d n o t u s e [ t h e t e r m ] ' l a n g u a g e , * or 'd ia le c t*
and 'guyesh* ( d i a l e c t ) f o r G i l a k i on p u r p o s e , be­
cause th e re i s a c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n l i n g u i s t s on
th e d e fin itio n of the understanding of 'lan g u ag e*
and ' d i a l e c t . ' Some s c i e n t i s t s do n o t c o n s i d e r ' a
l a n g u a g e * t h e d i a l e c t w h ic h d o e s n o t h a v e w r i t t e n
literatu re. Some c a l l ' l a n g u a g e * o n l y t h e l a n g u a g e
w h i c h i s r e c o g n i z e d by a g o v e r n m e n t b u t do n o t c o n ­
s i d e r ' a l a n g u a g e * a s p e e c h w h ic h i s s p o k e n b y h u n ­
dreds o f thousands a n d f o r any r e a s o n has n o t been
re co g n ized ... and they c a l l i t 'la h j e * ( d ia le c t) or
guyesh ( d i a l e c t ) .

To dra w my own conclusions in relatio n to a l l of

these stu d ie s, I undertook a g lo tto c h ro n o lo g y ( l e x i c a l com­

parison) o f s e v e r a l Ir a n ia n languages: F a r s i , K u rd i, G ila k i,

and H a za n d aran i. Th e r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h a t , G i l a k i i s c l o s ­

e r t o F a r s i t h a n an y o f t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e s m e n t i o n e d . For

m o re d e t a i l o n t h e a b o v e s e e A p p e n d i x A.
 CBiPTEB I I I

nSTO BT

G ilan (Jilan) is a province i n th e north of Iran ,

l o c a t e d a t 36 2 8 " t o 38 1 1 " n o r t h l a t i t u d e an d 48 4 4 " t o 50

32" e a s t l o n g i t u d e on t h e s o u th w e ste rn c o a s t of t h e C aspian

Sea. G ila n i s b o r d e r e d on t h e s o u t h by t h e E lb o rz m o u n ta in s

and Q azv in , on t h e e a s t by Hazandaran, a n d on t h e v e s t by

A zerbaijan.

S i t u a t e d 25 m eters belov sea le v e l, it has lush

green f o r e s t s , a heavy r a i n f a l l , r ic e paddies, and sandy

b e a c h e s and i s a p le asa n t place in c o n tr a s t to many o t h e r

p a r t s o f Ir <m which a r e e i t h e r a r i d deserts o r high b a rre n

m ountains. T h is unique e n v iro n m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n h a s p la y e d a

m a jo r r o l e i n s h a p in g G i l a k i la n g u a g e and c u l t u r e .

G ilan, occupies a p p r o x im a te ly 15,000 square k ilo ­

m e te r s and i s h e a v il y p o p u la te d i n com parison t o o t h e r p ro v ­

i n c e s o f I r a n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no e x a c t s t a t i s t i c s a v a i l ­

ab le. If t h e r e has been a cen su s conducted s in c e th e 1979

rev o lu tio n , it i s not cu rren tly av ailab le. The most r e c e n t

s t a t i s t i c s a r e from The P l a n a n d B u d g e t O rg a n iz atio n Sta­

t i s t i c a l C enter of Ira n census w h ic h i n d i c a t e s a p o p u l a t i o n

of 1,578,000 in 1976/77.

- 29 -
 30

B asht, w ith a p o p u la tio n of about (144,000) i s the

m ajor c i t y and t h e c u l t u r a l cen te r of G ilan. O th e r impor­

t a n t c i t i e s in G ilan a re L ahijan, Fuman, and t h e p o r t - c i t y

9m ■

The i n d i g e n o u s people o f G ilan a r e c a l l e d G ilaks,

a n d make u p 70 p e r c e n t o f G i l a n * s p o p u l a t i o n .

3.1 O R IG H OP G I U KS

V arious ap p ro ach es have teen used t o t r y to d e ter­

m in e t h e o r i g i n o f G i a k s ; (i) p h y sical/an th ro p o lo g ical; (2)

and h i s t o r i c a l . using a p h y sic a l/a n th ro p o lo g ic a l perspec­

tiv e, Alexyev (1977: 67) arg u es t h a t th e C aspian ty p e i s one

of four d istin ctiv e anthropological types in th e Caucasus

area: Included in t h i s typology a r e the "P o n tia n , in the

w e s t e r n r e g i n s o f t h e N orth C a u c a su s and n e a r t h e B lack s e a ;

the C aucasionic, in t h e c e n t r a l f o o t h i l l s of th e Caucasus;

Armenoid, o r N e a r_ A s ia tic i n G eorgia and A rm enia; an d t h e

C aspian, in A z a r b a i j a n and s o u th D a g h e s ta n . "Each of th e se

t y p e s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d p r i m a r i l y by a s p e c i f i c m o r p h o l o g y s o

d i s t i n c t t h a t i n most c a s e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of any o f t h e s e

t y p e s can be i d e n t i f i e d a t once by t h e com plex o f c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c s he p o s s e s s e s " .
 31

Osing a h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , many s c h o l a r s ha ve

d iscussed th e G els/G elae, K adusi, C aspian, amd laardan

trib es, b u t e a c h h a s h i s ovn i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s t o t h e i r o r i ­

g i n and r e l a t i o n s h i p . Some b e l i e v e t h a t G ilaks along v ith

R a z a n d a r a n i s mere i n d i g e n o u s t o t h e r e g i o n b e f o r e t h e A ry a n

t r i k e s came t o I r a n from th e E a s t and th a t t h e i r sedentary

c i v i l i z a t i o n mas e v e n mor e a d v a n c e d t h a n t h a t o f t h e i n t r u d ­

i n g nomadic A ry a n s .

In a n t i q u i t y , four t r i b e s m e re l i v i n g a r o u n d t h e
s e a o f G i l a n a n d H a z a n d a r a n mhen t h e Aryan t r i b e s
came t o I r a n . The f o u r t r i b e s mere t h e : 1) T h e ' -
B rudian* tr ib e or 'H azuyan* mhich o c c u p i e d t h e
a r e a on t h e m e s t s h o r e . The t e r m H a za n d aran i s
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e name o f t h i s t r i b e . 2} T h e * T a -
b u ry * t r i b e o c c u p i e d t h e a r e a on t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n
P“ r t : T a h a r e s t a n i e «^ erive d f r o m t h e name o f t h e
trib e. 3) Th e " J e l " o r " G e l " t r i b e w h i c h o c c u p i e d
th e area from t h e S e f i d (Uzun) r i v e r to Lobar.
J i l a n o r G i l a n i s named a f t e r t h e m . h) T h e *Ka-
duzi* t r i b e which o c c u p ie d t h e a r e a from L o b a r t o
L a n k a r a n ; now i t h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h e T a v a l e s h
[ p l u r a l f o r T a l e s h ] . ( L a h i j a o i n . d . : 15)

He a d d s th at, except fo r a fe w scattered s e ttle ­

m e n ts, o n ly t h o s e f o u r p l a c e s around th e X azar [Caspian) Se a

were s e t t l e d , and t h e s e g ro u p s , d i d n o t owe a l l e g i a n c e t o

t h e A ry a n kings. T he y rem ained in d e p e n d e n t o r som etim es

s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t by paying t r i b u t e , and in doing so they

were a b le t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s (L a h ija n i N .D .: 16).

Hashkur [1966: 13) in h is in tro d u c tio n to H a ra sh i's

w o rk r e f e r s t o " T a p o r s a s C a s p i s and H a r d s (Amards) a s pre-

A ry a n n a t i o n s w h ic h w e r e pushed t o th e high m o u n t a i n s by

Iran ian im m igrants." [1966: 13).

 32

T abari '19 7 0 : 13) agrees w i t h L a h i j a n i t h a t t h e Gi­

la k s predated t h e Aryans in t h e area. He s a y s t h a t when

" t h e A r y a n t r i b e s came t o I r a n from t h e e a s t and n o r t h e a s t ­

e r n p a r t s o f I r a n , non-Aryan t r i b e s w ere l i v i n g in I r a n . . .

These t r i b e s such a s T a p irs , Bards, K adusis, a nd C a s p i s

were in t h e n o r t h . "

P irn ia re fe rs to other r e s e a r c h e r s who a l s o c o n s i d ­

e r e d t h e K a d u s i s t o b e among t h e P r e - A r y a n g r o u p s who l i v e d

in Iran.

O th e r h i s t o r i a n s r e f e r t o the tr i b e s lo cated at th e

so u th e rn edge o f th e Xazar [Caspian) Sea a s b e i n g i n d e p e n ­

d e n t kingdoms i n a n c ie n t tim e such a s th e "C aspian, Kad u-

sian , Gelan t r i b e s who l i v e d i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a rts of the

Media n k in g d o m a t 30 00 B . P . . ( D i a k u n o v 1956:85)

B arto let (1915) r e f e r s t o s m a l l i n d e p e n d e n t kingdoms

and t r i b e s indigenous to the so uthern reg io n s of t h e Xazar

(C aspian) S e a who w e r e c a l l e d G e l s , R a d u s i a n , Amardan, and

C a s p i a n by G r e e k a u t h o r s i n 1 5 0 B .C .

O ther h i s t o r i a n s use th e name C a s p i a n a s t h e common

denom inator f o r a l l t r i b e s l i v i n g on t h e s o u t h e r n s h o r e s o f

th e Xazar (C aspian) Sea. S t r a b o who l i v e d a t th e tim e of

C hrist re fe rs to th e se t r i b e s a s A irkanis, A m a rd a n , A n a r i a k -

an (non A r y a n ) , K adusian, and U tian. He a d d s t h a t a t r i b e

called C aspian did not e x i s t at h is tim e. B ather it may

 33

have been th e common name f o r n o n - I n d o - E u r o p e a n trib es lo ­

cated th e re .

G eiger c l a s s i f i e s G i l a k s among t h e C aspian trib al

groups. Be c i t e s H e r o d e t ( 7 : 6 7 ) mho m e n t i o n s " t h e C a s p i a n s

in the a rm y o f X erxes, mho mere d r e s s e d m ith h id e s a nd

e q u i p p e d m i t h s m o r d s a nd boms a n d a m i l d t r i b e named Amardan

o r Rardar l i v e d f u r t h e r i n t h e m est i n th e E lb o rz m ountains"

( G e i g e r 13 03 : 346).

Some h i s t o r i a n s believe th a t the K adusis mere t h e

a n c e s to rs o f th e G ilaks. B. B a m i l s o n s a y s t h a t i n a n t i q u i t y

t h e m o u n t a i n s n o r t h a n d s o u t h o f t h e S e f i d Bud ( W h i t e B i v e r )

mas t h e home o f t h e p o w e r f u l K a d u s i t r i b e mho, at d ifferen t

tim es, m e re l i v i n g i n K h a l k h a l a n d t h e tmo T a r o m s .

Pigulevskaya e t a l . (1957:36) r e f e r t o t h e G ila k s as

a m a rlik e m ountain t r i b e , th e K arduxian (K ardusian), th at

l i v e d i n t h e a r e a s u r r o u n d e d by i s u r . Hade, a n d A rm e n ia i n

4 0 5 B .C . They r e v o l t e d a g a in s t D arius II and l a t e r A r d e s i r

III.

Other h i s t o r i a n s b e lie v e t h a t the G ils and K a d u s is

m e r e tw o s e p a r a t e t r i b e s o r two sec tio n s of a s in g le tr i b e .

G eiger (1903:347), r e f e r s to "Strabo ( 5 0 8 - 5 1 0 ) who m e n t i o n e d

th e K adusians next to th e Gelan t r i t e . . . " B ut P l i n u s be­

l i e v e d t h a t t h e K adusis and th e G e la n s were i d e n t i c a l , and

a ll trib e s liv in g on t h e s o u t h e r n s h o r e o f t h e C a s p i a n Sea

were c a l l e d C a s p ia n s .
 3a

Some h i s t o r i a n s b e l i e v e t h a t K a d u s i s a r e p e o p l e whom

we c a l l D e y l a m s . But G e i g e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t " i n t h e work o f

A r a k g e o g r a p h e r s t h e n a m e s o f D e y la m s a n d G e l a n a p p e a r t o b e

related . Some b e l i e v e t h a t t h e G e l s were t h o s e who l i v e d i n

th e f l a t p a r t o f th e a re a , and Deylams r e f e r r e d t o t h o s e of

th e m ountain." ( G e i g e r 1 9 0 3 : 346)

Babino (1916-17:18) states th at i n th e 4tL c e n t u r y

A.D. G ilan, th e eastern m ountain p r o v i n c e s , and a l l along

th e Xazar Sea, T abarestan, D jordjan, and Q ouais c o m p ris e d

t h e Deylam p r o v i n c e . But i n r e c e n t c e n t u r i e s e a s t e r n prov­

i n c e s have b een s e p a r a t e d . The name o f Deylam d i s a p p e a r e d

as the independence of th e a re a was l o s t a n d t h e d e l t a of

t h e S e f i d Bud ( W hi te B i v e r ) gave i t s name t o t h e w h o l e d i s ­

t r i c t and was c a l l e d t h e province o f D jila n . But D j i l a n

(G ilan) was u s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e s h o r e s a r o u n d t h e C a s ­

p i a n a n d D e y la m a n was u s e d f o r th e m o u n ta in area. But i n

d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s o f tim e t h i s name h a s b e e n u s e d s o m e t i m e s

to r e f e r t o t h e on e a n d s o m e t i m e s t o t h e o t h e r .

G eiger (1903:346) says a t th e tu r n of th e century

t h a t tw o t h i r d s o f G i l a n * s p o p u l a t i o n was probably descen-

dents o f t h e o ld G elan trib e. T heir e x t e r n a l appearance

d i f f e r s fr o m t h a t o f t h e P a r s i s who l i v e d among t h e n .

From a l l of the a b o v e we may conclude t h a t the

Amards, G e l s / K a d u s i s , and C a sp ia n s a r e th e a n c e s t o r s o f th e
 35

people liv in g in G ilan and D ey lam an t o d a y . One p o i n t t h a t

a l l h i s t o r i a n s and l i n g u i s t s s o f a r have a g re ed on i s t h a t

G ilak s a re descendants of the G il/G e l/J il tr i b e s mho l i v e d

around th e C aspian s e a . G i l a k s a r e i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e o f G i­

la n , who h a v e b e e n l i v i n g i n t h e s o u t h e r n s h o r e s o f t h e Xa­

zar (Caspian) Sea from a n t i q u i t y . They p r e d a t e A r y a n s , and

t h e y have had t h e i r ovn l a n g u a g e , cu ltu re, an d e t h n i c c h a r ­

acteristics.

3 .2 HISTOBT OP CONTACTS

The h i s t o r y o f G i l a n r e v e a l s t h e a r e a t o be a p la ce

of contact between s e v e r a l languages in c lu d in g , A rabic,

T urkish ( a o n g o l s ) , A z a r b a i j a n i , P a r s i , R u s s i a n , E n g l i s h , Ar­

m e n i a n , K u r d i s h , a nd many o t h e r s . L i n g u i s t i c c o n t a c t s ha v e

b e e n made t h r o u g h i n v a s i o n , d o m i n a t i o n , t r a d e , a n d d i s p l a c e ­

m ent. Prom a c h r o n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e h i s t o r y o f c o n ­

t a c t s may b e divided in to th ree phases: the p r e - c o lo n ia l

era (f rom A r a b s i n v a s i o n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , th e co­

l o n i a l era ( f ro m t h e six te e n th century to the n in eteen th

cen tu ry ), and t h e n e o c o lo n i a l e r a (f ro m t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n tu r y to th e p r e s e n t) . At e a c h s t a g e o f i t s h i s t o r y G i l a n

h a s had i t s own s p e c i f i c pattern th a t p a ra lle le d the h is to r­

ic and e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l l t h e p e o p l e s i n v o l v e d .
 36

H i s t o r i c a l d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e G e ls o r J i l / Radu-

si trib es, a n c e s t o r s o f p r e s e n t da y G i l a k s e e r e i n d e p e n d e n t

d u rin g th e r e i g n of Shapur th e F i r s t t h e S a s a n i d who h a d an

allian ce tre a ty # lth th e ir ch ief B aieras, or B a l e n u s The

fam ily o f D jasnafshah ru le d i n H a z a n d a r a n from 330 B . C . - 4 9 1

&.D. a n d e x t e n d e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y t o G i l a n

By 651 i . D . I r a n was no l o n g e r a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n ­

try : it had b e en c o n q u e re d by A ra b s. But t h e Arabs had s p e ­

c i a l problem s w i t h f r e e d o m - l o v i n g p e o p l e who resisted them

i n t h e m ountain a r e a s o f G ila n (D eylam ). A r a b s i n v a d e d Gi­

l a n a n d Deyalm s e v e r a l tim es but they were n e v e r co n q u ered

by A r a b s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a r e a w as n o t e x p o s e d t o I s l a m un ­

til the n in th c e n t u r y A.D. when d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f of

th a t century, Islam (S hiite) was b r o u g h t t o G i l a n a n d Deylam

by A l l ' s d e s c e n d a n ts [A lavis) w h o , f l e e i n g fr om t h e C a l i p h s ,

had ta k e n r e f u g e in G ilan-D eylam . L ater, they e s ta b lis h e d

th e independent S h i i t e government o f A lavis i n G ilan and

D e y al m . T h i s d y n a s t y l a s t e d u n t i l 928 A.D. u n til th is tim e

Deylam a n d G i l a n bad been in d e p en d e n t o r sem i-independent

b u t g o v e r n e d by l o c a l r u l e r s .

M on go ls i n v a d e d I r a n a r o u n d 1220 A.D. a n d w e re a b l e

to o c c u p y m o s t o f I r a n by th e second h a lf of th e t h i r t e e n t h

century.

Holakuxan t h e Mongol k i n g in I r a n dom inated th e

E a s t e r n c o a s t s o f X a z a r Sea t o t h e b o r d e r o f X a z a r
(Caspian) Sea w ith t h e Q ezel O rdu. The X a z a r Se a
 37

vas c o n sid e re d th e northern border o f Holaku

D ynasty. And o n l y th e sm all d i s t r i c t of G ilan—
c l o s e t o t h e c o a s t s o f t h e Z a z a r Sea p r e s e r v e d i t s
independence. ( P i g n l e v s k a y a e t a l . 1 9 5 7 : 344)

By «3C7 i . D . , G ila n which v as under th e c o n tr o l of

sem i-independent e m ira te s, j o i n e d t h e I l z a n i s (Mongol) state

c o m p l e t e l y From 1307 t o 1370 i t v a s r u l e d b y B o n g o l T u r k s .

At t h e beginning of th e s ix te e n th century, G ilan,

a f t e r a bloody s t r u g g l e , b e ca m e p a r t o f I r a n under th e S a fa -

vid dynasty. D uring th e p r e - c o l o n i a l e r a , co n tacts general­

ly, v e r e made t h r o u g h d o m i n a t i o n . The main p u rp o s e of c o n ­

t a c t was t o occupy a n o th e r p e o p l e 's t e r r i t o r y , o b t a i n war

g ain s, slav es, and r e c e i v e t r i b u t e . Bu t G i l a n ' s a c c e s s t o

the sea and s h ip p in g a d d e d a new dim ension to th e s e con­

tacts. G i l a n became a gatew ay be tw ee n E u ro p e and t h e E a s t .

In a d d itio n , th e p ro d u c tio n of s i l k i n G i l a n a t t r a c t e d many

r u l e r s a nd m e r c h a n t s .

The e r a o f c o l o n i z a t i o n b e g i n s i n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n ­

tury. The t h r u s t t o g a i n new m a r k e t s a n d t o e x c h a n g e new

p r o d u c t s f o r c h e a p raw m a t e r i a l s c r e a t e d s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n

among E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z e r s , e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e

and B r i t i s h .

At th at tim e th e P ortuguese already m onopolized

s h i p p i n g i n t h e I n d i a n Oc ean south of Ira n . B ritish merc ­

h a n t s w e r e l o c k i n g f o r a new way t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h e P o r t u ­

guese and t o be c o n s i d e r e d a s a s e c u r e s e a route to In d ia.

T h u s , t h e y a c c o m p l i s h e d many e x p l o r a t o r y t r i p s .
 38

It i s not su rp risin g t h e n , t h a t G i l a n be c a m e a t a r ­

g e t f o r th e European c o l o n i z e r s by t h e m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u ­

ry-
I n 1553 &.D. B r i t i s h m e r c h a n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e a
ro u te b etw een t h e S e f i d [ W h i t e ] s e a and Rus­
s i a . . . o p e n e d a new e r a i n t h e r e l e t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
Iran and t h e European c o u n t r i e s . Th e B r i t i s h
considered the d i r e c t tr a d e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ithout
u s i n g T u r k e y much more p r o f i t a b l e . B r i t i s h merc­
hants a ls o t r i e d to use the Tolga-X azar trade
r o u t e w h i c h ha d a l r e a d y b e e n made by t h e R u s s i a n .
[ P i g u l e w s k a y a e t a l . 1 9 5 7 : 466)

The B r i t i s h f o u n d e d t h e R u s s i a n com pan y o f Moscov­

ite . Then, in 1557:

A n th o n y J e n k i n s o n a n d [ t w o o t h e r s ] w e r e a s s i g n e d
f r o m t h e a b o v e company t o e x p l o r e t h e r o u t e s f o r
tr a d e w ith c e n t r a l A sia. They a r r i v e d i n A s t r a z a n
a f te r they p a s s e d Moscow, and t h e r e they r a i s e d
the B r itis h f l a g a t the X azar Sea f o r th e f i r s t
tim e. Th e company d e c i d e d t o b u y s i l k f r o m S h i r -
van, G ilan, and H azandaran l o c a t e d i n n o r t h o f
I r a n . . . , a n d c a r r y g o o d s t o a n d fro m I n d i a v i a t h e
c a r a v a n r o u t e . ( R a b i n o : 446)

To g a i n c o n t r o l o f trad e, E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n t s now

realized th at i t w o u ld b e e a s i e r to n e g o tia te w ith a s in g le

pow erful c e n tr a li z e d government than w ith t h e many l e a d e r s

of sev e ra l independent t r i b e s or sem i-independent e m ira te s.

T herefore, they a s s is te d the kings of Ira n in c o n s o lid a tin g

t h e i r pow er. T h u s , t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t s e n t s e v e r a l em­

i s s a r i e s t o S h a h Abbas (th e king of Ira n ) to n e g o tia te trade

t r e a t i e s w ith him. They s u b m i t t e d l u x u r i o u s g i f t s w ith l e t ­

t e r s p r a i s i n g th e king o f I r a n as "k in g of k i n g s , " "king of

 39

n a t i o n s , " and so o n . E ventually, Shah Tahm asb [a S a f a v i d

king) o f f i c i a l l y g a v e many c r e d i t s t o t h e M o s c o v i t e c o m p a n y ,

a B ritish-E ussian trad in g e n te rp ris e , t h a t exempted them

from p a y i n g any tax es, lasared th e ir pro p erties again st

th e ft, a nd p e r m i t t e d t h e i r f r e e e n t r y i n t o t h e c o u n t r y . The

M oscovite company was a l s o promised help in transporting

g o o d s fr o m t h e s h i p t o t h e c i t y (B abino 1916-17: #48). The

20 y e a r s * e x p o r t o f g o o d s t o I r a n f r o m t h e M o s c o v i t e company

* 15 61 -8 1 A .D .) is an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e f r i e n d s h i p between

t h e k in g s o f I r a n and B r i t i s h m e rc h a n ts .

B ut t h e M o s c o v i t e c o m p an y a n d the B ritish -B u ssia n s

were n o t th e only fo r e ig n a g e n ts in G ila n . Turks and o t h e r

E u r o p e a n s had u n d e r t a k e n more or less t h e sam e guest for

g a in in g c o n tr o l o f t h e V olga-X azar r o u te . Babino * 1 9 1 6 -1 7 :

448) n o t e s t h a t ;

The f o u r t h group o f B r i t i s h m e rc h an ts a r r i v e d in
Iran in August 1568...w e re n o t s u c c e s s f u l in
trade, becau se th e d e l e g a t e s th e y had s e n t t o G i­
l a n were e v e ry w h e re f a c e d w ith T u r k s . Even t h e
new o r d e r o f t h e S h a h Tahmasb b a s e d on h i s a g r e e ­
me nt w i t h f r e e t r a v e l i n g o f t h e B r i t i s h v i a G i l a n
t o t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f I r a n and c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
l o c a l p e o p l e . . . d i d n o t h e l p them.

He a d d s t h a t o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s why B r iti s h m erchants we re

n o t s u c c e s s f u l was t h e i r lack of understanding o f the d i f f i ­

c u lty in b r e a k i n g down t r a d i t i o n a l trad e com petition in a

c o u n t r y w h e r e t r a d e h a d l o n g t e e n d o m i n a t e d by T u r k s , Arme­

n i a n s , an d V e n e t i a n s .
 40

In th e seventeenth cen tu ry th ere vere two f a c t o r s

w hic h f i n a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d t r a d e and a t t r a c t e d more f o r e i g n

m e rc h a n ts t o I r a n and G i l a n . The f i r s t was t h e e s t a b l i s h ­

m e n t o f a money economy t h a t r e p l a c e d th e exchange of goods

f o r goods b arter. D s i n g money made b i g t r a d e e a s i e r and

m e rc h a n ts * p r o f i t s more s e c u r e t h a n b e f o r e . T h e s e c o n d im­

p o r t a n t f a c t o r was t h a t a l l sem i- in dep en d en t and in d e p e n ­

d e n t g ro u p s had been overcom e and w e r e now r u l e d by t h e S a -

fa v id kings of Ira n , pigulevskaya e t a l . (1957; 551) n o t e s

th a t certain w e a l t h i e r r e g io n s of I r a n [A rdabil, G ila n , Ha­

zandaran, and Is fa h a n ) were c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e t e r r i t o r y

o f the s p e c ia l lands. T h e y w e re g o v e r n e d b y s p e c i f i c m i n i s ­

t e r s a p p o i n t e d by t h e S a f a v i d k i n g s a n d t h e i r a g e n t s who had

the a u th o rity to re g u la te tra d e . Th e i n c o m e f r o m t h e s e s p e ­

c i f i c t e r r i t o r i e s was a l l o c a t e d t o f i n a n c e t h e p a l a c e o f t h e

king, i t s s t a f f , and o t h e r r o y a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . T herefore,

it is not su rp risin g th a t the r u l e r s supported t r a d e and

changed t h e r u l e s and t a x law s a s i t s u i t e d them. Thus, in

t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r e i g n t r a d e and e x p o r t i n t e n s i f i e d

and t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ra w s i l k fo r export reached i t s c li­

max. Chapman 1566 s a y s : "The most im p o r t a n t goods we

[could] b uy [ w e r e ] raw s i l k . . . a n d alum in t h i s d istric t

[G ilan ]. He a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e many T u r k i s h m e r c h a n t s who

were l i v i n g there a t t h e time[Chapman i n Rabino 1946-17:

449) " .
 ai

A fe w n o t e s on the e x ten t o f the s i l k trad e w ill

help to c l a r i f y how i m p o r t a n t i t was i n t h e h i s t o r y o f c o n ­

t a c t a n d why G i l a n l o s t i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a l

era. I n t h e r e i g n t h a t w as r u l e d b y t h e s a f a w i d s t w e n t y t o

tw enty-tw o th o u san d dl [b ales] of s i l k w ere p rod u ced annu­

ally . A ccording t o Charden G ilan produced ten th ou sand dl

[b ales] of raw s i l k [h alf of the production o f t h e whole

country). Only o n e t h o u s a n d d l [ b a l e s ] rem ained i n I r a n t o

b e u s e d f o r l o c a l p u r p o s e s , a n d t h e r e s t was e x p o r t e d t o I n ­

d i a an d E u r o p e . The h i g h e s t q u a l i t y s i l k came f r o m S h i r w a n

a n d G i l a n a n d was o f t h e L a b i j a n i t y p e .

D aring t h i s period the s i l k t r a d e wa s s o p r o f i t a b l e

th a t for a s long as s ix o r s e v e n y e a r s many B ritis h busi­

nessmen r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r trade to th e e x p o r ta tio n of raw

silk fr om G ila n and t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f woven f a b r i c s from

E nglan d and o t h e r E uropean c o u n t r i e s t o I r a n through G ilan .

It was n o t o n l y a v e r y p r o f i t a b l e b u s in e s s b u t a l s o provided

f o r a n e x t r e m e l y c o m f o r t a b l e a nd q u iet l i f e for the B ritis h

m e r c h a n t s who s t a y e d in R asht. from B ash t t h e y c o n t r o l l e d

t r a d e w ith a l l o t h e r areas of Iran . It was s o p r o f i t a b l e ,

th a t the "silk t r a d e could b rin g more t h a n 50 p e r c e n t and

s o m e t i m e s 180 p e r c e n t i n t e r e s t " ( B a b i n o 1916-17:^66).

A r m e n ia n b u s i n e s s m e n a l s o g a r n e r e d l a r g e p r o f i t s by

m onopolizing s i l k e x p o r ts from G i l a n . S h a h Abbas of Iran

 42

used th e se A rm enians a s p o l i t i c a l m e d ia to rs and a g e n ts to

s e l l the s i l k f a b r i c s t h a t b a d b e e n woven i n t h e r o y a l work­

shops in Europe. The A r m e n i a n s i n r e t u r n p a i d a s much a s

580 tom an i n t a x , a l a r g e amount o f I r a n i a n c u r r e n c y , to the

Iranian tre a s u ry annually (P igulevskaya e t a l . 1959». -

The D u t c h a l s o w e r e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l in th e com peti­

t i o n w ith B r i t i s h m erch an ts. T he y e x p o r t e d a r o u n d f i v e hun ­

d r e d t h o u s a n d t o s e v e n h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d L i v r e o f raw s i l k t o

Europe a n n u a lly a t a b o u t 1670.

In t h e seventeenth cen tu ry t r a d e between I r a n and

R u ssia a lso expanded; a t t h i s tim e to o , s i l k , more t h a n a n y ­

thing e ls e , was e x p o r t e d f r o m I r a n .

Bany o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s h a v e m entioned t h e a c t i v i t i e s

o f t h e M o s c o v i t e company a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n e r s who t r a d e d a t

t h e p o r t s o f G i l a n a r o u n d 162 9 A.D.

Babino (1916-17:475) a l s o m entions " a l a r g e number

of A rm e n ia n s ...a n o t i c e a b l e group of S u s s i a n s , many H i n d u s ,

and Jews i n R ash t. Ea c h g r o u p had a s e p a r a t e c a r a v a n s e r a i

[in n )." The C h r i s t i a n m erchants c a r r i e d on t r a d e w ith th e

European c o u n t r i e s and R u s s ia , t h e H indus w ith I n d i a and th e

fa r east.

L ing u istically s ilk h a s h a d a n i m p a c t , e s p e c i a l l y on

p e r s o n a l n a m es i n G i l a n . The name D e b a i / D i b a f s i l k ) h a s been

used o f t e n , l a r g e l y in e l i t e f a m i l i e s , n o t only in G ilan but

 43

thro u g h o u t I r a n . Diba i s a l s o used a s a f a m i l y nam e, but

t h e A r a b i c word f o r s i l k h a r ir has la rg e ly replaced i t . Di-

b aci fsilkaapl or h ariri has been used f o r silk m erchants,

but today i t i s used a s a su rn am e. Diba o r ^ r i r i s a mord

th at is a ls o used t o p ra is e the beauty o f a g ir l's long,

straig h t, s o ft h air.

Therefore, me may conclude th at the s i l k trad e

p la y e d a d i a l e c t i c a l r o l e i n l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t n r a l c o n t a c t

and G i l a k i language change. On t h e one hand G ilaks hare

be en a b l e t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r c u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c i d e n t i t y

th r o u g h an i n d e p e n d e n c e m h i c h mas b o u g h t b y th e tr ib u te in

silk th at th ey paid u n t i l th e s ix te e n th century. on t h e

o th e r hand, l a t e r i n th e s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r y t h e huge p r o f ­

i t s o f the s ilk trad e a ttra c te d f o r e ig n e r s and, it mas i n ­

s tru m e n ta l in G i l a n 's l o s s o f independence.

In l a t e 1722 A f g h a n i tro o p s surrounded B ash t. The

governor o f G ilan s e n t a d e le g a te to A starxan to su g g e st th e

s u rre n d e r o f Fasht t o B ussia in r e tu r n fo r re c e iv in g h elp to

f i g h t t h e Afgans (Babino 1916-17: 463-4). T ran sp o rted in

tw elve s h ip s , E ussian tro o p s a r r iv e d in th e p o rt c i t y o f En-

z a l i on t h e 14th of Nove mbe r 1722 a nd w e n t f r o m th e re to

R asht.

S h a h T ah ma sb t h e Second th e king o f Iran, who was

w illin g t o r e c e i v e h e l p f r o m R u s s i a t o f i g h t a g a i n s t nahmood
 44

Sh a h o f A f g a n , made a t r e a t y v i t h R u s s i a in S aint P eters­

burg. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s t r e a t y B u s s i a was o b l i g a t e d t o h e l p

Shah Ta hm a sb a n d in return receive co n tro l over th e sea

p o r ts o f D aghestan, A zarb aijan * , G ila n , H azandaran, and Z s t -

erabad. L a t e r Sh ah Tahmasb i n d i c a t e d t h a t h i s d e l e g a t e h a d

e x c e e d e d h i s a u t h o r i t y , and he r e j e c t e d t h e t r e a t y .

In l a t e 1722 t h e O t t o m a n T u r k s t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e

weakness o f t h e I r a n i a n governm ent, and t h e i r a g e n t s o c c u ­

p i e d S h ir v a n and p a r t o f A z a r b a i j a n . The t h r e a t f r o m t h e O t­

t o m a n T u r k s f o r c e d Sh ah Tahmasb t o a c c e p t t h e e a r l i e r t r e a t y

w ith R u ssia . I t was thus th a t th e w estern and s o u t h e r n

p o r t s on t h e X a za r Sea (O a rb a n d , Baku, G i l a n , and H azandar­

an) o f f i c i a l l y were s u b m i t t e d t o B u s s i a .

In 1734 t h e R ussian tro o p s l e f t G ilan after tw elve

years occupation. T z a r i s t R u s s i a r e t u r n e d G i l a n t o I r a n on

the co n d itio n t h a t t h e Shah s h o u ld be a b l e t o prevent i t s

fallin g in t o t h e hands o f t h e O ttom ans ( P ig u le v s k a y a : 596}-

D uring t h e fo llo w in g y e a r s ( 1 7 3 6 - 1 7 4 7 ) R a d e r was t h e

king of I r a n . He w a n t e d t o e s t a b l i s h a good r e l a t i o n s h i p

w ith B r itis h m e r c h a n ts , t h e r e f o r e , he s u p p o rte d t h e B r i t i s h -

P u s s i a n Company (M oscovite) in t h e i r e f f o r t s t o monopolize

s i l k e x p o r t s fr o m Iran. Thus, B ritish firm s were e s t a b ­

l i s h e d i n Mashhad a n d B a s h t (P ig n lev sk ay a: 596).

 45

IQ a d d i t i o n , t h e c o m p le t io n o f t h e r a i l r o a d between

R u s s i a and I r a n , increased n av ig atio n in th e C aspian Sea,

a nd i m p r o v e m e n t a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s b e t w e e n E n z a l i and

T e h r a n made c o n t a c t s e a s i e r .

G ila k i c o n ta c t w ith n cn -G iiak s in s id e the t e r r i t o r y

o f I r a n were b ro u g h t a b o u t th ro u g h d o m in a tio n and d i s p l a c e ­

ment. From t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y when Gi­

lan l o s t its independence, it was r u l e d by g o v e rn o rs ap­

p o i n t e d by th e Iranian c e n tra l g o v e r n m e n t who were m ain ly

non-G ilaks, t h a t i s , S a f a v id g o v e r n o r s from i z a r b i a j a n , Bad­

e r who was A z a r b a i j a n * i G e z e l b a s , Z a n d s who w e r e E a r s , a nd

Q a j a r s who w e r e o r i g i n a l l y f r o m a T u r k i s h nomad t r i b e . Each

group t r i e d t o e n f o r c e i t s own c u l t u r a l n o r m s a n d l a n g u a g e s

on t h e G i l a k s .

The h i s t o r y of G ila n shows how s e v e r a l d ifferent

e t h n i c groups h a v e been fo rc ib ly exiled to G ilan or they

have been in stalled there as m ilitary troops. Babino

J 1316-17:31) re fe rs to “eig h t hundred O jag/g 'f a m i l i e s * of

B i s h v a n d K u r d s f r o m t h e BeBe t r i b e who w e r e s e t t l e d forcibly

by t h e S a f a v i d k i n g Shah A b b a s . T h e y l i v e d on t h e two s i d e s

o f t h e Shah Bud ' r i v e r * a n d t h e r i g h t s h o r e o f t h e S e f i d Bud

f r o m Man j i l t o Deylaman. T heir l a n g u a g e was K u r d i . Kurd

g r o u p s e x i l e d by Sh ah A bba s a r e a l s o i n o t h e r a r e a s o f Gi­

l a n — Bahm atabad, A liabad, K alaya, and D iv ru d . Some K u r d s

still l i v e i n B udbar and A c a r l u .

 46

O th e r Kurds w e re s e n t t o G i l a n a s tr o o p s to a id the

r u l e r s of G ilan. Babino (1916-17:436) re fe rs to "S harafel-

d i n t h e g o v e r n o r o f T o n e k a h o n who had f i v e hundred Kurds a s

s e r v a n t s and w a r r i o r s who w e r e sen t to help from Q a zv in ."

T h e Kurd H a h a l e (Kurd p l a c e ) in B asht and th e l e z e s e s t h a t

G ila k i s h a r e s w ith K urdi a r e th e little t h a t rem ain of t h i s

co n tact.

A n o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p t h a t was f o r c i b l y s e n t t o G i l a n

w e r e A r m e n i a n s who w e r e s e n t t o the s o u th C asp ian and G ila n

b y Shah Abbas t h e S a f a v i d k i n g .

Babino (1916-17:325) re fe rs to p risoners who w e re

b r o u g h t t o Deylam by Bohamaad B eza K a n , t h e g o v e r n o r o f Gi­

lan in the e a r ly n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . L a te r they c o n s t i t u t e d

fo u r t r ib e s in th e re g io n : la le sh , Jah an g iri, G a s k a r i , and

O shkuri.

Trezel (1821) stated t h e t f i f t y J e w is h f a m i l i e s were

l i v i n g i n B a s h t i n S i a h k a l and Deylaman: fifteen t o tw enty

f a m i l i e s had l i v e d from a l o n g tim e ago as sm all b u sin ess­

men.

I n some a r e a s o f G ilan t h e m ig ra tio n o f g r o u p s and

c o n t a c t s between d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s i s s t i l l more i n t e n s i f i e d .

F or example i n E n z a l i a l m o s t a l l i n h a b i t a n t s a r e im m igrants.

Babino (1916-17: 138-140) r e f e r s t o t h e S u r z i He*mati c l a n

who o r i g i n a l l y came fr om S u r x a k , a villag e aro u n d Seonan,

 a?

and t h e P a ry a B aogi c l a n from B o j n u r d an d Z o r a s a n i n n o r t h ­

e a s t of Iran . The a n c e s t o r s o f t h e D a r v a B e v g i c l a n owned

s h i p s and came t o G i l a n accom panied by B ossian fish e rm e n .

T h e y came t o t h e S e f i d mad t o r e c e i v e f i s h i n g p e r m i t s fr o m

th e governor o f L ahijan in exchange f o r some sm all g i f t ,

such as f a r . I n 1858 a n d 1859 H i r z a E b r a h i m Khan (f r o m t h e

Darya Beygi fa m ily ) m onopolized t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y w ith a

perm it obtained from t h e g o v e rn o r o f G ilan for fifty -fiv e

h u n d r e d t u na n p e r y e a r a n d r e c e i v e d t h e t i t l e o f D a r v a Bevgi

[ S e a Lo rd ) f o r h i m s e l f and h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . Prom t h e n u n t i l

t h e p r e s e n t t i m e Darya B eygi h a s te e n used a s a su rn a m e.

A n o t h e r g r o u p i n E n z a l i w hi c h i n d i c a t e s c o n t a c t , is

t h e H o h a i e r f a m i l y who a r e p e o p l e who e s c a p e d t o I r a n d u r i n g

t h e second war betw een I r a n and F u s s i a . H o h a i e r means im­

m ig r a n t and now t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s u s e t h i s term a s a sur­

name.

F in ally , th e A nezanie a r e t h e d e sc e n d a n ts o f some

Anezan gun men of E sterabad who were s e n t to E nzali as

tro o p s in 18 1 5 .

The e x i s t e n c e o f tw o f o r e ig n s c h o o ls— one Russian

a n d o n e A r m e n ia n s c h o o l a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y i n E n z a l i

a ls o re in fo rce d the c o n ta c t.

To sum u p , G i l a n h a s b e e n a p l a c e o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n

many l i n g u i s t i c c o m m u n i t i e s . F or t h e im p a c ts o f t h e s e con­

t a c t s on G i l a k i s e e c h a p t e r 8 o f t h i s s t u d y .
 CHAPTER ZT

THE 6IL A K 1 L A I60A 6E

A. 1 I BTBODDCTIOB

T h i s c h a p t e r an d th e c e z t provide a d e sc rip tio n of

S i l a k i as spoken in th e c ity o f Basht (the c a p i t a l c i t y of

G ilan ), E nzali (where n o s t o f t h e c o n t a c t betw een G i l a k s and

Europeans to o k p lace), an d Z o s b i j a r (a s w a l l to w n in the

province o f G ila n ). I have not r e l i e d on th e s t u d i e s d i s ­

cussed in c h a p te r 2 f o r the d e s c r ip ti o n of G ila k i p resen ted

here but h a v e u s e d th em t o c h e c k my a n a l y s i s , and I have

n o t e d my a g r e e m e n t s and d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h them where n e c e s ­

sary.

Sy t r e a t m e n t o f G ila k i here i s based on t h e s p e e c h

o f my o l d e s t i n f o r m a n t s , both f e m a l e and male s p e a k e r s , us ­

ing in fo rm al, co llo q u ial, d e lib e r a te form al, poetry, and

folksongs. Female s p e e c h d i f f e r s from male sp e e c h i n both

p h o n e t i c s and s y n t a x . The s p e e c h p a t t e r n s d i f f e r from i n d i ­

vid u al to in d iv id u al re la tiv e to age, education, so cial

class, an d r e s i d e n c e , a n d t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s p e e c h hav e

b e e n e x p l a i n e d where a p p r o p r i a t e .

- 48 -
 49

The p h o n e t i c s , p h o n o l o g y , m o r p h o l o g y , and s y n t a x of

G ilaki i s g i v e n i n two c h a p t e r s , c h a p te r s 4 and 5. The

first is a b r ie f a n a ly s is of phonetics and phonology; the

second i s on morphology and s y n t a x .

4.2 PHOIOLOGT

4.2.1 Inventory of Basic Soends

The b a s i c s o u n d s i n G i l a k i a r e 25 c o n s o n a n t s a n d 12

vow els.

4.2.1.1 Vowels

Vowels i s G i l a k i a r e :

£ a ] / [ A ] , low c e n t r a l u n r o u n d e d s h o r t v o w e l ; /ama/% *we*.

[ à ] , low c e n t r a l u n r o u n d e d l o n g v o w e l . T h i s vowel i s s h o r t ­

e r than [ a ] i n F a r s i and o t h e r I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s ; / â b / , 'w a ­

t e r *.

[e], mid c l o s e f r o n t u n r o u n d e d l o n g v o w e l ; / g e , t / 'sa y s* .

[ £ ] , mid o p e n f r o n t u n r o u n d e d s h o r t v o w e l ; / p i x r / 'fa th e r '.

[ з ] , mid c e n t r a l u n r o u n d e d s h o r t v o w e l ; / d a r d / ' p a i n ' .

[I:], high c l o s e f r o n t unrounded long vow el;- / x a i : j / 'y o u

w a n t'.

[i], high c l o s e f r o n t unrounded s h o r t vowel; / p i s / 'fro n t'.

[I], high open f r o n t unrounded s h o r t vow el; / d i g a r / 'o th e r '.

[ и ] , h ig h c l o s e back r o u n d e d lo n g v o w e l; / b i r u n / ' o u t ' .

[ Û ] , high open back rounded s h o r t vow el; / r û z a n / ' d a y s ' .

 50

[o], mid o p e n b a c k r o o n d e d l o n g v o w e l ; / x o l / ' c r a z y * .

[ Ô ] , mid o p e n b a c k r o o n d e d s h o r t v o w e l ; / x 5 b / * g o o d * .

C hristensen (1930:39) i n t h e "Grammar o f G i l a k i " d i ­

v i d e s v o w e l s i n two g r o n p s — l o n g and h a l f l o n g . a ,e ,i,o ,o ,

and s h o r t v o w e ls : k, a, a , % , t , e, i, o, u, a,B . But

R astorgoeva e t a l . ( 1 9 7 1 : 1 7 ) , on t h e b a s e s o f s t a b i l i t y an d

duration, c a t e g o r i z e vow els i n G i l a k i i n t o two types: 1}

s t a b l e vow els: e , o, a, a, i, û and 2 ) u n s t a b l e vow els: i,

9 , u. According to them, u n s t a b l e v o w e l s v a r y i n d u r a t i o n on

th e b a sis o f s tr e s s an d environm ent. T able 1 r e p r e s e n ts a

c o r r e l a t i o n o f th e vow els, reco g n ized by R asto rg o ev a e t . ed.

[1971: ) , C h r i s t e n s e n ( 1 9 3 0 : 9 ) , a n d t h i s w ork .

* .2 .1 .2 C onsonants

B a s i c c o n s o n a n t phonemes i n g i l a k i c a n b e sum m arized

in t a b l e 2. The b a s i c c o n s o n a n t s o f G i l a k i a r e s t o p co n so ­

nants, a f f r ic a te s , f r ic a tiv e s , n a sa ls, liq u id s, and g l i d e s .

The s t o p c o n s o n a n t s a r e : 1) v o i c e l e s s , 2) v o i c e d , v oiceless

sto p s are: [p], [t], a nd [ k ] . Voiced s t o p s a r e : [b ], [d],

and [ g ] . Examples; /p u rd / 'b rid g e * , /B pc/ ' t a s t e l e s s * , /ga

p /b / 'c o n v e rs a tio n ', / t u r / 'c r a z y ', / k o y a / 'w here*.

A ffric a te s in G ilak i a re : [ c ] v o iceless, alveolar

p a l a t a l and [ j ] v o i c e d a l v e o p a l a t a l . Examples:
 51

Table 1

IB astorgoeva e t a l . C hristensen Bahnani |

1S t a b l e unstable Short LongS H a l f Long Short Long i

1 â à à a A à 1

1 a a

&

I e e ê e i
d
9
1 e I 1
1

I i i i i i 1

1 i: J

1 o o 5 5 o 1

1 U 0 a Q Û a 1

Table 1 rep resen ts the c o rre la tio n of vowels a c c o r d in g

to d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s on G i l a k i .
 52

/ctu /o / 'h o * * ; / i c c i / 'so m e th in g '* / 1 3 p c / , 'lip '; /)u l/

•c h e e k '; / i f g ô r ô / , 'c r y '.

F r ic a tiv e s in G ilaki are: 1) v o iceless, 2) voiced.

V oiceless f r i c a t i v e s a re : £ f ], [ s ] , [& ], [ i ] , and [ h ] . Ex­

am ples:

filli 's a liv a , s p i t t l e

S3b3 5 'lo u se*

sdlun'ak 'a p r ic o t'

XAS 'bone*

h ist 'w et*

V oiced f r i c a t i v e s a r e : [ v ] , [ z ] , £ z ] , and £ 7 ] / £ * ] . Exam­

ples:

vavin 'c u t'

zay 'ch ild *

aarozni ' i c e cream '

Y orab-zsn/ ' l i e r '

N asals in G ila k i a re : [m] b i l a b i a l , [n ] alveolar

and [ 5 ] v e l a r . Examples:

/m âar/ 'm o th e r'; / n i s t S n / s it'; /a ^ g u s ta r / 'rin g * .

L iquids in G ilak i a re : alv eo lar la te r a ls [ I ] a nd

[r]. [r] i s e i t h e r voiced a lv e o la r f l a p or [ r ] voiced a l ­

v eolar t r i l l . The o c c u r r e n c e o f [ f ] i s v e r y l i m i t e d . Few

w o r d s i n G i l a k i h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d w i t h t h e [ f ]. Sometimes
 53

T able Z

Hilitiial Labio­ b e a t # 1/ i lVCd- Palataliyalad 1 1

dental tlveoiar paiatal 1 |Uvular|Slottal|

stsp P t 1 k 1 1 1

1 #0i CKl 1 s t o p b d ( y 1 1 1

V
Ivoicrless otlricit* C 1 1 i 1

Ivoiced Attricatc Ï l i t 1

*
Ivuiccloss fricative f s m i l l 1 h 1

1v o i c e d fricative V X 1 1 T 1 K 1 9

inasal m n 1 7 1 1 (

lliquid fl-rr I I I ;

« y 1 J 1 1

.....................

T able 2 r e p r e s e n t s b a s ic consonants o f G ila k i.

 Su

it i s used a s a v a r ia n t o f to e r e a r t i c u l a t e d [ r ] . Examples:

• valley'i/arrs, 3r@/ 'saw*; /tarna/'the

paunch of stomach*.

G lides in G ila k i a re : [ 7 ] voiced p a l a t a l , a n d [m ]

b i l a b i a l rounded g l i d e . E xaiples:

/ayta/ *this one*; /towxort/ *top*.

1 r e v ie w o f t h e m a jo r w orks on G i l a k i i n d i c a t e s t h a t

t h e r e i s a g r e e m e n t among B a s t o r g o e v a e t a l . ( 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 8 0 ) , Eva

ip o r (1973), C h riste n se n ( 1 9 3 0 ) , a nd t h i s s t u d y on t h e m a j o r

consonants. B u t t h e v e l a r n a s a l [J7] i s m e n t i o n e d o n l y h e r e

a n d , by C h r i s t e n s e n and C h o d z k o (1842:526). Chodzko, how-

ever, does n o t use p h o n etic s c r i p t . He u s e s /aajpga/

*moon* in h i s w o r k . The [ ÿ ] i s n o t re c o g n iz e d in any s tu d y

o th e r than th e p re se n t one. C hristensen (1930) shows [ g ] ,

b u t R astorgoeva e t a l . ( 1 9 7 1 , 1980) have n o t m en tioned i t .

The [ r ] i s n o t r e c o r d e d by a n y o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s .

4 .2 .2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f So u n d s

4 .2 .2 .1 Towels

Th e b a s i c vow els o f G i l a k i occur in a l l po sitio n s

w ith one e x c e p tio n th e vowel /e /. I t s occurrence in th e

m orphem e/syllable i n i t i a l i s lim ite d t o l o a n words from Ara­

b i c and F a r s i . Examples:

A rabic /e fd a m / 'ex e c u te * ===> / e d a m / i n G i l a k i .

p u ttin g o r being put to d e a th a s a le g a l p e n a lty .

 55

The usage of th is sound is very lim ited . Its

pronunciation i s associated v ith highly a c c u ltu ra te d G ilaki.

The [ e ] i n t h e morpheme i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n i s m ainly used a s /

e /, / e / , and / e h / i n A rabic lo a n words. Exam ples:

AHABIC GILAKI

^esg 'lo v e * tsy /Y

ebtem al 'p ro b a b ility * i t e m al/ tem al

€ temad ' t r u s t * tem ad/item ad

In a d d i t i o n , th e occurrence of / e / a fte r certain

consonants i s lim ite d t o loan w ords. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of

t h e vowel / o / i s very lim ite d in G ila k i. T h is sound i s less

r o u n d e d a nd s h o r t e r , c l o s e t o / ô / when p r o n o u n c e d by o l d un­

e d u c a t e d i n f o r m a n t s o r p e o p l e who h a v e h a v e n o t been h i g h l y

accu ltu rated . The /â / is articu lated by p e o p l e who h a v e

b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by F a r s i . The o ccu rren c e o f t h i s long / a /

i s an i n d i c a t o r o f t h e p r o c e s s o f change. The / û / a n d / i /

have been m e n t i o n e d by B a s t o r g o e v a et a l., (1971: id) as

sounds th a t a re about to d isa p p e a r. In t h i s s t u d y I found

t h a t many o l d e r i n f o r m a n t s and t h o s e i n y o unger age g ro u p s

who h a v e n o t been a c c u ltu r a te d o r " F a r s iz e d ” u s e th e m more

frequently. T h e / » / i s u s e d more t h a n a n y o t h e r v o w e l . Its

articu latio n r a n g e s fr o m / a/ to d e l e t i o n of / a / . /a / is a

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sound i n t h e G i l a k i la n g u a g e .
 56

The f o l l o w i n g com binations of vowel have been re ­

ported f o r G ila k i:

ai

ai

ui

Some v o w e l s a r e r e a r t i c u l a t e d . O ften th e y a r e p ar­

a l l e l e d wi±h lo n g vow els w ith a fa llin g or risin g pitch.

Examples:

âa maar "mother*
h X
16 p tir "father*
f w/
oo soon "going"

4 .2 .2 .2 C onsonants

a. I n i t i a l P o sitio n : A ll c o n so n a n ts e x c e p t / ^ / » and

/r/ occur i n i t i a l l y i n a s y l l a b l e o r a w or d. The / p / o c c u rs

o n ly in word m e d i a l p o s i t i o n . It i s u sually f o l l o w e d by

/ g / , /Tf/, o r / * / . Exam ples:

tuj^g "bracelet"

apgustar "ring" ( f i n g e r ring)

i^Y alab "revolution, vom iting"

sg^g "stone"

"on p u r p o s e "

map u l "portable"
 57

V oiceless sto p consonants / p / , /t/, and / k / are

s l i g h t l y a s p i r a t e d « h e n t h e y o c c u r i n word i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n ;

in o th e r p o s itio n s they a r e n n a sp ira te d . Examples:

h '
p .tir 'fa th e r*

asp •horse*

t^ur *c r a z y *

k^otit *dove*

buguft *said* (th ird p o s itio n singular)

k .o o r *girl*

aski 'sn e e ze *

t^ usk 'p it*

V oiced s t o p c o n s o n a n ts / b / , / à / , / g / a r e l e s s v o ic ed

when i n word i n i t i a l p o sitio n than in in te rv o c a lic position.

Examples:

bûbûr 'cu t*

dûrân 'c a ll*

gidi 't h e y say*

dig ar 'o th er*

b. M edial P o s i t i o n : A l l c o n s o n a n t s o c c u r i n t h e morpheme me­

d ia l p o sitio n . A ll consonants except / y / may o c c u r i n t h e

in te rv o c a lic p o sitio n if they a re not p a rt of a consonant

clu ster.
 58

c. F inal P o sitio n : ftll c o n so n a n ts e x c e p t /5*/ o c c u r i n t h e

fin a l sy lla b le p o sitio n . H o w e v e r, / j ; / may o c c u r i n a mor­

pheme s y l l a b l e f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n onom atopoeic cases. Fo r

exam ple:

vapJzttn *cry o f baby*.

The / J ? / may occur in the sy lla b le f in a l p o sitio n

when a new s y l l a b l e i s a d d e d t o t h e word s o t h a t t h e /y

V c l u s t e r s may b e b r o k e n . Examples;

s a p g ♦ i n ===> sapjgin

*stone* 'heavy

CVCC CVCÎCVC

F requently, t h e / h / i s mute when i n f i n a l p o sitio n .

* .2 .2 .3 Consonant C lu s te r s

a. I n i t i a l P o sitio n : The f o l l o w i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s o f c o n s o ­

n a n t s may o c c u r i n t h e morpheme s y l l a b l e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n :

sb sbul 'fle e *
V V V
cm emus ' m ulish*

kr krug/c 'b o a t*

br brar ' brother*

V V
ct cto 'how*

fr fro x tia 'w e so ld *

bz bza 'b o r n o f / d e l i v e r e d by

bg b g a bga 'make l o v e ’

bb bbo ' became*

 59

gr groxt "fled*

CX CZ3r t B 9 *St€¥*
b. fledial P o s i t i o n : th e n in th e vord m edial p o s i t i o n , the

s y l l a b l e may s t a s t w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s :

bl karbla

dr faj^drdst
V
tm cx&rtma

T a b l e 3 c o n t a i n s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f c o n s o n a n t s i n me di­

a l p o sitio n s.

c. Final P o s itio n : T a b l e 0 r e p r e s e n t s t h e many c o m b i n a t i o n s

o f t h e two d i f f e r e n t c o n s o n a n t s i n s y l l a b l e s f i n a l p o s i t i o n :

d. B e a r t i c n l a t e d C o n s o n a n t s : D o u b l e g e m i n a t e c o n s o n a n t s oc­

c u r in the i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s itio n i n a w o rd . The f o llo w in g

ty p e s have been re c o rd e d .

d aïT S 'm in u te '

1 1 sailà* 'la s h '

vv vv.
cc nacci 'k is s '

rr darrS 'v a lle y '

ss m assa 'p in c e rs '

tt s a tta 'p la n t louse'

mm h s m m a ta n ' a l l o f them /you'

bb dobba' a kind o f f r u i t '

rr "arr9 'sa w*

pp Tbppiamon ' b o a s t i n g '

ff f 2 ffara 'fo u n ta in '

 60
k • ' • k 1 •
k kk' .. &&
d^
f
•
fc
1 U
■ Ml
a
V
r rk ri rris tÎ tc »v rttj
7
9 » s i im
I U St
t t*
t a a
V
V
» w
y yi
z
i ZJ 2»
T
Jf
k
V
:
: 53 5T
 61

T able 4

I J!
U

ft ft Ci

k
m «t

Tk rt rj I? tj m n r» tî Tc Tï
sk sf st sf tt u m y
St U im
Zr

y*

I
T.

5 55 yi 7ï 5*
X *4
 62

▼T avval •first*

ss kassd cum "him* eye*

*.2.3 Syllable Strectere

A syllable division comes betveen the two consonants

of a consonant cluster when a morpheme/syllable final posi­

tion follows another syllable/morpheme (in compound words).

7or example, /buSxSft/ 'slept* has two syllables c r S c ^ c c ,

but /bûSxûfSti/ *you slept* has three syllables cwScwcScw.

However, if the second consonant in a cluster is /r/, then

the division becomes before the two consonants. Examples:

vaSbraSzi *to be deserved* which is cvSccvScv

vaSvrs *ask* which is cvScrc

In general the following types of syllable struc­

tures have been recorded in Gilaki:

V u *and* is *one*

VC âb 'water* dn 'this*

vcc asp 'horse* 3 pc 'tasteless*

vccc fandr 'look* or 'watch out* (the occurrence

of this type is rare; it can be heard from old informants),

cv pa 'foot* du 'two*
V V
cvc sis 'six' sir 'garlic*

cvcc hist 'wet*

 63
ccv vaSbraSz *to be deserved/being deserved*

ccvc fcozStia *ve sold*

ccvcc fanSdrast "looked*

It appears that there is a specific tread in Gilaki

language change to adapt Gilaki to the syllabic structure of

Arabic and modern Farsi. Clusters in the word initial posi­

tion tend to be broken up by an epenthesis vowel. For the

details of Gilaki language change, see chapter 8 of this

study.

#.2.% Phonological Processes

5.2.*." Towels

a. Vowel harmony: In Gilaki the vowel /e/ becomes /9/, /i/,

or /u/ when it is followed by /a/, /i/, /u/. Examples:

be ♦ bar ===> babar

imperative take "take*

prefix

fe ♦ kas ===> fakas

"pull, drag"

de ♦ bad ===> da bad

"close"

ne ♦ kaft ===> nakaft

negation fall "did not fall"

prefix

be ♦ bin ===> bihin

 6U
•buy*

fe ♦ v i s t » D ===> f i T i s t d n
•to roast*

de ♦ <Tin ===> d icin

• p i c k up*

be ♦ g û f t ===> bugoft

•said*

fe ■* gurdanito -=> f u g u r d a n i r n

* t c t u r n u p s i d e down*

de ♦ kun ===> dukun

*put-on*

ne ♦ x u r d m ===> n u x u r d a a

ate *I d id n o t eat*

b. E lision: Some w o r d s / p r e f i x e s l o o s e t h e i r v o w e l s i f t h e y

p r e c e d e a w or d b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l . Examples:

gu ♦ 9m = = > gpm

say su ffix *I say* [ f i r s t persons in g u la r)

gu + i ===> g i

say su ffix *you s a y * [ s e c o n d person singular)

be ♦ a v 3 r= = = > b a v a r

*bring*

xan% ♦ an ===> x â n â n

house suffix 'houses*

plural

+ an ===> ] 9 f a l a n
 65

•child* •children*

I n r a p i d p r o n u n c i a t i o n vowel / i / i s d e l e t e d when i t

o c c u r s b e t w e e n tw o u v u l a r f r i c a t i v e s . Examples:

dîT i'yd ===> d9

•m inute*

Th e v o w e l /9 / is d e l e t e d when tw o s y lla b le s co al­

esced. Examples:

dukungm * n«===> du no ku n a m /d u ^ k u n a m

• I p u t on* *I do n o t p u t on*

T he u n s t r e s s e d com binations of vowels d ip h t h o n g i z e

w ith i t s co rresponding sem i-vow els. Examples:

u«'i===>ity u ♦ ita = = > uyta

• t h a t on e* * t h a t on e*

a+i===> à y a ♦ ita= = = > ayta

• t h i s one* * t h i s on e*

4 .2 .4 .2 Consonants

a. A ssim ilation: The n a s a l c o n s o n a n t / n / a s s i m i l a t e d to the

point of a rtic u la tio n of th e follow ing contiguous conso­

n ants. Examples:

|k |

n ===> — /Ig l

l5l
dukunam + n? ===> du^k unam

• I d o D o t do*
 6 6

fa ♦ g i f f d a ===> f a ^ g i f t t m

*I d id n o t ta k e *

b. O evoiciog: The v o i c e d c o n s o n a n t s be com e u n v o i c e d when

t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d by v o i c e l e s s s t o p s , f o r exam ple, /t/ (in

making t h e p a s t t e n s e ) . Examples:

z ==> s / - t v iriz v irist

’ s t a n d op* ’stood up’

r ==> f /- t fig ir fig ift

’tak e’ ’to o k ’

J ==> X /- t su5 ♦ t bûsûxt

’burn’ ’b u r n e d ’

r ==> s /- t bsdar ♦ t dkst

’have’ ’h a d ’

r ==> s /- t bugzar bugzalt

’ p a s s in g b y ’ ’p a s s e d b y ’

r ==> s /- t bûsûr b û sû/ust

’ wash’ ’w ashed’

z ==> X / - t goriz gôrôxt

’escap e’ ’e s c a p e d ’

c. C h a n g i n g C o n s o n a n t s : Some c o n s o n a n t s a l t e r n a t e w i t h e a c h

o t h e r . Examples:

b <==> p a s b <==> a s p

’horse’

a s b a l <==> a s p o l

’ red c a v i a r ’
 67

V <==> b r d c f <==> b a r f

•SDO¥*

1 <==> r p u tal patar

« t

f <==> h f d d Z D <==> h'dâan

*g i v e *

ï <==> h b i - x t a r <==> b t h t a r

*b e t t e r *

p <==> V vapars<==> v a v a r s

*ask*

d. Loss o f C onsonant: Sometimes c o n s o n a n t s may b e d e l e t e d

under s t r e s s or in d i f f e r e n t sex e s. Examples:

be ♦ k un ♦ i d i ===> bûkûidi

prefix do (second p erso n ) *you d i d *

ending

be + z£ n ♦ id i ===> b& ztydi

h ittin g (second person) *yoo h i t *

ending

usan ♦ d ===> usad

take past tense s u ffix * to o k *

O ften a conso n an t /% / is d e l e t e d when i n t e r v o c a l i c . Exam­

ples:
V V •
saTal ===> s a a 1 / S 3 a l

*j a c k a l *
 68

e. C o n s o n a n t Harmony: I n G i l a k i some l o a n c o n s o n a n t s a s s i m i ­

l a t e i n t h e manner o f a r t i c u l a t i o n of the fo llo w in g sounds.

Exam ples:

^«gd *==> "3lid

•m arriage contract*

w%gt ===> wjLxt

•time*
 CBAPÏZB V

H0BPB0L06T AID STITAZ

5.1 IlTBOPqCTIOH

C h a p t e r 5 i s a d i s c a s s i o n o f word f o r m a t i o n s , v ari­

ous c l a s s e s o f w ords, nouns, and v e rb s and t h e i r m o d i f i e r s ,

pronouns, and a d p o s i t i o n s and sy n tactic units [phrases,

c la u s e s , o r com binations of c lau se s) •

5.2 BOBD fOBHATIOH

In G i l a k i words a r e formed th r o u g h red u p licatio n ,

com pounding, and a f f i x a t i o n .

5 .2 .1 R ed uplication

R e d u p l i c a t i o n i s a d e r i v a t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m by w h i c h a

w h o l e word o r p a r t o f i t i s copied or re p e ate d . R eduplica­

t i o n d e r i v a t i o n s may f u n c t i o n a s a t t r i b u t e s o r i n t e n s i f i e r s ,

t o e x p re ss a s t a t e o f being o r an a c t i v i t y ; o r t h e y may r e ­

f e r t o n a t u r a l s p e c i e s o r n a t u r a l phenomena [ m a i n l y o n o m a to ­

p o e i c w o r d s ) , o r body p a r t s .

The f i r s t ty p e o f r e d u p li c a t io n c o n s i s t s of th e rep­

etitio n o f whole w ords,

x o r t lors.
 70

him self/h erself (a c cu sativ e case)

'ta lk in g to o n eself/him self*

(co n tin u ity of a c tio n , in te ra ctio n )

p ill) p ill) (in ten sifier)

la rg e /b ig big

•v e ry big*

ni ni (body p a r t )

•eyeball*

boso boso (attrib u te)

•a th re a d bare*

5 i 5 i (b ody p a r t )

*b r e a s t *

t 3 k 3 s t 3 kOs (attrib u te)

worn o u t / r u g g e d

•worn o u t / r u g g e d *

vavars vavars (continuous a stio n )

ask ask

•asking *

kuDA kunA (action)

r e v e r s e / g o i n g backward

•going backward, reversing*

tuk/ka tuk/ka (attrib u te)

drop drop

• d r o p by d r o p *

bol b5l (attrib u te or in te n sifie r)

 71

fla re flare

• t h e f i r e f l a r e s / t o blow th e f i r e *

bi bi [natural sp ec ie s, and o n o m a to p o e ia )

• s i l k vorm/cocoon*

k u ku [ n a t u r a l s p e c i e s , and o n o m a t o p o e i a )

•T h e c u c k o o b i r d ^

The s e c o n d t y p e o f r e d u p l i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f r e p e a -

ing th e f i r s t p a r t o f a v erb .

u sta ustag/kudan (state of being)

doing

• i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n s which r e f e r t o t e e n a g e r • s

b e h a v i o r e x p r e s s i n g r e a d i n e s s f o r a d u l t lo v e and

se x u a lity .*

bud bud g / k u d a n [ s t a t e o f being)

• t h e s am e a s u s t ust kud n^

ussA/uSmK g / k u d a n [continuous nous actio n )

• shivering*
V V f
c i r c i r daan [action)

• t o provoke*

v i ^ v l 5 / b i 5 b i ? g /k ü d sn [ s t a t e o f being)

* an i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n to d e s c r ib e th e p h y s ic a l

s e n s a t i o n o f p a i n w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s w a rm in g o n e ' s

h a n d s o r f e e t which a r e i n t e n s e l y c o l d . ' *

k3s kas g/kûdan [activity/verb)

d i s p u t e / q u a r r e l doing
 72

•to q u a r r e l/g u a r r e lin g *

g i l l g i l l xurâas (a c tio n /c o n tin u o u s action)

ro ll ro ll

•ro ll ro ll^

b l 5 in b iJ iD g/kûdaa (action/verb)

m ince mince doing

• to m ince•

dagara dagara zurdan [continuous a c tio n )

stag g er/to tter

•stag g erin g /to tt erin g •

▼Agan Vagan g / k “u d a n ( s t a t e o f being)

it c h i n g t pain doing

• i t c h i n g and p a in i n t h e e y e s *

cak cak g/kûdan [continuous a c tio n )

le a k le a k doing

•leaking^

The t h i r d t y p e o f r e d u p l i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f

re p e atin g the f i r s t s y lla b le of a word.

cicin i ( n a t u r a l s p e c i e s / o n o m a t o p o e i c word)

•sparrow '

& icilas (n a tu ra l species)

•dragon fly ^

cicir (n a tu ra l species)

•lizard '

kakai (n a tu ra l species)
 73

•a bird*

m ill m ilt

's tr ip e d , c o rd e d , t w i l l e d , ribbed*

g i ) g i ) i daan/amon

•tick le*

kar k ? ri

* t o t u r n some o n e a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r *

kusa k u si

•disorderly; a state of chaos*

ha^h aji/ey [n atu ral species)

*s t o r k *

S 3 XSDI / e y

* an i n s e c t * (n a tu ra l spescies)

z alzall/ey [n atu ral species)

•crick et*

badbadt

*a w i l d p l a n t *

v i l v i l i g/küd3 n (action/verb)

• m o v i n g /t o s s in g /to t o s s a b o u t / t o w riggle*

Th e f o u r t h t y p e i s f o r m e d by d u p l i c a t i n g t h e i n i t i a l

consonant o n ly .

%a xur

•sister*

xâ x 5 l

*c r a z y *
 7 4

The f i f t h type of re d u p lic a tio n i s f o r m e d by c h a n g i n g

j u s t t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o f t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f a w ord .

Ï3%31 maT3l (attrib u te)

'sm a ll, l i t t l e , t i n y / a child*

V .
c i z miz

•th in g '

dorsin b ô rsin 'd is o rd e rly , c h a o tic '

'd iso rd e rly , ch aotic'

kB rti p a r ti

'n o n se n se '

cakun vakun

' t o makeup o n e ' s face, d ressin g ,to ilette*

dagardan v ag ard an g/kôddn

't o turn in sid e ou t'

The s i x t h type o f re d u p lic a te d d e r iv a tio n s c o n s is t

o f r e p e a t i n g a w h o l e word w i t h a c o n n e c t i n g / / .

garm-a-garm

warm warm

' h o t and f a s t '( i d i o m a t i c word)

m âar- 3 -mâar

mother mother

'm o th e r 's m o th e r'(g ra n d m o th e r)

hX h'
p tir- 3 -p ttr

fath er father

'f a th e r 's fa th e r's'(g ra n d fa th e r)

 75

O ften r e d u p l i c a t e d words a r e connected to th e f i r s t

wo rd by / b / .

b a l —b 3 - b a l

arm arm

• a r m t o arm*

d 3 1 —b 3 —d 3 l

•w andering/errant*

O ther reduplicated d eriv atio n s are onom atopoeic

w ords.

gor gSr/asm an gor gor

th u n d er/sk y thunder

• thunder*

t 3 l 3 Y tu loT

clap c lic k

• o n o m a t o p o e i c d e s c r i p t i o n ; n o t i o n o f t h e s o u n d made

by a h o r s e o r a woman w a l k i n g on h i g h h e e l s . *

? a r Yur

• s t o m a c h g r o w l i n g * [ o n o m a t o p o e i c word)

7 3 r %3 r3

•gargling* [ a s i n u s i n g m o u th w a sh ) [ o n o m a t o p o e i c word)

tap tap

•tapping* [ a s i n drumming o n e * s f i n g e r s )

s3r3x sûrüx

•rain falling*
 76
5.2.2 Co»pou»diBq

compounding e le m e n ts a r e n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , a d v e r b s ,

and a d p o s i t i o n s .

Th e f i r s t t y p e o f c o m p o u n d i n g i s a noun p l u s a n o u n ,

afuz dàr

v aln u t tre e

'w aln u t tre e *

baasaya zana

n e ig h b o r house

' neighbor*

T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f c o m p o u n d i n g c o n s i s t s o f a no u n o r

an a d j e c t i v e p l u s a n a v e r b .

Noun ♦ V e r b (S ♦ g / k û d a n )

'd o in g *

bina g/kûdan

e s t a b l i s h / s t a r t doing

*t o s t a r t / t o estab lish *

kar g/küdan

w o rk /jo b doing

* t o work*

N* da an

*g i v i n g *
- y , i
x o s a daan

k is s g iving

* k issin g /k iss'
 77
zâ7 dâan

*to u se a b u s i v e o r o b s c e n e l a s g u a g e / t o c u r s e *

N+ z t i n

to b e a t,s trik e ,s m ite

aski ztin

sneeze

• to sneeze*

i& tôp z t i n

* t o b lo w a w h i s t l e , w h i s t l i n g *

iifg-ara z z i n

*t o cry*

N* g i f t & n / g i t 3 n / b e y t 9 n

to get, to receiv e, to c a tc h ,to take

k3 s> g iftan /g itan

busum t a k i n g

*e a b r a c e / e m b r a c i n g *
V
cujplus- - g i f t S n / g i t a n

pinch taking

*p in c h in g *

Adj/S* b o o s ta n

•becoming*

hist-3 -b o st3 n

wet becoming

• b e c o m i n g wet*

d'3v70g-^-bost3n
 78
* t o become s u r p r i s e d / b e c o m i n g a s t o n i s h e d *

S* s o o n

going
V '
ra soon

road/w ay w alking

•walking*
. . - V/
b/xun soon

blood going

• m enstruating*

N+ d 3 k 3 f t 3 n / d 3 k ? t a n

•to fall*

ab 5/d3k3ft3n/dakatan

w ater fall

• t o b e g i n t o s a l i v a t e / m a k e o n e * s mouth w a t e r *

ra dsksftan/dokstsn

road/w ay f a l l

•to s e t o u t/to s ta rt*

N+ dASfan

• having*

dus dAStSn

friend having

•to lo v e /lik e *

N+ dBgadan

t o throw , to c a s t , t o to ss

ra 0 3g a d 3 n
 79

v a y /ro a d to s e t out

*to s e t o u t , t o ke s e t i n m o t i o n , t o move*

l a f d 3 gadan

■to p u t i n d i s o r d e r , t o r i o t *

H+ z u r d a n

*eating*

ab zurdan

m ater d r in k in g

*d r i n k i n g w a te r*

to zurdan

swing

*to swing*

O f t e n c o m p o u n d i n g c o n s i s t s o f a noun a n d a v e r b s t e m ,

dôrôïgu

lie say

* liar*

x atir zi

sake w anting

*l o v e r *

adam zSr

human e a t e r

* cannibal*

c a c u l baz

tr ic k player

*a t r i c k y o r c u n n i n g p e r s o n *
 80

Z3D zazi

woman m a n t i n g / w i s h i n g / d e m a n d i n g

'w ish in g , a sk in g , s o l i c i t i n g , demanding fo r m a r ria g e .

Z 9 ) a l 3 t kaS

shame t a l o c a t e

'sh y '

x a ^ a la t na kas

shame not feeling

•s h a » e le s s /rS tb le s s '

The t h i r d t y p e o f c o m p o u n d i n g c o n s i s t s o f an a d j e c ­

t i v e and a noun.

s 9 k9 m k n l u f t / k u l u f t

b elly th ic k /b ig

'b ig b e lly , f a t person'

bulnnd b a la

tall height

'ta li'

kus xul

vagina c razy

'c ra z y /s tu p id ' ( t h i s word i s used t o r e f e r t o

b o th male and f e m a le .)

T he f o u r t h t y p e o f com pounding c o n s i s t s o f n u m e ra ls

and n o uns,

du v a r d a

two t i m e s
 81
■ again■

du d il

two h e a r t

■h e s i t a n t *

du t a i :

two p e r s o n

•couple*

The f i f t h t y p e o f compounding i s t h a t o f two v e r b s .

bazBn bûkûb

beat/blow

■ b e a t i n g a drum o r any m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t *

b?ZA baka^td

born o f planted by

(mother) (father)

■parents *
V / . ,
soon amon

t o go t o come

*c o m i n g , g o i n g * ( t o p l y t o , to hold f a m i l i a r i n t e r c o u r s e )

The s i x t h t y p e o f com pounding i s t h a t o f an a d v e r b

and a v e r b .
, . y. » *
b i]ir anon

down coming

■coming down*

b u jo r soon

up going
 82

* t o go up*

b3 d - u - xCb g/kûdan

bad and g o o d / w e l l d o in g

"vom iting %to t h r o w u p ) { i d i o m a t i c : u s e d f o r b a b i e s )

Some c o m p o u n d s h a v e more t h a n tw o m e m b e r s ,

kwd rôda m ardi

B N T

h o u s e go d man t o b e

m ayer/an a ld e rm a n /a b a i l i f f

*judgem ent*

b ili zu li bazi

penis vagina p la y

*love play*

sin a âb g/kûdan

chest w ater doing

* t o swim* (th e craw l)

b3 k as-S -g iftan /fitsn

prep, boson get/tak e

*to embrace*

5 a x tar soon

fr o m memory go

*t o f o r g e t *

Members o f i n f l e c t i v e c o m p o u n d i n g a r e j o i n e d by t h e

vowel / ^ / which a c t s as i n f l e c t i o n a tta c h e d t o th e

first p a r t o f t h e compound.
 83
m^rd- 3 - mâar

N N

m ao/busband mother

'h u s b a n d 's m other' (m other-in-law )

g'ôrd - 3 - mnr? a n a

round egg

'egg y o lk '

^lali-3 - p 3 D -3-g/kud3n

c a r p e t s p re a d doing

'to spread th e c a r p e t'

C o o r d i n a t i v e c o m p o u n d s c o n s i s t o f tw o w o r d s j o i n e d

t o g e t h e r by / u / o r / u / , meaning ' a n d ' . The two members

a r e o f t h e s am e c l a s s ,

b /v îlg -u /ü -x àl

leaf and b ra n c h

' l e a f and b ra n c h '

zan -u/û-zâak

woman/wife and c h i l d

'fa m ily '

G i l a k i h a s no s p e c i f i c word f o r some n o m i n a t i v e

ad jectiv e. I n s te a d , s p e a k e rs use a p h ra se t o e x p re ss

t h e i r meaning.

uni ki gü fti

s h e / h e o n e who s a i d

's p e a k e r ' [im perative)

 BU

uni ki ZALâi

s h e / h e o n e who s i n g

'sin g e r* [ t h e o n e who s i n g s )

O ften a phrase i s used t o e x p r e s s a s t a t e o f b ein g or

an a c t i o n .

X Ô /Û dind sili hanrA surx-3-g/kûdan

h i s / h e r fa c e s l a p w ith/by re d doing

(This i s an id io m a tic e x p r e s s i o n used to d e s c r i b e t h e

a c t o f s l a p p i n g o n e ' s f a c e t o p r o d u c e a r e d d i s h c o l o r w hi c h

i n d i c a t e s a s t a t e o f h e a lth o f being w e l l - f e d . Poor people

who d o n o t w a n t t h e i r p a l l i d c o m p l e x i o n s t o r e f l e c t t h e i r

t h e i r l a c k o f s u s t e n a n c e m i g h t c o m m it s u c h a n a c t . )

In ad d itio n to th e abo?e, a ll non-focal k inship

te r m s a r e d e s c r i p t i v e e x c e p t f o r a few t h a t r e p r e s e n t

change of l o a n w ords. Examples:

nerd -B - bB rar zan

h u s b a n d 's b r o th e r w ife

'h u s b a n d 's b r o th e r 's w ife '

[sister-in -law )

zsn bBrar

w ife 's b ro th e r

(brother-in-law )

zen xàxôr

w ife s i s t e r
 85

*w i f e ’ s s i s t e r * [sister-in -law )

5.2.3 Affixation

A ffixation i s a n o t h e r t y p e o f word form ation. It

c o n s i s t s o f s u f f i x e s , p r e f i x e s and i n f i x e s .

5.2.3.1 Suffixes

V ario u s t y p e s of s u f f i x e s a r e nom inal s u f f i x e s , ad­

j e c t i v a l s u f f i x e s , and p a r t i c l e s u f f ix e s .

H oninal su ffix e s are those th at are su ffix ed to

V
nouns, f o r e x a m p l e , / c i / s p e c i f i e s o c c u p a t i o n ( o n e who w o r k s

w ith). The s u f f i x / c i / i s a lo an s u f f i x from T u r k i s h ,

ci

iotk"« c i

b o a t o n e who w o r k s w i t h

*b o a t a a n / s a i l o r •
• V ,
pus Cl

post

*p o s t m a n / m a i l m a n *

O ften / c i / s p e c i f i e s place of c itiz e n s h ip .

9 nz3 l i / P 3 h l3 v i ci

a p o rt in G ilan

’c i t i z e n o f t h e p o r t o f nzali/P ah lav i

zk

'son o f / d a u q h t e r of’
 86

xàzôr zâ

sister child

's is te r 's ch ild ' (aepbew ,niece)

bdrar zâ

b rother ch ild '

'b ro th e r's c h ild ' (nephew ,niece)

SÔY3 z â

'd o g 's pap'

ga

'p la c e '

k a r gâ

'w o rk sh o p ' ( p l a c e o f w ork )

dan

're c e p ta c le /c o n ta in e r '

c a y dan

t e a box

' tea-box'

co rn il dan

ink pot

'in k p o t'

gar nom inative s u f f i x

kar gar

work

' worker '

3 u"o^ 5
 87

iro n

*blacksm ith*

an

• p l a c e of*

gilan

•place of G ils (G ilaks) *

d e y l man

• p l a c e o f D eylams*

c£, a nd l * k •dim inutive su ffix *

bâî

•garden•

ba?ci

•sm all g a rd en ' (a f l o w e r bed)

*r
ca

•w ell*

cal9 k

•sm all bole/shallow *

N ♦ / k , a k / s p e c i f i e s d e f i n i t e n e s s and / a y / e x p re sse s in d ef­

i n i t e nouns,

zsnak

• t h e woman*

zBnky

• a woman*
 68

Rote: /z'Bn / ' w o m a n , w ife; and / m s r d / 'a a n , h u s b a n d * a r e d i f ­

feren tiated fo rm / z s n a y / 'woman* and / m a r d a y / ' m a n ' by s u f ­

fix /ay /.

ad j. + 3 ===> Bonn

s bz * % ===> s a b z a

•green' 'g ra s s '

and

mûr? ♦ ân3==> mur%âna

'c h ic k e n p lu ral' ' e g g ' ( c h i c k e n ' s e gg)

The n o m i n a t i v e s u f f i x occurs w ith the a d je c tiv e to form a

noun. A d j . ♦ i / g i ===> Noun

sard ♦ i ==> s a r d i

'c o ld ' 'c o ld n e s s '

x5 b ♦ i ==> x o b i

'g o o d ' 'g o o d n ess'

k u s x u l ♦ i ==> k u s x u l i

'c ra z y ' 'm ad n ess'

gi
S A d a * g i ==> S A d a g i

's im p le ' 's im p lic ity '

V
O ften n o m in a tiv e s u f f i x e s / 9 / o r / s / o c c u r w ith the

v e r t stem t o f o r t a noun,

xand ♦ ==> x a n d s

'la u g h ' 'la u g h te r'

îiâl *S nalS
 89

• to groan* *a g r o a n *
V
S

gard ♦ s ==> g a r d a s

•tu rn /n alk / a turn*

around*

A d jectival s u f f ix e s derive a d j e c t i v e s from nouns,

adjectiv es, v e rb stem s and p a r t i c l e s .

A djectival s u ffix e s o c c u r w ith nouns and p a r t i c l e s

t o form a d j e c t i v e s ,

g a z + u ===> g a z u

•to o th /b ite* 'b u ck -to o th ed *

t a r s ♦ u ===> t a r s u

• f e a r * *c o w a r d l y *

baz

z a n a o + b a z ==> x a n a m b â z

•woman* * w o a a n i z e r *

c a c u l ♦ b a z ==> c a c u l b a z

•trick* *tricky*

an

z a n ♦ ana==> z a n a n a

•woman* *ladies* [ s p e c i f i e d f o r woman,

l i k e bathroom , c lo th in g ,e tc.)

mard + a n ==> m a r d a n a
 90

'man* 'm en's* [sp ecified f o r men)

z nan a s an a d j e c t i v e o f t e n i s nsed to i n s u l t men.

P article s u ffix e s express positio n o f someone or

som ething in a s e r i e s of ite m s . Examples:

omi

p a n ] ♦ omi r ^ p e n 5 omi

'fiv e * 'th e fifth *

5.2.3.2 The Prefix

The f o l l o w i n g p r e f i x e s h a v e been r e c o r d e d i s G i l a k i :

/b /, /b i/, /b u /r /b a /, / b i / , /n /, /n a/, and /b a m / . These

p r e f i x e s i n some c a s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e p r e p o s i t i o n s by

so me l i n g u i s t s . V ahidian ( 1 9 7 0 : 9 3) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a b o v e

m o rp he m e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d p r e f i x e s o n l y a s l o n g a s t h e y fo rm

new w o r d s .

ba ' r e f e r s t o p o s s e s s i o n o f some c h a r a c t e r o r t h i n g *

ba bus

w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e

'in te llig e n t'

bi

bi kar

w ithout 3 ob

'unem ployed'

ham

h3m saya
 91
s am e s h a d o w

•neighbor•

na

na sin az

la ck understanding

•inconsiderate*

O th e r p r e f i x e s o c c u r m ainly w ith v e r b s ; s e e t h e s e c ­

t i o n on v e r b s .

5*2.3.3 Infixes

I n f i x e s come b e t w e e n t w o m o rp h e m e s. Examples:

x3 ] a l 3 t na ka s

shame not feel

•sham elessness•

tu
V . . V,
sir tu sir

lio n in to lio n

•chaos/confusion/disorder*

dar

yak d a r ya k

one in one

• o n e t o o n e / a t once*
 92
5.3
■OÜM PB BISE

i B o a a p h r a s e c o n s i s t s o f a noun* a p r o n o u n , an d i t s

m odifiers.

5.3 .1 T h e Boon

A n o u n i n G i l a k i may h e i n f l e c t e d f o r c a s e s , d e f i n i ­

t i o n s , and num bers.

T h ree noun c a s e s have been re c o r d e d in G i l a k i : 1)

nom inative, 2) a c c u s a t i v e , a n d 3) p o s s e s s i v e . Examples:

N om inative A ccusative Possessive

* f < <
z aak zaak baard m zaak-3-m aar

•child* c h ild brought child m other

•I brought th e child* * c h i l d * s mother*

N ote: For nouns ending i n / u / , / a / , and / i / , i n t h e a c c u s a ­

tiv e case, a g lid e / y / precedes th e i n f l e c t i v e endings /& /.

/an /, and / a n / . Examples:

N om inative A ccusative Possessive

mu/u *hair* muya muyg

5a *p l a c e * jay a

mahi *fish* m a h iy m a h iy g
 93

Table 5 represents noun cases in Gilaki:

Table 5

l \ ---------------- *-------------
1 \V oabers]

I {Singular Plural

IC ases^ I
\
'

IH oninativ | N N+ an

I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I A ccusative!

{D ative I K* a

{P o s s e s s i v e !
, 1----------------

5.3.2 The Pronoun

The f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f pronouns have been recorded

in G ilaki: p e r s o n a l pronoun, d e m o n stra tiv e pronoun, i n t e r ­

r o g a tiv e pronoun, in d efin ite pronoun, i n t e r a c t i v e pronoun,

a d v e r b i a l pronoun, and r e f l e x i v e pronoun.

P r o n o u n s i n G i l a k i show d i s t i n c t i o n f o r p e r s o n , num­

b e r , and c a s e .
 9 4

5 .3 .2 .1 P e r s o n a l prcBoan

Table 6 re p re s e n ts personal pronouns in G ilaki.

They o ccu r in t h r e e c a s e s : 1) n o m i n a t i v e , 2) accu sativ e/

d ativ e, a n d 3) p o s s e s s i v e . R o m i n a t i v e p r o n o u n s o c c u r i n two

form s: a) independent o f t h e n o u n / s e p a r a t e d a n d b) at­

t a c h e d t o t h e end o f t h e n o u n .

O f t e n tw o c a s e s , accusative and p o s s e s s i v e , occur

together.

. . . n a n - 9 g ^ r m a - g a r m mi m a r t zan< barda

bread h o t/f r e s h m y / f o r m e home t a k e / I /

* . . . I t a k e home my b r e a d , f r e s h a n d h o t . '

5 .3 .2 .2 D em onstrative Pronouns

T able 7 re p re s e n ts dem o n strativ e pronouns i n G ila k i:

N ote: 3 / ,u ,h ,h u / are sh o rt form s o f / 9 n / , and / u n / , / h a n / ,

and / b u n / . ill d e m o n s tra tiv e pronouns s t a r t i n g w ith /h n /

a r e used in em phatic c a s e s .

O th er forms o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e pronouns a r e : / u y / and

/à y /. They are usually attach ed to / t a / or /dant / which

means ' o n e ' o r *a*.

ây ta, àydAni

th is one

uyta, uydAnl

th a t one
 95

Table 6

cases S ingular P lu ral

I
N om inative man *1* |9ma/A 'we*

tu "you* Islal 'y o u '

un/hun ' h e , s h e , i t ' iB san/ 'th e y '

■usan 'th e y '

A ccusative/ ■ ar9/£ 'm e ', f o r / t o m e | 3 m ari/9 'u s

D ative t9Z9/L 'you* Isin r i/a 'y o u '

un9 r 3 / i 'h im ,h e r,it' |u s a n 3 rt/9 'th e n '

BU9Z9/L 'h im ,h e r,it* | aS anart/a 'th e m '

1 ----------

Possessive mi my' I ami •our*

ti 'your* 1^1 mi 'y o u r*

un •h is,h e r,it* |u sa n a 'th e ir*

an 'h is ,h e r,it* lasana ' th eir'

1 ----------------------------
Possessive m isin ' mine* lam isin 'o u rs*

case in tisin 'y o u rs* ism isin 'y o u rs*

absotuive unasin ' h i s , h e r s , i t s * |u sa n 9 s in 'th e irs *

fora 9n3sin 'h i s , h e r s , i t s * jasan asin 'th e irs *

I
T able 6 rep resen ts personal pronouns in G ilak i.
 96
Table 7

cases S ingular P lu ral

I
(close %n , a / h a , h 3 n *th is * 3san,h@ sao 'th ese *

N o m i n a t i v e | ---------

If a r nD ,o/bu,hU D *t h a t usan,husân "those*

(close a n a , h 3 D3 *him,her* a ^ n a , h a s a n s *t h e i r *

A c c u s a t i v e ( ---------

(far un3,huD@ *him ,her* u s in a ,h u s â n a 'th ie r*

(close anBfhansi *h i s , h e r * a s à n a , h 3 s â n 9 *t h e i r s *

P ossessive |

(far u na,huna *his,her* u s i n a , h ü s â n « *t h e i r s *

I
Table 7 r e p r e s e n t d e m o n stra tiv e pronouns in G i l a k i .

7azi zaak f@dA âyta uytâya ‘ï a m c i b&zi

judge c h ild the gave t h i s one t h a t one the lash beat

(The j u d g e gave th e c h i l d to one [w o m a n ] a nd kicked out

th e o th e r a f t e r having h e r la s h e d .)
 97

5 .3 .2 .3 iB te r c o g a tiv e Promomn
The f o l l o w i n g in terro g ativ e pronouns have been r e ­

corded in G ila k i:

TBi

K osinative===> * ¥ h a t•

kô

•w her e*

ki

i i w h o , whom, whose*

liiri/9 , c ln /a

Acc u s a t i ve=== > • w h a t f o r , why*

k ir / , k ir /

•for, t o whoa*

kor / , koy

•where t o , *where*

Tci

P o s s e s s i v e = = = > • w h o s e , who*

kisin *whose* (absolute)

•whose* (absolute)

O th e r forms o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e pronouns a r e /k o y d a n / and /k o y -

ta / *which o n e * . Examples:

ci *what*

c i xordàn dari

what e a t i n g h a v e you

• w h a t a r e you e a t i n g ? *
 9 8

bidiû ci gt

see what s a y s ( t h i r d person sin g u la r)

•what d o e s s h e say?*

ki 'whOfWho*, whose*

ki aoon d a r t (th ird person s in g u la r)

who c o m i n g h a s ( p r o g r e s s i v e )

•who i s coming*

agar mi p iL z - à - w irjB na sam fci v irja va b 3 S»m

if my father to n o t go I whom s h o u l d go 1

• I f n o t my f a t h e r , t o whom s h o u l f go?)

k o y a / ko *where*

koy soon d r i

• w h e r e a r e you g o i n g ? *

Z irt *what f o r , why*

cirita h 3 s a ngmoiy

•why h a v e n * t you come y e t ? '

k i r 1/ k lri * f o r whom, t o whom*

k ir tg û f t n dari?

•To whom you a r e talk in g ?*

k isin *whose*

3 D kisina

t h i s whose i s

•whose i s t h i s ? *

3 koor k is in a
 99

t h i s g i r l wh ose i s

*ihose g i r l i s th is ? *

koy t a / koydAod
*9h ic h one*

k ô j t a ■ isin 'd

' W h ic h o n e i s mine?*

5 .3.2.% I n d e f i n i t e Prononn

i n d e f i n i t e pronouns in G ila k i a r e a s fo llo w s:

h»r k i 'e a c h , everybody* (These pronouns a c t as i n d e f i ­

n ite q u an tifiers)

har ki un9 i c c i g u fti

e v e r y b o d y him s o m e t h i n g s a i d

*everybody s a i d som ething t o h i m / h e r . *

h3 m3 ’a l l , everyone/everybody*

hems b a hem b in a g/kûdid r d z / s g/kudsn

a ll together s ta rte d dancing doing

*A1 1 s t a r t e d dancing to g e th e r .*

3 kar9 hSDB k a s natan ssti

t h i s work e v e r y b o d y n o t c o u l d

' N o t e v e r y b o d y c o u l d do t h i s jo b .*

hsrdu ’ both*

har d u / u i i t a bUbUlyul Y a z i ran?

 10O

both vent judge house

•B oth [ o f th e m ] ment t o th e j u d g e ’s [ h o u s e ]

digdr ' t h e o t h e r o n e , n e x t one*

dlg ari bûgûftB

o th e r o n e /n ex t one s a id

•[T h e ] o t h e r o n e /n e x t one s a id .*

/ h i e c i / 'n o th in g * and / i c c i / 'so m e th in g * a r e p ronouns t h a t

fu n c tio n as i n d e f i n i t e , in d e te r m in a te n e g a tiv e pronouns.

V
man hic nanaa.

1 n o t h i n g n o t know

* I d o n ' t know a n y t h i n g . *

un y a v a s k i xori xors icci g u fti

he slow ly him /self h im /s e lf som ething s a i d .

'He was t a l k i n g t o h i m s e l f s l o w l y . *

O ther i n d e f i n i t e pronouns i n G i l a k i a r e : /h ic kus/

•no b o d y ,» / h i c k o d a c / 'n o n e o f them,* / h a m a c i / ' e v e r y t h i n g , *

and /h a m a g u r/ ' a l l k i n d s .*

5 .3 .2 .5 R e fle x iv e Pronouns

The function of the re fle x iv e pronouns in G ilaki

d i f f e r s from o t h e r I r a n i a n and In d o - E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s . In

th e s e lan g u ag es / x o d / 's e l f * i s u s e d a s a common p r o n o u n f o r

a l l persons w ith p e r s o n a l s u f f i x e s t o show d i s t i n c t i o n of

 101

p e r s o n and number. But i n G i l a k i / % ô / û / "self* i s m ainly

used to su b stitu te nom inative pronouns [usually the f i r s t

p e rs o n s i n g u l a r and the t h i r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r andp l u r a l ) •

The f o ll o w i n g c a s e s have been reco rd ed f o r / x o / u / in G ilaki.

n om inative xu/o ’ I*

n a XÔ/Û 3 kard nûkôn^m

no s e l f t h i s work n o t d o I

•No, I d o n ’ t do t h i s job.*

...,x ô /ü xay um b a s am s a f a r

s e l f w a n t f i r s t p e r s o n a l e n d i n g go trip

• I want t o go t o a t r i p . *

accusative/datitre xor * by h i m s e l f *

x5rt n isti bu aïoz darB ^ i r

by h i m s e l f s a t had w alnut t r e e under

* Be ha d s a t down by h i m s e l f u n d e r t h e w a l n u t t r e e . *

x5rl *for him self*

...x o rt bazar vâkûnt

f o r h i m s e l f m arket open does

•He c r e a t e s a m a r k e t f o r h i m s e l f . *

xort *me*

...tu va ita 9 jpgustar x o r i f 9 d i

you m u s t / s h o u l d a rin g me give

•You s h o u l d / m u s t g i v e me a r i n g . *

KÔ/Û *me*

...b a y a d S x û / o d a k ‘S f i y 9
 102

£ y o u ] re m e m be r me.

rô /û 'm e/I*

tu 3z xtt/o d j?g u st» r b ^ x a s t i x s l ü / ô t a r t faamdAm.

you o f me ring w anted and I yo u g i v e n o t [ I ]

' Y o u a s k e d me f o r £ a ] r i n g a n d I d i d n o t g i v e i t t o

you. '

p ossessive x5/5 'h e r/h is '

XÔ/U k d l l d

'h is head'

XÔ/Û d9s cunaTB usad ...

h er/h is cane took

'H e to o k h i s c a n e . . . '

xô/ôsân 'th e ir '

zô/ûsanaxân3 b&sabid

th eir h o u s e ha d s t a y e d

' [ T h e y ] had s t a y e d [ a t ] t h e i r h o u s e . '

O th e r p o s s i b l e m eanings o f x o /u and x c / u r are:

x ô r £ xôrS. 'b y h i m s e l f

xôrt x ôrixiyal g/kudan d bu

' [ H e ] was t h i n k i n g by h i m s e l f . '

xort xôrt g u fti

h im self him self ta lk in g

[H e] '[w a s ] ta lk in g [ t o ] h i m s e l f .'

xSri. 'd o in g som ething w ith o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n '

 103

an zôrt. 3 kârd bûg/kôd

he/she t h i s work Aid

*Be d i d t h i s w i t h o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n . *

zori (him self, h e rself)

zort 9 £. an? nava hawar g/kodan

h i m s e l f s a y s him n o t should believe

•[H e] s a y s [ t o ] h i m s e l f [ I ] s h o u l d n o t b e l i e v e him.*

Th e f u n c t i o n of t h e pronoun in G ilaki d i f f e r s ac­

cording to the v ario u s p o sitio n s i t t a k e s in a sentence.

For ezam ple, an a c c u s a t i v e p ro n o u n may f u n c t i o n a s n o m in a ­

t i v e when i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n .

mar£ *me*

m art t i k a r d ? karan zus nay£

me your done works lik e not

*I do n o t l i k e w h a t y ou a r e d c i n g / w h a t you h a v e d o n e . *

ta rt *you*

m a g ar rah ati t ? r t zus nayi

n o t i f c o m f o r t you l i k e not

*Don*t y ou l i k e y o u r c o m f o r t ? *

m arl/a *I (me)*

3]^%r3d9r m artvistâya ki natanam tad at bavaram

s o much I hungry th a t n ot a b le I w ait

*I am s o h u n g r y t h a t I am n o t a b l e t o w a i t . *
 104

O ften a b s o l a t i r e p o s s e s s i v e pronouns a r e accom panied

by a noun t o make e m p h a s i s ,

m isin 'm ine*

zay m isin du sal3y3

c h i l d mi ne tvo y e ars i s

'My c h i l d i s two y e a r s o l d . '

tisin 'y o u rs '

gonah tisin ciyd

fau lt yours what i s

' W ha t i s your f a u l t ? '

y» y
sin isin 'y o u rs'

^m isin S zan3 koya isa/n?ha

yours (plural) house where s t a n d s

'w here i s your house?*

O f t e n tw o c a s e s a r e u s e d .

mi ' m y ' , and m r ' f o r m e ', 'to me*

... mi sm rL xan? bdr dm

a y me f o r home t a k e

'... t a k e [ s o m e t h i n g ] home f o r m y s e l f . '

 105

5 ,3 .3 loon H o d ifie rs

The f o l l o w i n g s e m a n t i c m o d i f i e r s have been re c o rd e d

f o r t h e noun i n G i l a k i .

S .3 .3 .1 marnerais
A n u m e ra l p r e c e d e s t h e noun i t numbers. A numeral

u n it / t a / i s added t o num erals when t h e y p r e c e d e certain

nouns. Numeral u n its of measurement can stand alone as

nouns.

ita gsma^

•one stew pot*

d u ta gsmaj

•tw o ste w p o ts *

s& ruzt

• t h r e e days*

c a r y u t i b3r@n^

•fo u r boxes of rice*

ita a^^ust

•one fin g e r* (used f o r measurement)

sis nuxud tsla

•s ix peas of gold* (pea= ty p e of measurement)

h3f ta

•seven barley* ( s e v e n j o = on e f i n g e r / m e a s u r e m e n t )
.V .A .. f
 106
•e ig h t spans of clothes*

flu anas'

•tw o a r a s * ( a l d 5 = two wajfab * two s a s [ t h e d i s t a n c e

b e t w e e n t h u m b and f o r e f i n g e r ] )

no/oh kûiaë

•kûlBs* [kûias= fo u r 3 r a s [ k u l a s = t h e d i s t a n c e

b e t w e e n two f i n g e r s when two h a n d s a r e o p e n ] )

5 .3 .3 .2 D eterm iners

D iff e re n t c la s s e s of d e te rm in e rs a r e a r t i c l e s , deic-

tics, u n iv ersal q u a n tifie rs, and r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s .

In G i l a k i , lik e o t h e r " l a n g u a g e s t h a t do n o t have

d efin ite/in d efin ite a rtic le s [speakers of G ila k i] often use

d e i c t i c s — " p o i n t i n g "w ords l i k e th is, th a t, th ese, those—

for d efin ite n e ss..." [Stockw ell 1 9 7 7 :5 7 ).

D efinite a rtic le s in G ila k i a r e : /u /, /o n /, /hun/,

•th at, t h o s e * ; a n d *3 ; / 3 n / , / h a n / *t h i s , t h e s e . *

u m srday z?nâka bûgot

t h a t man ( p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ) woman to ld

• T h a t man t o l d t h e woman*

In d efin ite a rtic le s in G ila k i a r e : / i / or / i t a / *one, a*,

/d u ta/ *two*; e t c .

i ruz * o n e day*

i t a marday * a / o n e man*
 107
i / V
du t a z n a y i t a zaaka s a r dava d A S ti d i
two women o n e c h i l d o v e r q u a r r e l had
'Two women h a d a n a r g u m e n t o v e r a c h i l d . '

5.3.3.3 Plural

The p l u r a l i s f o r m e d by a d d i n g / a n / to the end of

th e nouns ending i n consonants. Nouns e n d i n g i n t h e v o w e l

m a rd + an ==> m a r d a n

man men

z a n a + an ==> z â n â n

house houses

/ h a / as a s u f f i x f o r t h e p l u r a l h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d few t i m e s .

I n t h e F a r s i l a n g u a g e tw o s u f f i x e s /h a/, and / a n / a r e used

to form t h e p l u r a l . Therefore, the r a r e o c c u rre n c e o f / h a /

r e p r e s e n t s F a r s i z a t i o n and s i g n i f i e s c h an g e .

/c iz B h a /'th in g s ' i s a m odified form of /c iz h a /'th in g s '

in F arsi.

In G i l a k i a r t i c l e s and q u a n t i f i e r s do n o t ag ree in

f o r m when i n p l u r a l .

3 xan xey li yssa^gg/isa

t h i s house very b e a u t i f u l i s

'T h is house i s very b e a u t i f u l . '

3 xânân x e y l i Wasg^g an /isan

these houses very b eau tifu l ate

 108

•These h o u s e s a r e v e ry b e a u t i f u l . *

5 .3 .3 .4 O m iversal Q a a m tif ie r s

U niversal q u an tifies in G ilaki are: /h e n n a/

• d l l , e v e r y b o d y * and / h n r / «every, each*,

h na jajfgaya v a n a z tn n a

every places searched

*I sea rc h ed everyw here.*

harki ana i6ci gQ fti

everybody h i n / h e r som ething s a id

• E v e r y b o d y s a i d s o m e t h i n g t o h im .*

5 .3 .3 .5 I n d e f in ite Q m antifiers

In d efin ite q u a n tifie rs are: /i:zara/ *a l i t t l e * ,

/ita p ici , i p i c L / *a few ,a l i t t l e , a noaent*, / i c a n / *a

few *, / x e y l i / *aany*, / i t a d a s t a / *a g r o u p * , and / i j u f t / *a

p air* .

ip ct sabar b ü kün

a moment w a i t do

• w a i t a moment*

ip ct kar dArOm

a few work have I

• I h a v e a few t h i n g s t o d o . . . *

lean ngfâri unS hsm rh b û s û i â i

 109

a few p e r s o n h i m / h e r w i t h went

*A few p e r s o n s a c c o m p a n i e d h i m / h e r » *

ita dasta *a g r o u p , a b r a n c h *

iju ft *a p a i r *

x e y l i addm an *many p e o p l e *

5 .3 .3 . 6 le la tiw e C lauses

R elativ e clau ses in G ilak i a re made o f d e f i n i t e a r ­

t i c l e s a n d a noun p l u s ik i *one who*,

uni k i * t h e o n e who*

uni ki tu b n b ard i m isin bu

t h a t one who you t o o k min e was

'T h e one you t o o k was m i n e . *

R elative clauses w ill te discussed more f u l l y i n t h e

s e c t i o n on s y n t a x .

5 .3 .3 .7 The a d j e c t i v e

The f o u r t h t y p e o f m o d i f i e r in G ila k i i s the a d je c ­

tiv e. In G i l a k i th e a d j e c t i v e m ainly p re c e d e s t h e noun t h a t

it m odifies. The i n f l e c t i v e s y m b o l / 3 / is attached to the

ad jectiv e.

PÎ113 bsrar

big brother

•eider/big brother*
 110

k a s a CUB

blue eye

• b lu e eyed*

gild darman

G ilak tre a tm e n t

•folk ( G i l a k ) , medicine*

O ften t h e / / is d eleted .

garnn yaüut

e x p e n s i v e / p r e c i o u s ruby

• p r e c i o u s ruby*

santey larday

crazy /stu p id man (in d efin ite a rtic le )

•crazy /stu p id c an *

Often t h e a d j e c t i v e f o ll o w s t h e noun. I f more t h a n

one a t t r i b u t i v e accom panies the noun, then the ad jectiv es

fo llo w th e noun. O ften th e c o n ju n c tio n /u /* a n d ' o r / i z a f e / -

•liaiso n * / 3 ,i,e / is i n s e r t e d in - b e tw e e n words.

fardst ba i J i g a y t xos ab u havaye

[H e] re a c h e s to a p l a c e p l e a s a n t w ater and w e ath e r

- xobi

go o d o n e

•He a r r i v e s a t a p l e a s a n t p l a c e . *

ita koor ÜSsag g u - x u sg il...

a g irl b e a u t i f u l and p r e t t y

•a p r e t t y an d g o o d - l o o k i n g g i r l . . . *
 Ill

I f more e m p h a s i s i s o s the noun, then t h e a t t r i b u ­

t i v e fo llo w s th e noun,
h .
ti p ttr - t- kafar

your f a th e r (liaison) g o d le s s , blasphem er

"Tour f a t h e r is a heathen*

ita aaarat -V.- xob dAraa

a b uilding (liaison) goo d h a v e I

• I h a v e a good p r o p e r t y . *

N ote: The a t t r i b u t i v e o f c o l o r a l w a y s p r e c e d e s t h e n o u n i n

G ilaki. No l i a i s o n / 3 , i / i s a d d e d t o c o l o r t e r m s e n d i n g i n

vow els.

siya asp

b lack horse

•black horse*

surra-gal

red flow er

*rose*
V
kas3 cum

blue eye

• b lu e eye*

s 3fid 9 / gul - f - g i l a s -î.- h a s tp a ri tu

w hite flow er cherry e i g h t - p e t a l e d you

*You a r e a w h i t e e i g h t - p e t a l e d c h e r r y f l o w e r . *
 112

S.3.3.8 Comparative Adjective

The comparative adjective is formed by adding the

suffix /tar/ to the end of the attributive.

9
K
koor o
Kk o o r -a- b iztar

th is g ir l th at g irl b etter

'T h is g i r l i s b e tte r th an the o th e r.*

O th e r exam ples of co m p arativ e a d j e c t i v e s a r e ;

p ill tar

•bigger, larger, elder, older*

There i s no s p e c i f i c r u l e f o r the com parative ex­

p ressio n in G ilaki. often / ] a / 'th an * i s used a s a compara­

tiv e conjunction, but there is no c o n s i s t e n t p l a c e m e n t f o r

/5 a /.
u n9 bdrar Ja un pi lia ta ra

h e r /h is brother he bigger/older

• H is b r o t h e r i s o l d e r th a n he-*

ana Ja s a k a r b t x t a r n ib t

th is hunt better n o t be

*No h u n t c o u l d be b e t t e r t h a n h e . *

In co nsistency o f word order i s co rrelated w ith

change in G ila k i. For a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n ofchange, see

C hapter 8 .
 113

T h e r e i s no s p e c i f i c term f o r t h e s u p e r l a t i v e a d j e c ­

t i v e in G ila k i. T h e s u p e r l a t i v e a d j e c t i v e i s f o r m e d by t h e

c o m p a r a tiv e a d j e c t i v e p l u s te rm s such a s /^ahmmm/ * o f a l l ' ,

/ 5 9 u s a n / * o f them* o r r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f a n a d j e c t i v e .

^3 u s a n z e y l i z e y l i a d a m t a r a

o f them v e r y very human more i s

*He i s mor e human t h a n t h e y a r e . '

5 a hama b e x t a r t a r a

of a l l b e t t e r more i s

'[H e] i s the b est of a l l . '

ita »z u p i 113 PÎ119 bind v à n â n ...

one of big big w aterm elons

'One o f t h e l a r g e s t w a t e r m e l o n s . . . '

5.» IDPOSITIOHS fP BEPOSl T l O BS i l D POSTPOSITIONS)

A d p o s i t i o n s o c c u r i n nom inal phrases. T h e ir func­

tio n i s to give inform ation about th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f noun

phrases to th e p re d ic to rs . T heir p o sitio n (pre/post) i s re­

lated lo g ic a lly t o t h e wo rd o r d e r o f t h e l a n g u a g e . F o r more

inform ation see c h ap te r 8 .

G ila k i has h i s t o r i c a l l y bad m a in ly p o s t p o s i t i o n s ; i n

Modern G i l a k i , how ever, there a r e f o u n d some p r e p o s i t i o n s

w hi ch r e p r e s e n t c h a n g e .
 lia

5 .# .1 P o stp o sitiea

The main p o s t p o s i t i o n s i n G i l a k i a r e a s f o l l o w s :

]6 r • on/top*

dar- 3 -^or

tr e e d ativ e on/top

*on t h e t r e e *

5 ir "under*

a?o» dar- 3 fir

w alnnt t r e e d a tiv e under

"under t h e w aln u t tre e *

b i r u n "out*

s9hr- 9 - birun

city dativ e out

"out o f t h e c ity *

dûrûn "th ro u g h *

xori ku5t durun soondd b i d

s e l f a l l e y through going was

*£He] was g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e a l l e y by h i m s e l f . '

durun " i n t o , in sid e, in terio r*

ti xuns d u ru n /a iy a n

your house i n t o / i n t e r i o r

*i n s i d e y o u r h o u s e*

aiyan "among*

^san- 3 o iy a n z?ndagani büg/kûd

re among l i v e d did
 IIS

* [ B e / s h e ] l i v e d among th e m . *

hanrA • w i t h / b y *

zô/â p \ t r - B -h sm ra bôso

h i s f a t h e r d a tiv e w ith me n t

He] m e n t m i t h h i s f a t h e r . *

h mr *to *

XÔ/Ü h a a r g a p / b z i t n d a bu

him self to talk in g mas

• [ H e ] mas t a l k i n g t o h i m s e l f . *

s r *over* [discussion, f i g h t , or g u a rre l over

som ething)

uüuô Xuâ ânS'^X

two women o n e / a c h i l d d a t i v e o v e r q u a r r e l had

[Two women q u a r r e l e d o v e r th e custody o f a c h ild .)

s r *at*

c a iy baY an-3 -s@ r.

tea gardens d a tiv e a t

•At t h e t e a g a r d e n s / o r c h a r d s . *

v asti/v asi * f o r t h e s a k e of*

ti v asti/v asi

your sake

• [ f o r ] your sake*

v asti/v asi * fo r *

6i v asi

•w h a t f o r / w h y *
 116
d u m b a l ' i n s e a r c h of*

pul- S -dumbal ara o r a v a m ax ti m

money d a t i v e s e a r c h h e r e th e re looked for

'[ B e ] s e a r c h e d h e r e and t h e r e f o r t h e m oney.'

d u m ba l ' f o l i o * ' , ' a f t e r '

mi dumbal bdad

my a f t e r came

'[ H e ] follow ed/cam e a f t e r m e.'

K nar/kun 'b e s id e '/'b y sid e '

an h o z a k a n a r / n i s t t . bu

he p o o l d a t i v e b e s i d e s a t vas

' He was s i t t i n g beside the p o o l.'

fcaT“ 3 -kun

g a r d e n d a t i v e by

'b y th e g ard en '

d9rya kanar

sea side

'se a s id e '

V 3rja/vir5a 'to , tow ards'

b i y a mi v ^ r j d / v i r ^ d

come ay s i d e / t o

' c o m e t o me'

ri 'f o r'
v_
c iri

'w h at for/w hy*

 117
rs *of*

■ 9 Q Q&. a -rs_ tarsam

I him d a t i v e o f afraid

*I am a f r a i d o f him.*

d ô r/d û r -u -b 3 r *sarroandings*

sahr- 3 -dor

city d a tiv e surrounding

dam ' o p e n i n g / m o u t h / n o z z l e *

caiak - a -dam

s m a l l / w e l l d a t i v e opening

'o p ening/m outh of th e w ell.*

15b ' s i d e *

darya la b

*sea side*

m anastan *lik e'

mi m a n a s t a n

me l i k e

* l i k e me*

pust/pas *back/after*

asp- B -pust

h o r s e d a t i v e back

* £ th e ] h o rse * s back.*

san p9s

s h o u l d e r back

*shoulder blade/back of the shoulder.'

 118

p is 'fro n t*
. . . V
blA p is
riv er front

* The f r o n t r i v e r . *

nazdik " c lo s e to /n e a r*

s i n i zâna D »zdiki

* c lo se to your house.*

your house n e a r

Jfu ' a c c o r d i n g t o *

duzdi kardan - 9 -J a ...

th is s t e a l i n g d a t i v e from

*As w i t n e s s e d by / A c c o r d i n g t o [ t h e t e c h n i q u e ]

of s t e a l i n g ....*

]3 *from */*of*

nari,5 a a g g u s ta r hraxasti.

me from /of rin g w a n t e d you

'[ Y o u ] w anted a r i n g fro m me.*

59 'th an *

3 n ] 3 un bs-xtar

t h i s than t h a t b e t t e r

'T h is is b e tte r th a t th at.*

 119

5 .* .2 P rep o sitio as

The f o l l o w i n g p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e now e x t a n t i n modern

G i l a k i a n d hawe t h e same m e a n i n g a n d function as p o stpo si­

to n s:

jfd ' f r o m , o f

dArd 3 s 9 r b 3 k9 f t 3

from t r e e d a t i v e top f e l l

'I t fell fr o m t h e t o p o f t h e t r e e . *

/ b a / h a s t h e same m e a n i n g a s / h 3 mrA / •

b3 'to '

...b a h er d a ta zanây fa d a n

t o b o th tw o women g i v e

'...g iv e t o b o t h w o m e n .'

b 'to w a rd s'

b a s i m b 3 xan

go to house/hone

' L e t a s go h o m e .'

bu 'to '

bu b u s b 3 mô

t o s e n s e s came

' H e came t o h i s s e n s e s . '

3 z , from and t a 'u n til' a r e u sed to l i m i t tim e and s p a c e ,

az aya t a ay3

'fro m h e r e t o t h e r e '
 120

B astorgoeva e t al (1971:191-2) have l i s t e d other

p rep o sitio n s, h u t mj d a t a d o e s n o t s u p p o r t them. B ath er,!

c o n s i d e r th e m t o b e F a r s i l o a n w o r d s .

5 .5 YBBS PHBASB

One t y p e of verb phrase c o n s is ts o f copula and a

p r e d i c a t e t h a t may b e a n o u n or a pronoun. In e i t h e r case

t h e y r e f e r t o t h e same s u b j e c t , t h a t i s , they a re p re d ic a te

n om inatives. See th e fo llo w in g exam ple:

u marday k a r i g s r a

t h a t man w orker i s

' T h a t man i s a w o r k e r .

Th e p r e d i c a t e may be an a d j e c t i v e o r an i n t e r r o g a ­

tiv e, in w hich c a s e i t m o d ifies the s u b je c t,

u mar d a y x e y l i c a c u l b a z a

t h i s man very trick y is

' T h i s man i s v e r y t r i c k y . '

ti ahval xob is3?

your h e a l t h good/w ell i s

'A r e you w ell?*

 121

5-5.1 The Verb

In G ilak i verbs have a m o re e l a b o r a t e morphology

th a n nouns. The c l a s s e s o f v e r b s a r e formed by d i f f e r e n t

in itia ls. The f o l l o w i n g c l a s s e s o f v e r b s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d

in G ilaki:

f i r s t class: th e /b a , b i , bu, b o / verbs

bi b is ta n *to f r y *

b ô b ô x S s t a n *t o r o t , w e a r o u t , d e c a y *

b u s ÛSt a n *to wash*

Second c l a s s : th e/d a, d i, du/ verbs

dazsardan *to p r e s s , squeeze*

d a p e l k a s t a n * to be soaked*

dim istan *to u r i n a t e *

d û k û d a n * t o p u t on*

Third c l a s s : th e / f , fi, f u / verbs

f a ë a m a s t a n * t o bow*

favardan *to swallow*

f a v a r a s t a n * t o b e d ro w n e d a n d s u n k *

fiv ix tan *to h a n g , suspend*

fig iftan *to ta k e *

fukndan *t o p o u r *

f u c a k a s t a n *t o c l i m b *

fuxusdaan *to push* {as i n a p e r s o n p u s h i n g o t h e r s . )

f u x u s d a a n * t o come down ( a s a w a l l o r b u i l d i n g ) , t o

fall*
 122

Fourth c la s s : the /v a , v i / verbs

vam aztan *to s e a r c h f o r , look for*

vatarkdstan ' t o be t o r n , to tear*

v iristan 'to s t a n d up*

F ifth c la s s : th e / u / verbs

usadan ' g e t , take*

âsûztan *to burn*

S ixth c la s s : th e /5 a » 5i» 5 ° / v erb s

^anaxtan * su d d en ly happening*

5 ilisk 'a st» n 'to slid e, to g lid e '

5 iv istan ' t o ru n away, e s c a p e '

]ugurdastan ' t o t w i s t , c o n t o r t '

B a s t o r g o e v a e t a l . (1971) have a n a ly z e d t h e s e v a r i o u s

i n i t i a l verb m arkers a s p refix es, but according t o th is

s tu d y , only / b a , bi, bu, b o / fu n c tio n as p re fix e s .

There i s a sem antic c o r r e la tio n b e t w e e n some o f t h e

v e r b s above and t h e i r i n i t i a l m arker. For exam ple, verbs

t h a t s t a r t w ith / f a , fi, f ô , f u / s i g n i f y d i r e c t i o n up, down,

o u tsid e, or inside.

In G ila k i verbs i n f l e c t f o r the fo llo w in g f e a tu r e s :

1 )person: (1st, 2nd, 3rd) a n d num be r ( s i n g u l a r and p l u r a l ) ;

2) a s p e c t , 3) t e n s e , U ) o o o d , 5) t r a n s i t i v i t y , and 6 ) voice (ac­

t i v e and p a s s i v e ) .
 123

5.5.1.1 Teases
T h e r e aire t w o b a s i c v e r b ten ses in G ilaki, present

and p a s t .

The present tense is form ed from th e im perativ e

form , t h a t i s , t h e p r e s e n t stem o f t h e verb p in s t h e p erso n -

n nater s n ffix .

sin g u lar p lu ral

1 s t person (9) i* (i) , O )

2 nd p e r s o n i [-3 ) id (i), [3)

3rd person e ,L (a) id ( i ) , O)

sin g u lar plural

a n virizdm (a) tmA v i r i z i m (i),/{ a )

• I s t a n d op* * He s t a n d up*

tu v iriz i (a) suaA v i r i z i d ( i ) , / tS)

• T o o s t a n d up* * You s t a n d up*

un/nun v i r i z i i J l) {$)
* H e /S h e s t a n d s up* * They s t a n d up*

Th e i n d i c a t i v e f o r m o f t h e present tense is used a s

follow s:

I f t h e a c t i o n happens a t th e p r e s e n t tim e,

man h a s s s davaj^gama ; xudaya gam

I now shocked/surprised; God say I

* I am now s h o c k e d , s u r p r i s e d ; God, I s a y ! *
 12tt

R ep e titio n of a h a b itu a l a c tio n , o r a statem ent of

tru th .

sab u ruz kar knnt.

n i g h t a n d d a y wo rk d o e s

• [ H e ] w o r k s da y a n d n i g h t . *

The p r e s e n t t e n s e i s a l s o used in n arratio n , that

is, to d e s c r i b e an action th a t a c t u a l l y happened in the

p ast.

The p r e s e n t p r o g r e s s i v e i s form ed by t h e i n f i n i t i v e

p lu s the a u x ilia r y / d a s t a n / 'h av e* and t h e p e r s o n a l ending

of the p resen t te n se ,

bardan dAr am

c a r r y / t a k e have p e r s o n a l ending

• [ I ] am t a k i n g / c a r r y i n g . *

bardan dnr i

taking have p e r s o n a l ending

•[You] a r e t a k i n g / c a r r y i n g . *

koya soon d n r i

•w here a r e you going?*

5 sim i zand amon darlm

• [ w e ] a r e coming from your house.*

In G i l a k i , the fu tu re ten se t a k e s t h e same f o r m a s

the present te n se , b u t tem poral re fe re n c e f o r th e f u tu r e i s

represented by means o f a d v e r t s o f tim e, such a s : /d u raza

 125

aig ar/ 'tw o days f r o m now,* / f s r d a / 'to m o rro w ,' and / s a l t

d ig n r/ 'n e x t y e a r .'

mi h a m s a y n z a n a §»lr»m drvrs.;dtt r n z i digmr zayi

my n e i g h b o r b elly has tw o d a y s a f t e r g i v e b i r t h

'My n e i g h b o r i s p reg n an t; she w ill g iv e b i r t h [ t o h er

b a b y ] tw o d a y s f r o m n o w . '

m^n f t r d a shm uya

I t o m o r r o w go t h e r e

'I w ill go t h e r e t o m o r r o w . '

N ote: I n some I r a n ia n languages, the fu tu re te n se i s ex­

p r e s s e d by th e verbs 't o w ish' or 'to w ant' p lu s t h e main

verb. In G i l a k i , however, ' t o w ant' does not r e p r e s e n t the

fu tu re ten se. B ather, it is used t o e x p r e s s w ish o r w an t.

Farsi G ilaki

mtn xahmm r a e f t mon &»m ( I w i l l g o / I go)

I want went I go

'I w ill g o .' man xayem bnsvm

I want go I

'I w a n t t o go ( s u b j u n c t i v e m o o d ) . '

B a s t o r g o e v a e t a l . (1971) s t a t e t h a t / x a s t n / 'w an t'

p l u s t h e main v e r b , as in F a rsi, expresses th e fu tu re tense.

They c i t e t h e exam ple / x a y a amon/ ' I w ill com e'. C hristen­

son (1930) a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e o n l y o n c e had h e a r d / x a y a

amon/ b u t t h a t such a form does not re p re se n t an o r d i n a r y

 126

speech p a tte rn in G ila k i. ny d a t a does not support th is

view . I c o n s i d e r t h i s form o f t h e f u t u r e t e n s e t o be a l o a n

tran slatio n from F a r s i .

P a s t Tense

T he p a s t t e n s e i s formed by d e l e t i n g t h e f i n a l s u f ­

fices /fn , an, e n / of the i n f i n i t i v e and a d d in g t h e p r e f i x ­

e s / be, b i, b u , b o / f o r some v e r b s .

In fin itiv e Past

berden 't o take, to carry* b eb erd 'took*

kvften 'to fall* bekeft 'fe ll*

h ttn 'to buy* bih& ' b o u g h t *

d ttn 'to see* b id i 's a w *

isk eften 'to break* bilk eft 'broke*

kusten 'to k ill* bûkûst 'k ille d *

B o t e : o t h e r t y p e s o f v e r b s do n o t t a k e t h e / b e , b i , b u , bo/.

In fin itiv e Past

va y r s i t n 'ask* va V r s i 'a s k e d *

fB resttn 'to reach/arrive* f a r a s i 're ac h ed /arriv e d *

tAV/badgn ' t o th r o w * t A V /b e d A /9 'th rew *

isaarden 'to count* ism ard 'counted*

isnevesten 'to hear* is n a v d s t 'h eard *

fandaresten 'l o o k / s e a r c h for* fandarsst 'looked*

fisadan * t h r o w away* f i ^ a d ' t h r e w away*

v irista n 'to s t a n d up* v irist ' s t o o d up*

ëakud3n 'to f i x , t o make* cakud 'fix e d , made*

 M l

TO a n a l y z e the p a st for* in G ilak i, B astorgoeva,

e t.a l (1971: 122-4) u s e s a d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h . In t h a t study

th e y c l a s s i f y p a s t te n s e form s i n t o 1 ) v e rb s w ith th e f i n a l

consonants / t / o r / d / and 2 ) v e r b s t h a t end in w ith t h e f i ­

n a l vowels / e / o r / a / . D e alin g w ith b a s i c fo rm a tio n o f th e

past tense, they c o n sid e r i t as a deriv ativ e fora of the

p r e s e n t te n s e w ith th e a d d i t i o n o f s u f f i x e s / e / , /a/, /d /,

/t/, / S t / t o t h e e nd o f t h e p r e s e n t form w i t h p h o n o l o g i c a l

change i n t h e v e rb stem .

Present Past In fin itiv e

t*»rs ' f e a r * tarse tarsen

bvr 'tak e * bard bardan

k3f 'fa ll* kaft kaftan

da n 'kn o w* danast daoastvn

is 'sta n d ,sto p * is l . isan

T he S e c o n d t y p e o f p a s t t e n s s f o r m a t i o n s i s o n e t h a t

c h an g es t h e stem s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e f o r e a d d in g the s u f f i x / t / .

Present Pa St In fin itiv e

gir 'ta k e * g ift g i f tan

v iriz ' s t a n d up* v irist v iriS tan

O ther ty p e s of p a s t te n se a r e :

Hhen t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e s t e m e n d s i n t h e n a s a l / n / t h e p a s t

t e n s e h a s s u f f i x e s / e / and / d / .

Present Past In fin itiv e

din 's e e ' de deen

 123

ho c *do* ku3 koddn

The p r e s e n t t e n s e s t e a e n d s i n / h / . In r a p id pron­

u n ciation, th e/h / is o f t e n o m itte d mith c h a n g e i n t h e p r e v i ­

o u s vow el.

Present Past In fin itiv e

de(h), d (ib) da dâan *to see*

neh na naan *t o p l a c e *

The f o l l o w i n g p e rso n al endings f o r the p ast tense

h a v e been r e c o r d e d i n G i l a k i : /am , i, 3 / t , , im [i),

id (i)/, and / i d ( i ) / .

S ingular P lural

d3/ bak3ft a s da/ bakaftia (i )

*I f e l l * *ie fell*

da/ bakaft i da/ bak aftid (i)

* You fell* * Too fell*

do/ b akaft/ÿ do/ bôkaftiu (i)

* He/She fell* * They fell*

A few c a s e s are r e p o r t e d o f an / d / attach ed to the

personal endings, e s p e c i a l l y among f e m a l e s p e a k e r s o f Gi­

lak i.

In modern G i l a k i / 3 / c h a n g e s to / ( / or / e / s ig n ify ­

in g t h e s o c i a l and e d u c a t i o n a l background o f s p e a k e r s . Of­

te n the t h i r d person s in g u la r s u f f ix / a / i s c o m p le te ly de­

leted , re p re se n tin g a s h i f t in pronunciation toward F a r s i .

 129

The p a s t p e r f e c t t e n s e i s f o r m e d by t h e p a s t p a r t i c ­

i p l e of the b a s i c v e r b p l u s t h e p a s t fo r m of the a u x ilia ry

verb ' t o be*.

singular P lu ral

i s n B T d s t ? bum i s n d u 9 s t 3 him

* [ I ] had heard* * [ B e ] ha d h e a r d *

buguffd b i b û g û fta bid

*[You] had s a i d * *[T ou] had said *

b i d i bu b id i bid

*[H e/She] had seen* *£They] had seen*

5 .5 .1 .2 Aspect

The i m p e r f e c t t e n s e i n G i l a k i i s f o r m e d by t h e past

tense of th e verb p lu s th e personal endings: is, i, i,

im fi), id t i ) , i d ( i ) . The P r e f i x e s / b ® , b i , b u / , a r e d e l e t e d .

Sing P lu ral

1s t f u t u r k a s t in fu tu rk ast in ti)

2 nd f u t u r k n s t i f u tu r k a s t id ti)

3rd f u t u r k a s t (i) fu tu rk sst id (i)

The i n p e r f e c t f o r m i s u s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s :

D urative

ta z3nd bid 5^ adanan d o ri kudidi

u n til aliv e were o f human b e i n g s away s t a y e d * They

s t a y e d away f r o m human b e i n g s a s l o n g a s t h e y w e r e a l i v e . *

R ep e titiv e action
 130

tT h e r e i s no E n g lis h e q u i v a l e n t f o r t h i s c a s e . )

murT ana b a r d i n bazar fô rô ztis--.

egg took [ I ] m arket s o ld £1] * [C ustom arily, u su a lly )

I to o k eggs t o t h e m arket where I s o l d t h e m . *

H abitual a c tio n
< V
m a s ta l a m ast amoi ba z a n ? s a b

drunk came home n i g h t

•[Every) n i g h t [ h e j c a a e home d r u n k . *

mi d i n a s i l i ha mr surx-3-g/kûdim

my f a c e s l a p w i t h / b y red did I [ c f . p . 85)

C ontinuous a c ti o n :
V <
ham isa harz k ad i n u zu l day!

alw ays lo a n did in terest gave

• [ H e ] was a l w a y s b o r r o w i n g a n d p a y i n g i n t e r e s t . *

The i m p e r f e c t i n a c o n tra ry to fa c t c a r r i e s condi­

t i o n a l m eaning.

"0 ? 9 r d a n a s t i m ( i ) amo iy m (i)...

if knew p e rs o n a l ending come p e r s o n a l e n d i n g

•If I k n e w , [ I ] w o u ld c o m e . / H a d [ I ] known,

I w oul d h a v e com e.*

The i n p e r f e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i v e i s f o r m e d by t h e i n f i ­

n itiv e of th e verb p lu s th e p r e f i x e s / d / , / d i / , /d u /, and

the p a st te n se of the a u x ilia ry v erb t o be.

sin g u lar plu ral

u3 bus sSrdAT. d3 bin

 131

in f in itiv e pr. lo x .b e in f. pr. aux.be

• [ I ] was i n t h e process '[W e] w ere e a t i n g . '

process of f a l l i n g . '

so o n d a b i soon d t bid

'[ T o o ] were g o i n g . ' ' [ I o n ] were g o i n g . '

k a f t A n do bo kaftA n dr. bid

' [ H e ] was f a l l i n g . * '[ T h e y ] w ere f a l l i n g . '

Th e i n p e r f e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i v e f o r m i s used to e x p re ss

a n a c t i o n t h a t was i n p r o g r e s s d u r i n g s p e c i f i c moment i n t h e

past.

O ften th e past progressive (continuous actio n )is

f o r m e d by t h e i n f i n i t i v e of the v e rb ,th e p re sen t p ro g re ssiv e

fo r m o f t h e a u x i l i a r y / d h s t a n / 'to have' p l u s t h e p a s t fo rm

o f th e a u x i l i a r y /b o o n / ' t o be*.

kaftA n darl bu m

in fin itiv e lu x . Auz.be personal

(to have) ( p a s t fo rm ) ending

' [ I ] was f a l l i n g dow n.'

ga-b/p z t m dA rl b i

'[T o o ] were sp eaking./[Y ou] were in the process of

speaking.*

k a r g / k u d a n d A r l bu

' [ H e ] w as w o r k i n g . / [ H e ] was i n t h e p r o c e s s o f w o r k i n g . '

 132

O th e r p e r s o n a l e n d i n g s f o r t h i s form a r e : /bin/, /b id /, and

/ b i d/«

T h i s form i s used t o e x p r e s s d u r a t i v e a c t i o n s i n th e

p ast. Th e p a s t p r o g r e s s i v e f o r m i s used l e s s f r e q u e n t l y i n

Modern G i l a k i .

I n G i l a k i , t h e p e r f e c t i v e i s m a rk e d by c o n t r a s t w i t h

th e im p e rfe c tiv e . The p e r f e c t i v e / b 3 b a r d a n / *I t o o k * and

th e im perfective / b a r d i m / *I t o o k * e a c h r e p r e s e n t s an ac­

tio n in th e p a s t, but they a re not e q u iv a le n t. The p e r f e c ­

t i v e fo r m /babardam / i m p l i e s t h e meaning o f c o m p le tio n of

th e a c t o f ta k in g w hile im p e rfe c tiv e /b a rd im / does n o t i n d i ­

c a t e com pletion or th e s p e c i f i c tim e o f a c tio n .

5.5.1.3 Modality

G r a m m a t i c a l l y , t h e s p e a k e r s o f G i l a k i m a rk t h e i r at­

titu d es i n t h e f o l l o w i n g mood s:

I n d i c a t i v e / D e c l a r a t i v e Mood

i v e r b i n t h e i n d i c a t i v e mood i s a n a s s e r t i o n o f t h e

tru th or poses a q u estio n . I t may o c c u r i n a l l ten ses,

present past

man sam an m orfanana b ab ard a b a z a r bôfrôxta

I go he eggs took m arket sold

* I go* *He t o o k e g g s t o t h e m a r k e t and s o l d them .*

I m p e r a t i v e Mood
 133
The i m p e r a t i v e mood i s f o r m e d by t h e p re s e n t verb

stem . Some v e r b s t a k e t h e p r e f i x e s / b 9 , b i , b n / . The p lu ­

ra l su ffix /in , i d / i s added t o t h e i m p e r a t i v e mood t o e x ­

p r e s s command i n t h e s e c o n d person p l u r a l . O ther ty p e s of

v e r b s do n o t t a k e a p r e f i x ,

babar

• t a k e , c a r r y * *bow•

vavrs

•ask*

faëam
•bov*

usan

•take, l i f t *

O f t e n t h e i m p e r a t i v e mood e x p r e s s e s a n i n v i t a t i o n ,

bafaraa b in sin haya/ay?

s i t down h e r e

• P l e a s e s i t down h e r e . *

The i m p l i c a t i o n of th is expression is d ifferen ce,

th at is , t h e s p e a k e r w o u ld b e honored i f th e addressee ac­

cep ts h is in v ita tio n .

P o ssib ility /Im p o ssib ility

nast suzan tab'adan b i j i r

n o t p o s s i b l e n e e d le throw down
 13*

Idiom atic: I t « a s s o crowded t h a t i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o d r o p

a n e e d l e among t h e p e o p l e .

ta b aik i u pal bacakd cuh»sara

may b e t h a t money a d h e r e s t o t h e s t i c k

' P e r h a p s money a d h e r e s t o t h e s t i c k . *

i b ility / 0 isab ility

ta ta n i bagi car>ddr t a l k a s i y n t a mma f a r n s i m ba zans

you c a n t e l l how l o n g t a k e s u n t i l we get t o home

' Y o u c a n t e l l / C a n y ou t e l l how l o n g i t takesto get

hom e.'

gab/p mi d i l s x a r d a n d ^ r i g û f t a n n a t a n a m

s p e e c h my h e a r t e a t i n g i s s a y in g n o t can

'Id io m a tic e x p ressio n : I h a v e s o much t o s a y , b a t

I am u n a b l e t o s p e a k a n d t h e s i l e n c e b r e a k s my h e a r t . '

N ecessity

' b l a n v a s i mi ^n3 zay o r y a n bamanl

now m u s t my b e l o v e d c h i l d naked s ta y

' B y b e l o v e d c h i l d m u s t s t a y n a k e d now. '

man vasi ta hsssa hazar bar bamobia

I m u s t / s h o u l d u n t i l now t h o u s a n d t i m e s h a v e come

' I s h o u l d h a v e come a t h o u s a n d t i m e s b e f o r e t h i s . '

un3 va gO ftan

him /her should/m ust to t e l l

*H e / S h e m u s t / s h o u l d b e t o l d . '

Wish
 135

zuda ti jan") sa 7 bukuni

God y o u r body h e a l t h y does

• [ H a y ] God k e e p you h e a l t h y . *

zuda t a r L a m a r t badari

God you us f o r k e e p / p r o t e c t / s a v e

• [ M a y ] God s a v e you f o r u s . *

D esire

man zayam b a s a * a u s a f a r a t

I vaut go I trip

• I wa nt t o g o on a t r i p . *

tu cto zayi tarik a sab icci peyda k u n i b a b a r i

y ou n o v v a n t you d a r k n i g h t s o m e t h i n g f i n d d o you t a k e

•How d o y o u e z p e c t t o f i n d a n y t h i n g i n t h e d a r k

night?*

man zayam i t a d u z t a r i t a z a bizA b û b ô s ta u san aa....

I want I o n e g irl new born take

• I w a n t t o t a k e a new b o r n g i r l . . . *

In a d d itio n , t h e s u b j u n c t i v e f o r m o f t h e p r e s e n t an d

p a s t t e n s e s h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d when t h e y a r e p r e c e d e d by t h e

follow ing verbs:

me yl d a / A s t a n

•to desire*

mey l d A st am t a r t bidin 3 a
 13b

B aat/desire had personal ending jon see personal

ending

• { I ] had [ a ] d e s i r e t o s e e y o u .'

faram us k u d a n / J a z t a r soon

•to fo rg et*

faranus- kudam /m art T a r t a r b n so t a r t b a g a m . . . .

f o r g e t- did I me memory v e n t yon t e l l I

•I fo rg o t to t e l l y o u .'

b i z t a r bu

• I t “as b e t t e r '

b iztar

'I t is b etter'

b t z t a r bu ki ti zanaka b u g u ftt b i

b e tte r vas t h a t i f your v ife to ld v e re /h a d been

'I t vould have been b e t t e r i f y o u r v i f e had been t o l d . '

tars

'T o be a f r a i d o f

tarsam una bagam una zus nayl

a f r a i d I h i m / h e r t e l l I him h a p p y n o t b e

• I am a f r a i d i f I t e l l h i m , he v i l l n o t b e h a p p y . '

R otes:

In a l l form s and t e n s e s , v e rb s ending i n a vow e l

take a g lid e /y / before the p e rs o n a l ending that s ta rts

w ith th e vowel / i / .

singular plural
 137

1s t v a v t m • ! cut* v a v t y i m { i ) • ve c u t *

2 nd ra.fi j i "y ou c u t * vaviyid(i) *you c u t *

3rd wari. "he c u t " vavtyid(i) *they c u t "

sin g u lar plu ral

1st b 9 * o m " I came* bamo y im i ( i ) "we came*

2 nd b 9 ao y i *you came* bamo y i d ( i ) "y ou came*

3rd bamo " b e / s h e came" bamo y i d ( i ) " t h e y came*

sin g u lar p lu ral

fadA im " I g a v e " fadA yim (i) * we g a v e "

f ‘»dA yi "you gave* fadA y id ti) "you gave"

fadA " s h e / h e gav e* fadA y id (i) " t h e y ga v e*

As p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d , o n l y some verbs tak e th e p r e f ix e s

/b a , b i, b n / where t h e form r e q u i r e s a p r e f i x .

I n compound v e r b s r a t h e r , for in stan ce, an / a / i s

i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n t h e noun a n d t h e v e r b .

% a rz - -g/kud

lo an did

*[He] r e c e i v e d a lo a n .*

r a l i - 9 - p a n - a - g/kud

c arp et spread did

*[He] s p r e a d t h e c a r p e t . "

I r r e g u l a r v erb s in G ila k i a re as fo llo w s:

Im p erativ e/p resen t Past In fin itiv e

biyA "come* bamo "came* âm o n /o o n " t o come*

 138

â y t ‘cones*

bugu ‘ t e l l , say* bâgSft ‘said* gâftan ‘ to t e l l , say*

gi ‘t e l l s , says*

boso/u ‘ go* buso ‘ nent* s o o n ‘ t o go*

s£ ‘g oes*

b ld a r ‘ have d A s t ‘ ha d* d st»n ‘ t o have*

dArt ‘ has*

T ran sitiv ity

The t r a n s i t i v e v e r b i s f o r m e d by a d d i n g the s a f f i x

/an in , a n i t n / t o th e i m p e r a t i v e form of t h e v e rb .

f9c»m + a n u i / a n t ^ D ==> f a c » m a n \ x n / n t n

bov * t o make t o bow*

d û c û k * â n & n / â n & t n ==> d û c â k à n t n / n i & n

*t o s t i c k , t o a d h e r e * ‘ t o make t o a d h e r e *

A ll v e rb forms in fle c t for th e tr a n s itiv e su ffix

/ a n / b efo re p e rso n al endings.

im p erativ e tran sitiv e

dûcûk ‘ s t i c k * ducûkânui

f9c3m ‘ bow* f acanânin

5 .5 .1 .* H egatiom

In G i l a k i , a s i n many o t h e r I r a n i a n languages, the

n e g a tio n p a r t i c l e / n / i s added t o the v e r b i n a l l t e n s e s and

moods t o f o r m a n e g a t i v e statem ent. The n e g a t i o n p a r t i c l e

 1 j,

re p la c e s the p re fix e s /b , b i, b u / in v e rb s w ith th o se p re ­

fix es.

affirm ativ e/p o sitiv e negative

bugs ' s a y , tell* n ô g û *do n o t s a y / t e l l *

b ihin *boy* n i h i n * do n o t buy*

btzgn * h it* n n z a n *do n o t h i t *

In o t h e r t y p e s o f v e r b s th e negation p a r t i c l e s f a l l

a f t e r th e f i r s t s y l l a b l e of th e verb.

po sitiv e negative

fê k as *pall* ftn sk v s 'do n o t pul*

f 3 dt/f* d an *give* f a n d t / f a n d t *do n o t g i v e *

d û k û n * p u t on* d û n n k û n / d n ^ k u n *do n o t p u t on*

vavin *cut* v a n ^ v i n * do n o t c u t *

&akun * m a k e / f i x * canukun/ca]^kun/cankun *do n o t / f i x *

5 .5 .1 .5 P a s s iv e

U n lik e E n g l is h and l i k e o t h e r I r a n i a n la n g u a g e s , G i­

l a k i does n o t have a com plete p a s s iv e v o ic e . However, the

p a s s i v e v o i c e i n G i l a k i , a s i n many I n d o - E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s ,

is e x p r e s s e d a s a n a g e n t l e s s s t a t e m e n t t h a t i s f o r m e d by t h e

present p a r tic ip le of th e verb p lu s c o rre sp o n d in g forms of

th e a u x ilia r y /b u o n / *t o b e * . Example:

u l a n t z r &*nta p i l l t p i l l c b g n d g v a n a b i cf. b i d n^habid

f u r t h e r so me b ig b ig w aterm elon b ein g p ic k ed up p i l e d up

* v e r y b i g w a t e r m e l o n ha d b e e n p i c k e d a nd p i l e d up f u r t h e r
 140

(fro* h e re ).*

O ften th e p a s s iv e v o ic e i s e x p re sse d a s an u n s p e c i­

fied (unknown) a g e n t .

g id l z5b mslTaze i j 9 / i s 3

it i s s a i d good s h o p is

•[T hey/people] say i t is a good s h o p .*

A u x iliaries

A u x ilia rie s in G ilak i a re :

b u o n * t o be*

is an * t o e x i s t *

b û b ô s t n *becoaing*

tanastan * c a n / t o be a b l e *

x a s t B n *want*

dAStdn * to hav e*

v a / v a s i *aust*

sa *«ight/perhaps*

5 .5 .2 Verb H o d i f i e r s fAdverbs!

V e rb m o d i f i e r s i n G i l a k i c a n be c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g

to t h e i r c o g n itiv e f u n c tio n s i n to th e follow ing ty p e s .

5 .5 .2 .1 Adverb o f tim e

( d u r a t i v e a n d /o r p o in t o f tim e)

t a z a *r e c e n t l y , newly*

man xayam i t a d u x t d r tazâ b i z a bôbôstB’ u san a m .. .

 141

I want one g i r l n e w /r e c e n tly born tak e/g et

* I w a n t t o t a k e a new b o r n b a b y . . . *

h a s s a 'now*

man h a s s a d a w aj g a m o

I nows h o c k e d / a m surprised

*I am s h o c k e d / s u r p r i s e d now.*

b a t S k i 'm eanw hile*

darham iyan

h a tS k i asana hamrA g a b z t i n d n r s . b u . . .

w hile th e m w i t h t a l k i n g p r o g r e s s i v e w a s . . . s p e a k i n g

'H eanw hile (he) was t a l k i n g to th e m ...*

h a a i s a 'alw ays*

h a m i ë a t a r t yad a v a r a m . . .

*I a l w a y s r e m e m b e r y o u . . . *

ta * a s l o n g a s*

t a z a n d a b i d 3z adaman duri g/kudid(i)

* As l o n g a s t h e y w e re a l i v e , t h e y s t a y e d away fr o m

human b e i n g s . *

d ir 'la te *

a x a r t . b o r j a k a r a y a x a n a d i r a ho

*I t i s t h e e n d o f t h e month a n d t h e r e n t i s l a t e . *

ivar ki 'sud d en ly *

iv arak i sib vaskB fl

suddenly apple s p l i t

'T h e a p p le s p l i t su d d en ly .*
 1U2

h 3 n u z *so f a r , y e t *

h?nuz Qsao3 n id im

yet them not seen I

*I h a v e n o t s e e n t h e m y e t . *

5.5.2.2 Locative adverbs

( s t a t i v e , u p , down , i n s i d e , t h r o u g h , etc.)

âys/haya *here*

...h a y a / a y a zandagani g/kndid

* They m e re l i v i n g here.*

u y s/h u y a *there*

. . . u y a b a p a i s a bu

• T h e r e [ h e ] was s t a n d i n g . *

k o y a * w h e re *

koyasoon d r i ?

* Where a r e yo u g o i n g ? *

ara/u ra *here and t h e r e , everywhere*

a r a u r a h B r c i v a m a x ta m b i c c i p e y d a n û g /k û d a m

•Here and t h e r e {everywhere) I lo o k e d /s e a rc h e d I could

n o t f in d anything.*

b i^ir *down*

un z â a k a b i ^ i r b a n a

he c h i l d down p u t

•He p u t down t h e b a b y . *

birun *o u t*
 143

usana )a uyab iru n a g/kud

they fr o m t h e r e out did

*[ H e / S h e ] k i c k e d the m o u t o f t h e r e . *

kun/kanar 'b e sid e *

ita p i r a m ardaj d a r a kun n i s t t bu

a/one o l d man t r e e beside s a t was

' A n o l d man was s i t t i n g by th e t r e e . *

5.5.2.3 Adverb of Banner

Th e f o l l o w i n g a d v e r b s o f m a n n e r h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d i n

G ilak i:

yavashfci 's l o w l y *

xalv ati 's e c re tly , privately*

naxabaraki 'u n co n scio u sly *

x5b ' w e l l *

bad 'b a d / b a d l y *

ato iy ' t h i s way, i n t h i s manner*

O f t e n a d v e r b s o f m a n n e r a r e f o r m e d by t h e r e d u p l i c a t i o n

o f an a d j e c t i v e .

garn-a-gSrm 'h o t-h o t*

yavas yavas 'slo w slo w /slo w ly *

buland/buland 'lo u d loud/loudly*

tun tu n 'f a s t fast*

zud zud 's o o n s o c n '

sus sus 'The s e n s e o f t h i s e x p r e s s i o n i s roughly

 14U

e q u i v a l e n t t o slow poke i n E n g l i s h . *

In G i l a k i t h e s u f f i x /t r / i s added t o t h e a d v e r b o f

manner t o compare them .

bijct9r 'b e t t e r *

b % Itar 'w orse*

2 U t t a r *s o o n e r *

dxrtar 'la te r*

5 .5 .2 .# ad v erb o f fregm ency

hvndey 'a g a in *

i v a r *on ce*

ham isa *a l w a y s *

5 .5 .2 .5 I n te n s if ie r adverbs

xeyli * v e r y , v e r y much*

. . . f t s r t xey li dus dara*

...,y o u v e r y much l o v e

* ...ri] l o v e you v e r y much.*

5 .5 .2 .6 in te rro g a tiv e adverbs

c u t o c t o *how*

cirt/ciri, *why*

ma gdr *a w o rd p u t f o r t h b y o n e who h e a r s a r e m a r k

th a t is co n trary to h is prev io u s understanding.*

< V
mBg'dr t ü n a n i mi o a a r n a x u s B
 145

*Don*t you know my m o t h e r i s ill?*

5 .5 .2 .7 B e g a tio m a l Adverbs

H egational adverbs in G ila k i a re :

h ie 'n o th in g *

hon hie kar no kunt

he nothing work n o t d o e s

*He d o e s n o t h i n g / d o e s n o t do a n y t h i n g . *

hnrgaz 'n ev e r*

hsrgsz s i v sr^s ansoiy

never my p l a e e / s i d e n o t came
t r o ^ ^ «##Mv 1 ^ T to v A r * ih n #

Adverbs a r e o f t e n formed by adding /9 / to adjec­

tiv es.

d ir * l a t e * d i r - - b u * be cam e l a t e *

p ir *old* p i r - - b u *b e ca m e o l d *

Adverbs in G i l a k i , a s i n many o t h e r I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s , are

not s t r o n g ly developed. O t h e r s t u d i e s on G i l a k i have in ­

cluded th e s e c la s s e s of a d v erb s.

G eiger (1903:375), has c l a s s i f i e d adverbs in G ila k i

acco rd in g to tim e, p la ce , manner, reason, a nd d e g r e e . He

has recorded the follow ing:

Time: i a r u z * to d a y *

diruz 'y e ste rd a y *

h 'a s s 'a 'now*

 1 4 6

d îr * late

Place: k ü / k û y a "w here*

oy? " t h e r e "

Hanner: 2 û t ü r "how"

3 tô " t h i s way"

Beasoo and d e g r e e : cire "why"

c i w a s t i " f o r w h a t"

x e y l i "w er y"

C hristensen (1930:93), has lis te d a d v erb s o f tim e,

place, manner and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . B astorgoeva et al

(1971:81-83) c l a s s i f y a d v e rb s of tim e p l a c e , and i n t e n s i f i ­

c a t i o n b a t m a i n l y f o c u s e d on t i m e , p l a c e , a n d m a n n e r .

5.6 THE CLIDSE

A b a s i c c l a u s e c o n s i s t s o f a s u b j e c t and i t s verb i n

agreem ent. In G ila k i, as in many I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s , the

s u b j e c t may b e e x p r e s s e d by adding t h e person-num ber s u f f i x

t o t h e v erb stem o r by a noun p l u s t h e v e r b w ith a p e rso n -

nu m b e r s u f f i x ,

bamo

• [ B e /S h e ] came."

man b^mom
*£ I ] c a m e . *
 147

There i s a p erso n -o u m ter agreem ent between s u b j e c t

and v e rb . However, the follow ing c a se s of disagreem ent

(anomaly) between t h e s u b j e c t and v e r b have been r e c o r d e d .

1) S ubject i s p lu r a l, b u t thep re d ic a te i s s in g u la r ,

duta zanay i ta zaaka sar dazwa d a s t i d i

S O V

'Two women h a d q u a r r e l o v e r a c h i l d . *

2) S ubject (inanim ate) is p lu ral, but the p re d ic ate is

singular.

ti cuman gusa d ^ s t i man n a n w s t i m

your eyes c o r n e r had I not knew

*I d i d n ' t know y o u r e y e s were s l a n t e d . '

( I d io m a t ic e x p r e s s i o n of p v a is i n g t h e b e a u ty o f eyes)

3) The S u b j e c t i s p l u r a l ( c o l l e c t i v e no un ) b u t t h e

pred icate is sin g u la r.

tarnaat z a n d a g a n it. d u n i a u n a f a r a b a a bu

all living w orld him a v a i l a b l e was

* E v e r y t h i n g [ i n ] t h e w o r l d was a v a i l a b l e t o h i m . /

[H e] had a c c e s s t o e v e r y th i n g i n th e w o r l d . '

ta ma mi a n a s a j g a n s a v j g t m a rm a ra

all its stones s t o n e marble

'A ll i t s s to n e s a r e m a rb le .'
 1 4 6

5.6.1 The Soblect

A s u b j e c t may b e a n o u n , a pronoun, a deson strati» e

pronoun, o r an i n t e r r o g a t i v e pronoun. In a d d itio n to th e

above, a num eral [ c a r d i n a l o r o r d i n a l number) and an a d j e c ­

t i v e have a l s o occurred in th e s u b je c tiv e ,o r nom inal p o s i­

tio n .

Bonn a s s u b j e c t

zanay bûgûfta

woman s a i d

* The woman s a i d = •

Pronoun a s s u b j e c t

( p e r s o n a l pronoun) man xayam b a sa m m u s a f a r a t

I want go tra v e l/trip

•I w a n t t o g o on a t r i p . *

[ r e f l e x i v e pronoun) xô/û 3 kara nukunam

I [self) th is j o b / w o r k n o t do

* I (self) d o n ’ t do t h i s j o b . *

D e m o n s tr a tiv e pronoun [article) as subject

hun b û g û f t a

’That he said. *

a n bamo

’T his he can e.’

I n t e r r o g a t i v e pronoun a s s u b j e c t

k i bamo?

’ Who c a m e ? ’
 149

c i bûbûstd

•¥hat happened?'

i num eral a s s u b j e c t

d u taiy ra d a k a ftid i

two s t a r t e d t o go

'Two o f t h e m / b o t h s t a r t e d t o go.*

d ow T oa i r u k u o i q t avw aliya

second looks te lls /s a y s the f i r s t . . .

'[T h e ] second (one) looks a t [th e f i r s t ] an d s a y s ....*

A djective as s u b je c t

b ic a ra das ja dunya k u ta y a

poor hand o f t h i s world s h o r t i s

'P o o r [m a n ]; [ h i s ] hand i s s h o r t of t h i s w o rld .*

O ften t h e s u b j e c t no u n o r p r o n o u n i s m erely under­

stood.

x e y l i t a r t dus dArsa

very y ou love

* I l o v e y ou v e r y m u c h . '

5 .6 .2 IhjB O b j e c t

An o b j e c t may b e a n o u n , a pronoun, or an in te r r o g a ­

tiv e. O r d i n a l n u m b e r s a n d d e m o n s t r a t i v e a r t i c l e s may o c c u r

a s the o b j e c t .

Noun a s o b j e c t

%à.ZX j& llâu B h S xaS ta

 150

S O T

judge k i l l e r wanted

*7he j u d g e v a n t e d / c a l l e d t h e e x e c u t i o n e r . *

Pronoun a s o b j e c t

■ 9 n and bôgüftaa

S O T

I him said /to ld

• I t o l d him.*

O r d i n a l number a s o b j e c t

u o v v o a i ru k ü ü & î g& ô w T ôI x j S

S T T 0

second looks sa y s the f i r s t

* (The s e c o n d ) looks a t [the f i r s t ) and s a y s . *

In terro g ativ e pronoun a s o b j e c t

V.
Cl xaiy

what want

• i h a t do you w a n t ? *

D e m o n stra tiv e pronoun a s o b j e c t

ana b a b a r d i d i

0 T

th is took

* They took t h i s . *
 151

5 .6 .3 l o r d Order
ford order in G ilaki is sot, b a t some cases of to

o r d e r haTe been r e c o r d e d . Th e f o l l o w i n g list rep resen ts

T ario n s types of sen ten ces in G ila k i:

V bûgüftB

'[H e] s a id .»

sv an bamo

'H e c a m e . '

C? ZÛ cumana dabasta

bis eyes closed

'[H e] closed h is e y e s .'

SO? man t a r t x e y l i d a s d ^ r a s

S O V

I yo n Tery lo w e

'I l o T e you v e r y m u c h . '

0 0 ? . . . t a r t a g g u & t a r faandam

0 0 ?

yo u ring do n o t g iv e

' [ I ] do n o t g i v e y o u a rin g .'

soo? tu m art a p g u s ta r b a x a s ti

you fr om me rin g wanted

'Y ou w a n t e d a r i n g f r o m me.*

S0?0 tu t i zaaka fadan m art

you y o u r c h i l d g i v e me

' G i v e you c h i l d t o m e . '

 152

O ften c c p u ls i s d e le te d .

u isfs p o s t t i s i n - n — Q i s f ô - pustdB unasin

h a l f o f p e e l yours and h a l f o f p e e l a l s o h is

'H a lf o f the p eel is y o u r s and h a l f o f t h e p e e l

[ i s ] h is. •

Word o r d e r i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e s i s SOT o r 0 7 ,

a c c o m p a n ied by a ch an g e i n i n t o n a t i o n ,

tu c i kuni?

S O T

• i h a t do you d o ? '

un k i y 9 / i s 3

O S T

'ih o i s he?'

tu nâani

S T

you n o t know

' D o n ' t y o u k n o w ? / You d o n ' t k n o w . '

In a d d i t i o n , th e fo llo w in g t y p e s have been re c o rd e d :

VOS b 3 l 3 h a s t 3 h a s i r a m a r z ? mi c a ^ g

V O S

stuck mat edge my g r i p

'My g r i p s t u c k t o t h e e d g e o f t h e m a t . '

VO gt 39w 3liy3

says first the

'[ H e ] say s [ t o ] the f i r s t o n e . '

 153

G i l a k i i s an i n f l e c t i o n a l la n g u a g e , l o r d s may o c c u r

in t h e same o r d e r , b u t i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s a n d v i t b d i f f e r e n t

m e a n i n g s when a c c o m p a n i e d by d ifferen t affix es o r adposi-

tio n s.

zgnay ma r d a k a - b u g i f t

S O ?

t h e woman man t h e t o l d

"Th e woman t o l d t h e man.*

zanakB m a r d a y b û g û f t

O S ?

"The man t o l d t h e woman."

5 .6 .1 O rder o f M o d ifie rs

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t r e p r e s e n t s t h e o r d e r o f noun mod­

ifiers in G ila k i.

P ossessives

p o ssessiv e + noun/possessor * N

ti mâar

"your m other"

k a s à ? a mâar

•K asâîa î p e r s o n a l / n a m e ) " s mother"

possessor ♦ (liaison) ♦ ad j. ♦ N

K asa Ta y a p I 1 1 3 d u x t e r

K asa a " s e l d e r d a u g h t e r

usan3 p îllB paser

 154

' t h e i r e l d e r son*

a d j . * d * p o s se ss o r ♦ 9+ B

p I r - 3 - * 3 r d - 3 - kallB

old man bead

'T he o l d m a n 's head .*

Compound Ron ns

p o s s e s s o r + 9 + coaponnd noun {m odifier + m odified)

m ard-9-barar z sr

man b ro th e r w ife

'm a n 's b r o t h e r 's w ife.*

ti z9n-^& r

your w ife f a th e r

'your w i f e 's fa th e r.'

p o ssessor, possessive * a d j. + compound noun

[m odifier + m odified)

Gulmir - 9 - p i l l ? z%n zazor

p e r s o n a l name e l d e r w i f e s i s t e r (sister in-law )

'G u lm ir's e ld e r w if e 's s i s t e r '

C onjoined nouns. Conjoined p o s s e s s o r s

H ♦ 0 (and ) f N + (liaison) ♦ H

2 3 n-u- zâak 3 zandS

w ife and c h i l d lau g h ter

' w i f e and c h i l d ' s l a u g h t e r *

Numerals

num eral ♦ R(m o d ifier) ♦ N (m odified)

 155

ita âToz dar

a/one w alnot t r e e

*a v a l o a t t r e e *

i n « f a r - a - lotkS

a person boat

• a p e r s o n 's boat*

P o s tp o s itio n a l phrase

H ♦ N ♦ "0 ♦ p o s t p o s i t i o n

kun u s d a r - 3 - j f i r

m edlar t r e e under

'u n d e r t h e m edlar t r e e . *

p ossesso r/p o ssessiv e ♦ K ♦ s ♦ p o stp o sitio n

a i duit3r-9-ham rA

my d a u g h t e r w ith

' w i t h my d a u g h t e r *

An a d je c tiv e o ften fo llo w s the no u n i t m odifies.

F o r a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s o r d e r s e e p. ill.

T he f o l l o w i n g r e p r e s e n t s t h e o r d e r o f v e r b m o d i f i e r s

ir G ilaki:

T ine m odifier u su ally precedes th e v erb . I n s e n t e n c e s w h ic h

c o n t a i n two t i m e m o d i f i e r s , the more g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n o f

tim e i s u s u a ll y at th e very beginning of th e s e n t e n c e and

p r e c e d e s t h e more s p e c i f i c o n e .

disdb s à a t t h a ft r a dskaftim

l a s t n ig h t seven o 'c lo c k started t o move

 156

*Ue l e f t l a s t n ig h t a t seven o 'c lo c k .*

V i o l a t i o n o f t h e a b o v e r u l e may o c c u r i n p o e t r y ,

adsts. l a mast a m o iy b o z a n sab

drunk came home n ig h t

(T h is comes w ith a c o n n o t a t i o n o f h a b i t u a l a c t i o n : )

' R e u s u a l l y c om es home d r u n k a t n i g h t . '

O ften th e e x p ressio n of p lace fo llo w s th e v erb,

bia b a sin mi z a n o

come go o u r house

' C c n e / L c t ' s go t o o u r h o u s e . '

F o r mor e info rm atio n of the other verb m o d ifiers s e e ad­

verbs.

5 .6 .5 Con j u n c t io n s

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t r e p r e s e n t s c o n j u c t i o n s i n G i l a k i :

a. Sim ple c o n j u n c t i o n s

C oordinative conjunction. T h i s c o n j u n c t i o n may c o n n e c t two

w o r d s , two v e r b s , o r two s e n t e n c e s .

u/v£ 'a n d '

c&nta ^ e lla î b tzt-u - 5® nakama b i r u n - a - k / g u d

s e v e r a l l a s h e s g a v e a n d fro m o f f i c e k i c k e d o u t

' [ H e ] g a v e h e r s e v e r a l l a s h e s a nd was k i c k e d o u t of

o ffic e .'

ama/aama 'b u t'

ita 9 Z u z a n a k a n tarn b t z t , 3 ma u y t a b i n a . . g / k u d ?
 157

' O n e o f t h o s e women kept q a ie t but the o th e r s ta r te d

garya g /k û d a n .. .

cry in g .•

T d ila 'o th e rw ise *

heyf ki kar d^raa vaila ti h»nr amoiym

u n f o r t n n a t l y t h a t w or k h a v e o t h e r w i s e you w i t h w ou ld go

*1 am s o r r y t h a t £ 1 ] ha v e s o m e t h i n g t o do o t h e r w i s e ,

£ I ] w o u ld go w i t h y o u ! (apologetic connotation)*

b . Two-word c o n j u n c t i o n s

y a ...y a 'e ith e r- or*

ya man y a t u va àya b is im

eith er I o r you s h o u l d h e r e s t a y

• E i t h e r yo u o r I s h o u l d s t a y h ere.'

ham, h a m . . . h a m ' a l s o / t o o *

un ham bamo

'S h e /h e a l s o came'

g a b i...g ah i 'so m e tim e s o f t e n . '

n3 . . . n a 'n e ith e r nor'

na az n pul xabari bu na az u

n e i t h e r o f / f r o m t h a t money ne w s was n o t f r o m t h a t

zab

dream

' T h e r e was n e i t h e r a n y news f r o m t h a t money n o r ha d t h e

dream (a g ain ).'

O ther c o n ju n c tio n s a r e :
 158

ki "w hich/that/w ho*

ani k i XAndi

t h e o n e v bo s a o g / w a s s i n g i n g (the singer)

ta •until*

ta i ru z f»rass. b9 1 . . .

u n t i l one day r e a c h e s t o a . . .

• O n t i l one day / h e / r e a c h e s t o a . •

ta *as l o n g as*

ta r»nd9 bid ^3 adama n duri g/küdidi

a s l o n g a s a l i v e w e r e o f human b e i n g s away s t a y e d

• T h e y s t a y e d away f r o m human b e i n g s a s l o n g a s t h e y

were a l i v e . •

ta •purpose*

biyA t a t a n bagam
V
cu n *because*

cun man t a r t d u s da r a m . . .

because I you love

•Because I love y o u ...*

agar *if*

a g a r k -a d x u d a m a r d i h a n a man z â a k 9 na xaa

if judgem ent th is is I c h i l d d e f i n i t e n o t want

a rticle

*If t h i s i s t h e ju d g e m e n t, I d o n * t want t h e c h i l d . *

d a r h a n i y a n *w h i l e , m e a n w h i l e *

hatoki *while*
 159

h*dtoki "3 l i y a l a n a durai) b u ...

w hile t h i s t h i n k i n g i n s i d e was

* B b i I e [ h e ] was p r e o c c u p i e d . *

▼ d x ti *when*

tak i 'u n til*

h 3 r v 3 z t k i 'w henever*

O ften in G ila k i, s e n t e n c e s a r e connected w ith o u t any

conjunction.

b u d u r u n bamo b u s o d u x t a r a duzada uns b u g u fts

in sid e came w e n t g irl called her said

* [H e /S h e ] cam e/went i n s i d e , c a lle d the g i r l ,

[a n d ] t o l d h er.*

an g u f t i zay m isina nn g û f t i zây m isina

t h i s s a i d c h i l d mine i s t h a t s a i d c h i l d mine i s

'[E a c h o n e] claim ed th e c h ild t o be h e r s . *

tu in s i tu 5ini?

y o u human you J i n n i

' A r e you a human [ o r ] a r e you a j i n n i ? *

5.6.6 Compound Clauses

Compound c l a u s e s c o n s i s t o f sequences of c lau ses in

wh ic h o n e c l a u s e may be s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e o t h e r . S u b o r d i ­

n a te c l a u s e s a r e connected to t h e m a i n c l a u s e by t h e follow ­

in g c u n ju n c t io n s :
 1bü

▼axti •when*

d a r h a m i y a n ' i n t h e mean ti m e *

darhahal 'm eanw hile*

k i 'w h ich , th a t*

h arvaxtki 'w henever*

ta k i 'u n til*

Subordinate c l a u s e s may occur as m odifiers o f the main

c la u se in th e follow ing p o s itio n s :

^) & su b o rd in ate clause occurs as the in tro d u cto ry

p a r t o f a compound c l a u s e .

agar ti hukm hana man z â y naxam

i f your judgem ent t h i s is I c h i l d n o t want

*I f t h i s i s y o u r j u d g e m e n t , I do n o t want t h e c h i l d . '

2) A su b o rd in a te c lau se m odifies th e s u b je c t,

u n i k i â v a z % n d i mi b a r a r z a bu

' T h e o n e who was s i n g i n g was my b r o t h e r . *

bikard adaman, u s a n i k i y a k sa y s a n n a r a s a r

these id le people t h o s e who (p e n n y ) f o r head

S s u b je c t m odifier

v a v i n i d , . . . ,u ru zan aci g/kudid

c u t o f , t h o s e days what d id

0 1

' T h o s e i d l e p e o p l e who may c u t t h e h e a d o f f f o r (a)

penny, what were t h e y do in g t h o s e d a y s .*

i t a a z u zanakan k i a g a p s b t s n a v a s t a h i c gap n tzt

 161

o n e o f t h o s e women who t h i s -----— — n o t h i n g s a i d

'O ne o f t h o s e wo*en who h e a r d t h i s s a i d n o t h i n g . '

S m odifier T. modi­

fier 3) A s u b o r d i n a t e c l a o s e m o d i f i e s t h e o b j e c t ,

uni ki tu b tz tiy m i s i n bn

o n e who you h i t m i n e was

' t h e o n e you h i t w a s m ine.'

Ja u ^ a n i k i mdrl d ô r - s g /k û d id adsm tsrs

t h a n t h o s e who me s u r r o u n d e d human more i s

G O I S

' B e i s more human t h a n t h o s e who had s u r r o u n d e d m e . '

Q) A s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e m o d i f i e s t h e v e r b ,

har^a ti d il xayt bûsô

w h e r e v e r y o u r h e a r t w a n t s go

'Go w h e r e v e r v o u r h e a r t s a y s / w i s h e s - '

5.6.7 Deletion of Parts of Speech

D i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f s p e e c h may b e d e l e t e d i n t h e f o l ­

low ing c a s e s :

1) The v e r b i s d e l e t e d .

a. D eletion o f a u x ilia r y .
V V
n is f-9 -pust tis in , n isf-9 -p u st am unasin,

h a lf of p eel yours h a lf of peel a lso h is

ba%i f û n d o ï mi h a l t kBdxodamardi

r e s t f i l b e r t n u t my r i g h t o f j u d g e m e n t
 162

"H alf o f t h e p e e l [ i s ] y o u r s a nd h a l f t h e p e e l

[ i s ] also his; the r e s t of the f i l b e r t nut

[ i s ] f o r my j u d g e m e n t . "

b. C o r e f e r e n t i a l v e r b s a r e d e l e t e d .

man mi k a r - 3 g/kudim on am xô/ü k a r»

I my w o rk was d o in g he a l s o h i s work

* I was d o i n g my w o r k : h e w as a l s o d o i n g h i s . *

3 hindavana ba 3 p illd .k i- r l i t a barika

t h i s w aterm elon su c h a s m a l l a c c . m arkers

In, 3 âîoz ba a 3 kucikirs dar -ba 3

b ran ch t h i s w aln u t such a s m a l l a c c . t r e e such a

p iliay k i X3 iy b ô k û d i

big created

*[you] c r e a t e d such a b i g w a t e r m e l o n (on) a n a r r o w

b r a n c h , s u c h a s m a l l w a l n u t on s u c h a b i g t r e e . '

c . The v e rb i s d e l e t e d when t w o t h i n g s / p e r s o n s

a r e compared o r c o n t r a s t e d .

kuci t a mah mant p i 11 9t a sata rl

s m a l l on e moon l i k e e l d e r o n e s t a r

* T h e y o u n g e r o n e r e s e m b l e s a n o o n a nd t h e e l d e r

one looks lik e s t a r .

d . t h e c o r e f e r e n t i a l mood i s d e l e t e d .

ita z n zayam t a r t fadam, ita zan x u s g i l tarf

 163

one women want you give a women b eautiful

you###**
*I want t o g i v e y ou a women, a b eau tifu l wo-

man # # # # ^

e . The m o o d /m o d a lity i s d e l e t e d .
V _ ^
s s l - Ü - bû d û bo dû

Lame a n d r u n r u n

"The lam e c a n n o t r u n .*

2} The s u b j e c t i s deleted

a# O f t e n t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e

is d eleted ,

ci x aiy ?

what w a n t(a tta c h e d pr ono un)

"What do y o u w a n t ? "

b. The c o r e f e r e n t i a l s u b j e c t i s d e l e t e d .

d u v ard s xûrL baxab b^zi■ xu cumana dabasta

again h im self pretended to s le e p h is eyes clo sed .

XÛ dastana d a ra z -a -g /k u d ? ; hey buguftt . . .

h is hands stretch ed rep eated ly said

•Again he p re te n d e d to s l e e p , [ h e ] c lo s e d h i s

eyes, stretch ed h is hand, [a n d ] s a i d : . . . "

c. O f t e n a s u b j e c t which i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e

preceding sentence i s d e le te d .

ita tajar ita p a s a r d ^ s t i ^a xu pt&r f a r a r kunl

a m erchant a son had from h i s f a t h e r e s c a p e

 164

s 0 V

sfc )»jg3lan3 m ijan

goes f o r e s ts (accusative) in to

'A m e r c h a n t had a s o n . [H e] e scap ed from h i s

fa th e r [and] vent to [th e ] f o r e s t.

3) Th e o b j e c t a n d v e r b a r e d e l e t e d ,

zâda hamrA

God v ith

•God [ b e ] v i t h [ y o u ] , *

xôda nig?dar

•God p r o t e c t y o u . *

a) The s u b j e c t a n d v e r b a r e d e l e t e d ,

ti jfaû9 t u r b a n

your s o u l / l i f e o f f e r i n g /s a c r if ic e

• [ I ] vant [ t o become] a s a c r i f i c e

f o r your s o u l . •

a . The s e n t e n c e i s c o m p l e t e l y d e l e t e d . In G ila k i, as

i n many I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s , t h e a n s w e r t o a n e g a t i v e

q u e s t i o n i s / c î r £ / ^ v h y ^ , whic h i m p l i e s a n

affirm ativ e response.

tu ti pefcr - B - x a n a n isi ? c i r e / c e r e s9m

y ou y o u r f a t h e r ^ s h o u s e n o t go? why / why I go

D o n ^ t you g o t o y o u r f a t h e r ^ s h o u s e ? [ Y e s ] ,

I go/do
 Ib5

5 .6 .8 P irc c t/lM d ire c t speech

As i n o t h e r I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s i n d i r e c t speech i s not d ev el­

oped in G ila k i. Th e tw o c l a u s e s a r e o f t e n c o n n e c t e d b y / k i / -

*vhc* w h i c h . whom, t h a t . *

an zu h a m s a h r i y s b û g û g t a ki: "%)ab zari i s i . .."

he h i s f e l l o w c i t i z e n said th a t: "What a s s a r e y o u "

•He s a i d t o h i s f e l l o w c i t i z e n "How s t u p i d yo u a r e . . . " '

O ften / k i / i s deleted.

un b û g û f t a : " n a , z û / ô - 3 k a r a nukunam

the s a id : " N o , I d o n ' t d o t h i s work"

 CBIPIEB II
ETBIIC POLICIES IE U A I (1920 TO 1978)

Iran is a m ultin atio n al, m u ltilingual s ta t e . The

lin g u istic m in o ritie s in Ira n a r e K urds, B aluchis, Arabs,

A z e r b a i j a n i s , G i l a k s , Turkmans, A rm enians, Jews and A s s y r i­

ans. A lthough a c c u r a t e s t a t i s t i c s on t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s a r e

d if f ic u lt to o b tain , non-Fars n a t i o n a l i t i e s account a lto ­

gether for more t h a n o ne-half of th e Iran ian population.

Among a l l o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c v a r i e t i e s i n I r a n , s t a n d a r d F a r ­

s i i s the o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e a nd t h a t o f e d u c a t i o n and law;

among F a r s i s p e a k e r s , t h e T e h r a n i d i a l e c t i s r e g a r d e d a s t h e

most p r e s t i g i o u s i n I r a n .

During t h e tw en tieth century, no m a tte r who h e l d

power, t h e I r a n i a n governm ent h a s a b s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o r e c ­

ognize th e l i n g u i s t i c r i g h t s o f n o n -F a rs groups except for

A rm enians, who h a d t h e r i g h t t o u s e t h e i r l a n g u a g e i n Arme­

n i a n s c h o o l s u n t i l 1979. On a n a t i o n a l s c a l e , the Iran ia n

s t a t e has a p p lie d a v ariety of abuses to e th n ic m in o ritie s

th a t in c lu d e pervasive d isc rim in a tio n , c u ltu r a l oppression,

p h y s ic a l o p p re ssio n , a s w ell a s c u l t u r a l disparagem ent.

 167

6 .1 I»m i t s lOFID ü £ I

k b rie f h isto ry o f I r a n a f t e r W orl d War I may h e l p

t o c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e o f th e p o l i c i e s o f t h e I r a n i a n govern­

ment tow ard n a t i o n a l e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s .

W orl d War I brought new s o c i o e c o n o m i c problem s to

I r a n and prom oted r e v o l u t i o n a r y and a n t i - f o r e i g n s e n t i m e n t s

among t h e p e o p l e . D uring t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n 191* a n d 1917 ,

in sp ite of i t s p o litic a l n eu trality , I r e m be ca m e l i t e r a l l y

th e b i t t l e f i e l d f o r t h e Turko-German t r o o p s on o n e s i d e a nd

t h e B u s s o - B r i t i s h t r o o p s on t h e o t h e r . I n M ar ch 1 9 1 5 , the

R u s s i a n a n d B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t s made a s e c re t tre a ty to d i­

v i d e I r a n betw een th em selves. The German a g e n t s who u s e d

th e sentim ent of th e so u th ern t r i b e s a g a in s t the B u sso -B rit-

ish troops, organized a t r i b a l r e v o lt and, w ith t h e h e lp o f

t h e p o l i c e f o r c e , o c c u p i e d S h i r a z i n N ov em ber 1 9 1 5 . Host o f

t h e B r i t i s h were c o n c e n t r a t e d i n th e s o u t h e r n s e c t i o n s . The

new t h i r d M ajlis (P arliam ent) t h a t was p r o - G e r m a n , pro-Tur-

k e y and a n t i - B u s s i a n t h e n formed a p ro visional n a tio n a lis t

g o v e r n m e n t a t Qom t h a t r e f u s e d t o f i g h t t h e Germans. Bus-

s i a n t r o o p s were s e n t t o Tehran in r e t a l i a t i o n a n d moved on

to Qom, thereby ending th e tem porary governm ent (Ivanov

1 9 77 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) . By 1 9 1 7 , B u s s i a n t r o o p s h a d o c c u p i e d n o r t h e r n

I r a n an d th e B ritis h were e s t a b l i s h e d in the r e s t of the

co untry, e s p e c ia lly in th e so u th .
 1t8

H o w e v e r, i n November 1 9 1 7 , th e T s a r i s t government

mas o v e r t h r o w n by t h e R u s s i a n revolution. The new g o v e r n ­

m e n t r e p u d i a t e d a l l T s a r i s t p r i v i l e g e s an d r e n o u n c e d a l l un­

equal tr e a tie s . The R u s s i a n r e v o l u t i o n , w ith i t s declara­

tio n of th e rig h t to self-d eterm in atio n for all

n atio n alities, had a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t on n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s

in Iran. Trade onions f o r te a c h e r s , p r in t in g house w orkers,

bakers, p o s ta l w orkers, and t e l e g r a p h em ployees were e s t a b ­

lis h e d in Tehran, R asht, S n z a li, T abriz, a n d Bamedan among

o ther c itie s. C hapters of the S o c ia l D em ocratic P arty,

E d allat ( j u s t i c e ) , w e r e f o r m e d i n E n z a l i , Hamedan, a n d e l s e ­

w here. A n ti-f o re ig n dom ination and a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t s e n t i ­

m e n t s p r e a d r a p i d l y among n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s ; th is feeling

was e s p e c i a l l y pro n o u n ced in the n o rth e rn p ro v in ces o f Gi-

l a n , H a z a n d a r a n , an d A z e r b a i j a n . K ed d ie f o l l o w i n g Lenczow-

s k i (1949) p o i n t s o u t t h a t :

The m o s t s e r i o u s a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t a l a n d n a t i o n a l i s t
m o v e m e n ts was a r e v o l t i n t h e C aspian p ro v in c e of
G i l a n f r o m 1917 o n . A l o c a l l e a d e r , Kuchak Khan,
l e d a movement f o r m ore d e m o c r a t i c a n d e g a l i t a r i a n
ru le. The p a r t i s a n s o f t h i s movement w e r e known
as J a n q a lis ( f o r e s t d w e llers) because they o p e r a t­
e d i n t h e wooded a r e a o f G i l a n . (1981: 80-81)

L ater, among F a r s i s p e a k e r s , t h e word i a n g a l i came t o mean

d irty , s a v a g e men. T h is i s b u t one example o f t h e extrem e

l i n g u i s t i c o p p r e s s i o n o f an e t h n i c i d e n t i t y .
 1 o 9

The B r i t i s h go vero m en t, threatened b j th e se n a tio n a l

movements, attem pted to s o l i d i f y and c o n s o lid a te i t s po w e r

in Iran. Iran vas im p o r ta n t t o t h e B est both for i t s o il

and a s a buffer s ta te a g a i n s t S o v i e t U nion, and " B r i t i s h

c o n tro l could make I r a n p a r t o f a cordon s a n i t a i r e around

t h e B o l s h e v i k s " (K eddie 1981: 82). T herefore, when g r e a t

B r i t a i n w anted t o f o r m a li z e i t s c o n t r o l over Ira n i t did so

in a tre a ty th at essen tially made I r a n a B r i t i s h p r o t e c t o r ­

ate. B r i t i s h s e n t new t r o o p s t o I r a n a n d a n I r a n i a n g o v e r n ­

ment t h a t was subservient to the B ritis h was f o r m e d and

h e a d e d by P r i m e S i n i s t e r Vosug ad-O ovleh. The t r e a t y p r o ­

v i d e d t h a t I r a n was t o b e a B r i t i s h p r o t e c t o r a t e a n d e n s u r e d

B ritis h ad m in istrativ e and econom ic c o n t r o l ( H u r e v i t z 1 9 79 :

182-83) . I t was met w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f r e s i s t a n c e b y t h e

p eople th a t continued th ro u g h 1920. I n some areas, lik e

A zarbaijan, i t resu lted in a p o p u l a r movement f o r e c o n o m i c

and s o c i a l j u s t i c e .

T h e r e was a d e m o c r a t i c t h r u s t i n A z a r b a i j a n t h a t was

under th e le ad e rsh ip o f S h a i k h Mohammad R h i a b a n i f r o m 1905

u n til 19 1 1 . By 1920 t h e D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y , an o u t g r o w t h o f

th is earlier movement, was s t a b l i s h e d . The movement was

r e f o r m i s t and e x p r e s s e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t s of t h e Turk­

is h speaking A z e r b a i j a n i s when w e re o p p r e s s e d by th e Pars

c e n t r a l governm ent. R h ia b a n i formed an a u t o n o m o u s local

 170

g ov ern m en t a n d renamed t h e p r o v i n c e A z a d i s t a n (place of free

people), and he made r e f o r m s s u c h a s p rice c o n tro l. Al­

though th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f th e A z arb a ija n r e v o l t encouraged

s i m i l a r m o v e m e n ts e l s e w h e r e , t h e r e v o l t i t s e l f mas n o t l o n g -

liv ed . I n S eptem ber 1920, mitb th e s u p p o r t of t h e B r i t i s h ,

the Iran ian governm ent s u p p r e s s e d t h e A z a r b a i j a n i r e b e l s and

R hiabani v as k i l l e d .

The hegemony of th e B r i t i s h government was t h r e a t ­

e n e d by t h e J a n g a l i s , th e A zerbaijanis, and o t h e r r a d i c a l

groups. A sp ecial t h r e a t v a s t h e C o m m u n is t P arty o f Ira n ,

established in 1920 i n E n z a l i t h a t had a s one of i t s g o als

th e expulsion o f t h e B r i t i s h and t h e f o r m a t i o n of a repub­

l i c a n governm ent. The B r i t i s h s o o n r e a l i z e d t h a t a p r o t e c ­

to ra te s ta tu s vas not p o ssib le in I r a n s o th ey began t o f a ­

vor a p ro -B ritis h c e n t r a l I r a n i a n governm ent t h a t v o u ld be

a b l e t o s u p p r e s s a ny r a d i c a l u p r i s i n g s , e s p e c ia lly the Jan­

g alis. The B r i t i s h s u p p o r t e d Beza Khan who was t h e C o s s a c k

B r i g a d e commander. T h e B r i t i s h h e l p e d him t o g a i n po w e r and

e n c o u r a g e d hi m t o a t t e m p t a c o u p i n F e b r u a r y 19 21 . The s u c ­

c e s s f u l c o u p e n a b l e d Reza Khan t o a t t a i n p o w e r a n d t o become

shah (king) i n 19 2 5 , th e re b y e s t a b l i s h i n g th e P a h la v i dynas­

ty .
 171

6.2 llZâ SeiH (1925 Ï2 19911

At f i r s t t h e ne * S h a h s eem ed t o p r o m o t e n a t i o n a l i s ­

tic p o licies. He c l a i m e d a n in te re s t in an in d e p en d e n c e

from t h e V e s t and G r e a t B r i t a i n , and h e made o t h e r p r o m i s e s

f o r reform . L ater, however, he d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t he h a d :

no i n t e r e s t in fundam ental s o c i a l reform to help

th e popular c la s s e s , and h i s r e f o r m e f f o r t s were
m ain ly m e asu re s f o r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and e f f i c i e n c y ,
in clu d in g suppression of t r i b a l and a u to n o m is t
m ov em en ts a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e a rm y a n d b u r e a u c ­
racy. { K e dd ie 1 9 8 1 : 8 7 )

B e z a S h a h ' s f i r s t c o n c e r n was t o p u t down a n y move­

m e n ts t h a t were p e r c e i v e d t o t h r e a t e n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r .

G ilan, where t h e u n i t e d f r o n t government had a l r e a d y been

e s t a b l i s h e d under th e l e a d e r s h i p of Kuchak Khan was a m a j o r

th reat. Koch ak K h a n 's governm ent i n c l u d e d b o t h C o m m un is t

and non-com m unist f o r c e s . However, t h e u n i t y i n G ila n d i s ­

s i p a t e d as these factio n s q u arreled over reform p o lic ie s ,

and in late 1921 Kuch ak Khan e x p e l l e d t h e C o m m u n i s t s fr om

t h e governm ent. He s i g n e d a t r e a t y w i t h t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n ­

ment that perm itted th e m to send, th eir troops to

Baku { S o v i e t A z a r b a i j a n ) , s u p p l i e d them w i t h f o o d s and r e ­

leased B ritis h captives in return fo r r e c o g n i t i o n by the

B r i t i s h governm ent. L ater, the B r iti s h v i o l a t e d th e tr e a t y

and s e n t t h e i r t r o o p s t o G i l a n . At t h e e n d o f 1 9 2 1 , Beza

S h a h 's tro o p s occupied G ila n . Kuchak Khan was l a t e r t a k e n

 172

and beheaded. As a r e s u l t , t h e S o v i e t B e p u b l i c o f G i l a n was

abolished, a n d G i l a n was made s u b j e c t t o T e h r a n .

A lthough t h e suppression o f the n a tio n a l movement

w as s u c c e s s f u l i n G i l a n , i t d i d n o t p r e v e n t u p r i s i n g s , else­

where. A n t i - f o r e i g n and a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t f e e l i n g s m o b iliz e d

K urds in K u rd is ta n and i n K horasan, a c i t y in n o r t h e a s t e r n

I r a n l o c a t e d w e l l away f o r m t h e m a j o r i t y o f K u r d s who l i v e d

in th e w est. The g o v e r n m e n t p u t down t h i s movement i n t h e

f a l l o f 1 92 1.

To f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t e h i s power and s u p p r e s s o t h e r

a t t e m p t s by e t h n i c g r o u p s a t s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , R e z a Khan d e ­

term ined to n e u tra liz e natio n al m ove m e n ts i n I r a n and to

c r e a t e an o f f ic ia l Iran ian nationalism th a t would em b race

a ll of th e v a rio u s peoples in Ira n . Such n e u t r a l i z a t i o n

would o c c u r m i l i t a r i l y ; t r i b a l r e v o l t s were c r u s h e d ; l e f t i s t

o p p osition and a t t e m p t s a t n a t i o n a l a u t o n o m y w e r e p u t down.

The Shah used th e p o lic y of disarm am ent; he a rre s te d the

lead ersh ip ; he f o r c e d a r e l o c a t i o n o f r a d i c a l Kurds. These

t a c t i c s e f f e c tiv e ly crushed th e re b e llio n .

The s am e p o l i c i e s o f d i s a r m a m e n t , a r r e s t , and r e l o ­

cation t h a t had been u sed f o r Kurds were a l s o used f o r e t h e r

trib es; the Lurs, fo r in s ta n c e , w ere d e c i m a t e d .

To u n i f y t h e c o u n t r y , Reza Shah a l s o d e t e r m i n e d t o

c r e a t e an o f f i c i a l n a t i o n a l i s m t h a t a s s e r t e d th e ascendancy
 173

of the A r y a n / I r a n i a n and t h e suprem acy of the F arsi lan­

guage. T h e name P a h l a v i « a s g i v e n t o t h i s new d y n a s t y , and

t h e c o u n t r y ' s name was c h a n g e d f r o m P e r s i a to Iran . This

n a tio n a lism took i t s i d e o l o g y f r o m F a s c i s m a n d N a z i G e rm a n y .

Beza S h a h 's reign th a t la s te d f r o m 1925 u n t i l 1940 p a r a l ­

l e l e d t h e r i s e o f F a s c i s m i n Germany a n d I t a l y .

S e e n a s a b a s e a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t O n i o n , I r a n was
p e n e t r a t e d by t h e G e rm a ns m i l i t a r i l y and p o l i t i ­
cally . N a z i i d e o l o g y a n d a g e n t s w e re p r o m i n e n t ,
a n d t h e Germans d e c l a r e d I r a n a p u re Aryan coun­
try . B e z a Shah was n o t a v e r s e t o N a z i p h r a s e s a n d
m ethods, a s t h e y s u i t e d h i s d i c t a t o r i a l and na­
tio n a lis tic in clin atio n s. Cn t h e v e o f B o r l d B a r
II, I r a n h o u s e d German e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l
a g e n t s , a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t bad e c o n o m i c and p o l i t ­
ical commitments t y i n g to a pro-German p o l i c y .
[K ed d ie 1981:110)

I r a n i a n n a t i o n a l s who w e r e German a g e n t s h e l d high ra n k in g

o f f ic e s in c lu d in g P arliam entary s e a t s , and th e y c o n t r o l l e d

b u s i n e s s a n d c o m m e rc e . German a g e n t s a l s o p u b l i s h e d b u l l e ­

t in s w ritten in F a r s i t h a t prom oted f a s c i s t i d e o l o g y among

in te llectu als. As a r e s u l t , some I r a n i a n w r i t e r s p r o d u c e d

literatu re praisin g H itle r and F a scism , a n d B eza S h a h was

called "H u sso lin i of Islam " [ J a v a n s h ir 1980:16).

The fascist clim ate of Italy a n d Germany spread

w ith in th e R iddle E a st. It was n o t s u r p r i s i n g , th en , when

A tatu rk in T urkey, B ez a S h a h in Ira n , M ussolini in I t a l y ,

a n d H i t l e r i n Germany a l l played t h e same t u n e e x t o l l i n g t h e

su p re m ac y o f one c u l t u r e o v e r another, one la n g u ag e t o an­

 174

oth er, or one r a c e over th e o th e rs a s the n a tu r a l (correct)

order of th in g s. B eza Shah u s u a l l y follow ed I t a t u r k ' s lead

in eth n ic p o lic y . F o r exam ple, A t a t u r k banned t r a d i t i o n a l

d re ss in Turkey, and a s a p a r t o f h i s p o l i c y o f n e u t r a l i z a ­

t i o n / w e s t e r n i z a t i o n he " s t i p u l a t e d t h a t e v e r y [ K u r d ] bad t o

wear t h e "R ep u b lican Cap.* Should a p e a s a n t fo rg e t to re­

move h i s t r a d i t i o n a l h e a d g e a r he m ig h t b e h e a v i l y f i n e d by

o fficials fo r [ h is] "serious offense"" (Kendel 1980:83).

B e z a S h a h f o l l o w e d m ore o r l e s s t h e s a m e p o l i c y i n I r a n , ill

show o f e t h n i c / n a t i o n a l p r i d e and s p i r i t a s w e l l eis t r a d i ­

t i o n a l d r e s s w ere banned i n 1928. E v e r y o n e was o r d e r e d t o

w e a r E u r o p e a n s t y l e c l o t h i n g and t o r e p l a c e t h e i r own t r a d i ­

t i o n a l head c o v e r i n g w ith th e P ahlavi h a t. A ll government

em ployees had t o wear th e s o - c a l l e d chapeau " and a l l m i l i ­

ta ry personnel had t o wear an o ffic ia l hat ( I v a n o v 1977 :

88 ) .
I n summary, Beza S h a h " s p o l i c y to w a r d e t h n i c m inori­

t i e s in I r a n was b a s e d on f o u r d i m e n s i o n s o f Fascism : 1)

the su ppression of e th n ic m in o ritie s , 2 ) th e prom otion of

r a c is m and t h e suprem acy o f t h e A ry a n r a c e , 3) lin g u istic

chauvinism (the s u p e r i o r i t y o f F a r s i over o th e r Ir a n ia n lan­

g u a g e s ) , a n d h) s u b m i s s i o n o f t h e p e o p l e t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f

th e lead er.
 175

The i m p a c t of these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an m l t r a n a -

tio n alist s p i r i t was t h e developm ent of a pan-Iranianism

t h a t argued th e su p erio rity of the Iran ian [P ars) o v er the

o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s who l i v e d w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e na­

t i o n a l b o r d e r s o f I r a n and p r a i s e d t h e Shah a s t h e sym bolic

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e Aryan r a c e . B e a s u r e s were ev en t a k e n

to r e v ita liz e th e glorious ancient em pire o f I r a n , and th e

i d e o l o g i c a l movement had l i n g u i s t i c c o n s e q u e n c e s . F a r s i was

mandated as t h e o f f i c i a l language and c o n s id e re d t o be su­

p e r io r to o th e r lan g u ag es; i t w as t h e l a n g u a g e o f la w and

education. " A t t h e Academy o f L a n g u a g e , a c a d e m i c i a n s b e g a n

to "p u rify " th e language in o rd e r to r i d it of i t s A rabic,

T urkish, [ e t c . ] , co n tam in an ts..." ( I v a n o v 1977: 08). Sim ul­

ta n e o u s to t h e s e p o l i t i c a l end l i n g u i s t i c movecents was a

l i t e r a r y one. Poems w e r e a d d e d t o t h e c a n o n o f a n c i e n t I r a ­

nian l i t e r a t u r e , a n d o r i g i n a l poems w e r e d i s t o r t e d i n an e f ­

f o r t to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e the grow ing f a s c i s t racial a tti­

tu d es.
 176

6 .3 BOHiBBID BEZl SBiH f19»1 JO 19781

I n S e p te m b e r 1939, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f B o r l d Bar I I ,

G e r m a n ' s f i f t h c o lu m n was a c t i v e i n I r a n . I t s p r e s e n c e mas

obvious everyw here, a n d B eza S h a h ' s p r o - B a z i p o l i c y mas no

secret. G e rm a ns a t t e m p t e d t o u s e t h i s s y m p a t h y t o t u r n I r a n

a s a b a s e a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t Union. The A l l i e s n e e d e d I r a n

a s a supply r o u te to th e S o v ie ts . The B r i t i s h and B u s s i a n s

d e m a n d e d t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e G e r m a n ' s fr om t h e I r a n i a n g o v ­

ernm ent. Bhen B ez a S h a h p r o c r a s t i n a t e d , B u s s i a n t r o o p s e n ­

t e r e d n o r t h e r n I r a n i n A u g u s t 1941 m i t h t h e a u t h o r i t y o f Ar­

ticle 6 of t h e 1921 treaty betm een I r a n and t h e Soviet

U n i o n , and B r i t i s h t r o o p s e n t e r e d t h e s o u t h - s o u t h w e s t e r n r e ­

gions of I r a n .

A llied p ressu re an d I r a n i a n public p ro te s t forced

B eza Shah t o a b d i c a t e . In S e p t e m b e r 194 1, he r e s i g n e d i n

f a v o r o f h i s s o n , Mohammad B e z a . B e z a S h a h was d e p o r t e d t o

Egypt and d i e d t h e r e i n 1944.

A f t e r t h e mar y e a r s , I r a n i a n p o l i t i c s t o o k two c o n ­

t r a d i c t o r y d i r e c t i o n s — o n e t o w a r d n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n move­

m ents and t h e o t h e r tow ard n e o c o l o n i a l i s m .

 177

e # U T I O B I L IIBEBITIOB BOVEBEmTS

B ar a n d B eza S h a h ' s a b d i c a t i o n , w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

a c e r ta in degree o f a lib e ratio n . The p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s

o f e a r l i e r n a t i o n a l mo ve m e n ts m er e r e l e a s e d , and new spapers

were p u b l i s h e d th a t praised the b e n e fits of a dem ocratic

governm ent. T h e Tu deh ( c o m m u n i s t ) P a r t y o f I r a n was e s t a b ­

lish e d in 19*1. Its m a in c e n t e r o f a c t i v i t y was i n the

north , but i t e n c o u r a g e d w o rk in g p e o p l e from a l l o v e r the

country to u n ite . B orkers and c o a l i t i o n s o f p e a s a n t s soon

estab lish ed u n i o n s i n many c i t i e s such as Isfah an (the te x ­

tile area) and t h e o i l f i e l d s . The p l a n o f t h e p a r t y was t o

e s t a b l i s h d e m o c r a ti c freedom s f o r a l l in d iv id u als, indepen­

dence f o r th e c o u n try , frien d ly r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e Al­

lie s, estab lish la b o r law s, and im plem ent s o c i a l s e c u r i t y .

In ad d itio n , s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s w e re i n t e n s i f i e d

and th e p re s e n c e of the S oviet O n io n an d t h e in flu en c e of

M arxist id e o lo g y con trib u ted to m o v e m e n ts a im e d a t im ple­

m enting r a d i c a l s o c i a l c h an g e . A ll t h e s e f a c t o r s prompted

t h e n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s t o r e a s s e r t t h e i r demands f o r a u t o n ­

omy.

As a f t e r B o r l d B a r I , t h e s t r o n g e s t o f t h e s e move­

m e n t s was i n n o r t h e r n I r a n e s p e c i a l l y A z a r b a ija n where th e y

found encouragem ent in t h e s o c i a l i s t revolution. R esentm ent

 178

a g a i n s t t h e c e n t r a l governm ent was strong f o r many r e a s o n s .

E c o n o m ic o p p r e s s i o n w as i n t e r t w i n e d with n a t i o n a l oppres­

sion. A zarbaijan p a i d more t a x e s th a n any o th e r Iranian

p ro v in ce and r e c e i v e d no com mensurate b e n e f i t s in re tu rn .

F urther the A z erb a ija n is were d e n ie d t h e b a s i c human r i g h t

o f u s i n g t h e i r own l a n g u a g e ; A z a r b a i j a n i w as n e i t h e r t a u g h t

in schools n o r was i t perm itted to be used fo r o fficial

business. Of c o u r s e , A z e r b a i j a n i s r e s e n t e d d e ep ly th e en­

forced F a rs iz a tio n . The i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a t e d S o v i e t

A z a r b a i j a n l e d A z e r b a i j a n i s i n I r a n t o u s e i t a s a m ode l f o r

a lib eratio n movement i n I r a n .

In t h e m i d d l e o f 1945 a united f r o n t party called

th e Democrat P arty of A z e r b a i j a n was formed t o include a

complex c o a l i t i o n of g r o u p s and c l a s s e s . The g o a l s o f t h i s

p a r t y were t o c r e a t e an autonomous A z a r b a i j a n , t o have the

a u t h o r i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e p r o v i n c e on t h e b a s i s o f a demo­

c r a tic p o licy , and t o r e i n s t a t e A z arb aijan i as the o f f i c i a l

language. Th e Tud eh ( c o m m u n is t) p a r t y o f I r a n was s t r o n g i n

A zarbaijan, a n d i n O c t o b e r 1945 t h e d i s t r i c t b ran ch o f the

party j o i n e d t h e Democrat P a r t y . Soon t h e D e m o c r a t P a r t y o f

A z a r b a i j a n became a v e r y p o w e rfu l f o r c e i n t h a t r e g i o n , r e p ­

r e s e n t i n g a l l s o c i a l s t r a t a and c l a s s e s .

In November 1945 a p r o v i n c i a l a s s e m b l y was e l e c t e d

a nd m o s t o f t h e s e a t s w e r e wen b y t h e D em ocrats. Th e new

 179

p r o v i n c i a l governm ent, d e c la r e d t h a t A zarb aijan h e ld auto n o ­

mous s t a t u s b u t v a s n o t i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n ­

m ent. Among t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e new g o v e r n m e n t w e r e t h a t

a larg e p o rtion of tax r e c e i p t s vas t o rem ain v i t h i n the

p ro v in ce and t h a t th e l o c a l a d m in is tr a tio n vas to be c o n s t i ­

tu ted of elected lo cal o fficials thereby reestab lish in g

self-gov ernm ent to the province. They a l s o i n c l u d e d a p o l i ­

c y b a s e d on a l a n d r e f o r m program t h a t v o u ld l o v e r r e n t s and

r e d i s t r i b u t e t h e la n d t h a t belo n g ed t o t h e Tehran governm ent

o r to absentee la n d lo rd s . O ther p r o v is io n s vere d ire c tly

related to language. A zerbaijani vas to be t h e o f f i c i a l

lang u ag e o f the p ro v in c e , and i t vas to beu s e d in the

schools, i n c l u d i n g t h e nev u n iv ersity a n d t h e 407 new e l e ­

m entary and high s c h o o ls . A l i t e r a r y campaign i n th e v il­

la g e s opened n ig h t s c h o o l s and s t r e s s e d t h e use of th e na­

t i v e tongue.

Events sim ilar to those in A zarbaijan o ccured in

K urdistan. The K u r d is ta n D em ocratic P a r t y vas founded in

19 45 v i t h t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f an e m i n e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l and r e ­

lig io u s lead er, Q a z i Mohammad. The P a r t y p r e s e n t e d a p r o ­

g r e s s i v e p la tf o rm com prised by s u c h p r o v i s i o n s a s t h e man­

agement o f l o c a l a f f a i r s o f K u r d i s t a n by th e K urds, using

K urd! a s t h e o f f i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e la n g u a g e , and a l l o w i n g

th e s tu d y o f Kurdi i n th e p ro v in c ia l schools. Among o t h e r

 180

key p o i n t s in t h e p l a t f o r m mere l a n d r e f o r m , p o l i t i c a l f r e e ­

dom f o r a l l people, an d t h e l o c a l e l e c t i o n of s t a t e o f f i ­

c i a l s and d i s t r i c t c o u n c i l l o r s from t h e p r o v in c ia l popula­

tio n . Because o f th e s p e c ific co n d itio n s of t h e t i m e an d

th e p ro g re ssiv e nature of i t s g o a ls , t h e p a r t y grem r a p i d l y

a n d won t h e s u p p o r t o f a l l t h e K u r d s i n I r a n . The F i r s t Be­

p u b l i c o f K u r d i s t a n was p r o c l a i m e d i n B a h a b a d , K u rdistan of

Iran, and in 194 8 Q a z i Mohammad was e l e c t e d as its p resi­

d ent. Even t h o u g h th e K urdistan re p u b lic la ste d fo r less

t h a n a y e a r i t a c h i e v e d many o f i t s g o a l s . K u r d i be ca m e t h e

o f f i c i a l language of th e a d m in is tr a tio n a n d was f r e e l y s p o ­

ken and t a u g h t i n t h e s c h o o l s . S e v e r a l K u rd i j o u r n a l s were

p u b l i s h e d i n c l u d i n g t h e KDP Or g a n , t h e C h i l d r e n ' s M agazine,

a n d a p a p e r f o r women. A lso, t h e f i r s t K u r d i t h e a t e r was

founded d u rin g t h i s tim e [Qassemlu 1 9 7 8 : 1 1 8 - 1 2 2 ) .

In G i l a n , a movement b a s e d o n r a d i c a l s o c i o e c o n o m i c

re f o rm and a n ti- m o n a r c h is m b e g a n . Runaway s o l d i e r s , sup­

p o r t e d by p e a s a n t s a n d w o r k e r s , formed a p a r t i s a n group t h a t

s tru g g le d a g a in s t the c e n tr a l I r a n i a n g o v e rn m e n t and f e u d a l

lords. In 1944 t h e g r o u p s t a g e d m a ss p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e

governm ent f o r c l o s i n g down the dem ocratic n e w s p a p e r s an d

fo r arrestin g a n d a s s a u l t i n g p e o p l e who were p a r t i c i p a t i n g

in t h e May Day p a r a d e . I n 1946 p e a s a n t s a n d t h e w o r k e r s u n ­

ion jo in ed f o r c e s and dem an ded reform in th e p e a s a n t-fe u d a l

 181

relatio n sh ip . By t h e e n d o f 19*6 l a n d l o r d s « e r e f o r c e d t o

re d o c e t h e i r a n n u a l s h a r e of the te n a n ts * p r o d u c e b y 25 p e r ­

cent.

So, p o s t Wo rld War I I c o n d i t i o n s p r o m o t e d d e m o c r a t ­

i c / n a t i o n a l i s t m o ve m e nts n o t s i m p l y among s c a t t e r e d m inori­

tie s, but they o fte n vere u n ified f r o n t s of ra d ic a ls th at

advocated socioeconom ic change.

6 .5 WEOCOLOHUL P O L IC T -O IL ERA

The y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d World War I I introdu ced a

nev e r a , t h e o i l or n e o c o l o n i a l age. I t vas during t h i s ep­

och t h a t w e s t e r n powers a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r pow­

e r s by s u p p o r t i n g a s t r o n g c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t f o r I r a n .

The O n i t e d S t a t e s a r m y , s u p p l y i n g a r m s t o t h e S o v i e t

Union, had already moved in to Iran d u r i n g W or ld War I I .

T h e y came in , v ith th e consent of t h e Prim e S i n i s t e r of

Iran. Soon a f t e r w a r d A m e r i c a n a rm y o f f i c e r s o c c u p i e d key

government p o s i t i o n s in Ira n . American in v o lv e m e n t i n I r a n

w as h e a v i l y on t h e S h a h ’ s s i d e b e c a u s e of o i l i n t e r e s t s and

anti-com m unist sym pathies.

A m ajor t h r e a t t o th e governm ent and f o r e i g n power

in terests w ere t h e e t h n i c / n a t i o n a l movements t h a t e n d a n g e re d

estab lish ed order. In h e re n t in th is t h r e a t were t h e S o v i e t

 1B2

O n io n a n d M a r x i s t i d e o l o g y , an i d e o l o g y a l r e a d y a p p l i e d by

t h e Kurds, A zerb aijan is, a n d G i l a k s t o t h e i r r a d i c a l move­

m ents.

The c e n t r a l I r a n i a n government and i t s B ritish a nd

American su pporters d is tr u s te d the eth n ic/n atio n al move­

m ents, r i g h t l y f e a r in g t h a t they m ig h t s e r v e a s models f o r

o th e rs in I r a n and u l t i m a t e l y r e s u lt in th e B e s t's lo sin g

c o n tro l of I r a n ia n o i l f i e l d s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c e n t r a l g ov­

e rn m e n t's p o l i c i e s , m a r k e d by a n e m p h a s i s c n a s t r o n g m i l i ­

t a r i z e d government and a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e Shah opposed th e

r a d i c a l m o v e m e n ts o f t h e n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s .

U sing a d iv id e and conquer s t r a t e g y t h e Shah set

trite against tr ib e so t o f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e d e m o c r a t i c na­

tio n alities and u n io n m o ve m e nt s t h a t v e r e s o s t r o n g i n the

n o r t h and i n o t h e r c i t i e s of I r a n . G overnm ental t a c t i c s i n ­

cluded p r e v a ilin g on t h e B a k b t i a r y trib e to fig h t against

th e dem ocratic f o r c e s i n A z a r b a i j a n and r e c r u i t i n g members

of the Shahsavan t r i b e t o f i g h t a g a i n s t o th e r p o p u la r f o r c e s

in the n o rth . I n t h e s p r i n g of 1946 m e r c e n a r y g r o u p s a i d e d

by t h e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t 's p o l i c e a t t a c k e d l e a d e r s o f popu­

lar org an izatio n s in G i l a n and o th er c itie s(Iv a n o v 19 77:

120 - 22 ) .

I n November 1 9 4 6 , the Qavam [ P r i m e M i n i s t e r ) w ith

th e c o o p e r a t io n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica, s e n t tr o o p s
 18i

n o r t h t o p u t dovn t h e A z a r b a i j a n i a n d K u r d s ' a u t o n o m y move­

m ents. The t a c t i c s in both a r e a s v e re b ru tal. Numerous

p e o p l e were jailed , a n d l e a d e r s who did n o t f l e e o r hide

were e x e c u te d .

In a d d i t i o n to m ilita rily suppressing th e reb els,

t h e government o f I r a n la u n ch e d a new c a m p a i g n f o r o f f i c i a l

nationalism . I r a n wa s c a l l e d Shahanshahie I r a n , t h e I r a n i a n

Em pire, and t h e s h a h was c a l l e d S hahanshah t h e Emperor o r

King o f K in g s . Mohammad R e z a Sh ah w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o r e v i v e

t h e im age o f th e a n c ie n t I r a n i a n em pire and Arva-M ehr (The

s u n o f t h e A r y a n ) be cam e h i s t i t l e . He a c c l a i m e d h i m s e l f t o

be so le h e ir t o th e th ro n e and t o have a special s p ir itu a l

relatio n sh ip w ith Cyrus th e G reat (Mohammad B e z a S h a h 's

sp eech a t P e r s a p c l i s , 1971).

As i s o f t e n the case, th is ty p e of nationalism in

regard to other e th n ic /n a tio n a litie s in the country takes

t h e fo r m o f e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h i s 'o u rs ' i s s u p e r i o r and sub­

ju g a te s o th er n a tio n a litie s rig h ts . Thus, to i n s t i t u t i o n a l ­

ize th is n a tio n a listic attitu d e, t r a d i t i o n s were i n v e n t e d ,

a n d p r o v e r b s a n d poems w e r e w r i t t e n t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e m . The

t h e m a t i c message o f t h i s new l i t e r a t u r e was an a s s o c i a t i o n

of Ira n ia n p a tr io tis m w ith chauvinism . Th e l i t e r a r y trad i­

t i o n a l s o prom oted t h e w o rsh ip o f t h e Shah a s t h e r e p r e s e n ­

tatio n o f God on e a r t h [ t h e shadow o f God). Such s l o g a n s a s

 1 8 4

" ce fzrm an-e-v% zdan. 6e f a i r m a n - e - s a h " JGod’ s o r d e r [ i s t h e

same a s ] S h a h 's order) o r s h a h 's t r i n i t y " r o d a s h a h m ih a n "

(God, k i n g , n a t i o n ) i n w h i c h t h e S h a h was g r a p h i c a l l y shown

t o be i n t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n and ab o v e t h e o t h e r two, God

and n a t i o n , were m andatorily posted in sch o o ls and p u b l i c

o ffices. O pponents of th e Shah were lab eled p ro -S oviet,

godless t r a i t o r s and w e r e s u b j e c t t o s u p p r e s s i o n .

L a n g u a g e was a l s o a f f e c t e d by t h i s o f f i c i a l n a tio n ­

alism . F a r s i was a g a i n d e c l a r e d to be the o f f i c i a l language

and a l l o t h e r la n g u a g e s , in c lu d in g A z a ri t h a t d o es n o t even

belong to th e I r a n i a n language g ro u p , were demoted t o l o c a l

d ialects. T h i s l i n g u i s t i c p o l i c y e n a b l e d Bohammad B e z a Shah

to add a n e v p s y c h o l o g i c a l dim ension to t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f

natio n al m in o rities th a t was f i r s t l a u n c h e d by h is fa th e r.

In o rder to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e F a r s i chauvinism , s o c i o l o g i s t s ,

w riters, and pro-m onarchist th e o r e tic ia n s m anipulated th e

F a r s i la n g u a g e and n atio n a l l i t e r a t u r e so i t w o u ld b e made

c l e a r t h a t a n y member o f a n o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t y who c o m m u n i c a t ­

e d i n h i s / h e r own l a n g u a g e a n d n o t i n F a r s i would b e c o n s i d ­

e r e d i n f e r i o r and a s u b j e c t o f r i d i c u l e .

P e jo r a tiv e term s fo r o th e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s be cam e em-

beded i n t h e l a n g u a g e and were used t o s t e r e o t y p e and hum il­

i a t e me m be rs o f t h o s e g r o u p s . T h e f o l l o w i n g s a r e fe w exam­

p le s of such slo g an s: "Kurds a r e f i e r c e ; Arabs a r e s l o p p y .

 1 8 5

lazy liz a r d e a te r s ; Lors a re sim pletons; A zerbaijanis are

crazy; and G i l a k s (men) a r e e f f e m i n a t e ; [ T h i s t e r m i s men­

tio n ed fo r th e f i r s t t i m e by B a b i n o ( 1 9 1 6 - 1 7 : 27)— a r a c i a l ­

i s t h i s t o r i a n mho says: " l e s g n ile k de l a p l a i n e s o n t en

g e n e r a l one r a c e e f f e n i n e e " ) .

So d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f e t h n i c g r o u p s mas e x t e n d e d to inclu de

n eg ativ e a t t i t u d e s about place o f b i r t h and r e g i o n a l pecul­

ia ritie s. I n many t e c h n i c a l l y advanced s o c i e t i e s , b irth ­

p l a c e i s assumed t o be r e la tiv e ly u n co rrelated to a ttitu d e s

a n d b e h a v i o r s (Cox 1 9 * 8 ) . But i n I r a n in P ahlavi*s re ig n ,

t h e n a t i o n *s l i t e r a t u r e i s r e p l e t e v i t h t h e i d e a o f a c o r r e ­

latio n betmeen b i r t h p l a c e and p e o p le 's p e rs o n a lity . Thus,

an y o n e b o r n i n I s f a h a n mas assumed t o be s t i n g y and m a te r ­

ialistic, l i a b l e t o d o a n y t h i n g f o r money. Old r a c i s t I r a ­

nian aphorism s, such a s "Q azv in is a re ru stic ," "Hamedanis

are a v a ric io u s ," "A zerb aijan is are c ra z y ," "D ezfulis are

w o r t h l e s s , " "K erm anshahis are je rk s," and and stereotyped

poems t h a t e m p l o y e d t h e same k i n d o f p e j o r a t i v e p h r a s e s mere

w i d e l y u s e d i n I r a n d u r i n g Bohammad Beza S h a h 's r u l e a s s a ­

tiric a l devices: "A d og o f K a sh a n i s b e t t e r t h a n t h e n o b l e

o f Qom, a l t h o u g h a d o g i s b e t t e r th a n t h e n a t i v e o f K ashan,"

and "from a T a b r i z i , thou w i l l see nau g h t b u t r a s c a l i t y ; so

it i s b e t t e r t o s e e no T a b r i z i a t a l l " .
 166

T h e s e p e j o r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s we re u s e d a s a d o u b l e -

e d g e d Sword a g a i n s t t h e p e o p l e t o s h a a e a n d h u m i l i a t e w h o le

c u l t u r e s and to d iv id e and c o n q u e r the m. Tapes and c a s ­

s e t t e s b a s e d on j o k e s a b o u t e f f e m i n a t e G i l a k s a n d t h e m o c t a ­

b l e G i l a k i la n g u a g e were n um erous. I n many a r e a s t h e y w e r e

th e only so u rc e o f e n te rta in m e n t. T h e P a r s c h a u v i n i s t s u s ed

th ese eth n ic s lu rs to prom ote unfriendly a ttitu d e s among

people in order to d iv e rt t h e m fr om u n i t i n g and rem edying

t h e i r common s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c problem s.

To sum u p , d u r i n g t h e P a h l a v i d y n a s t y , n a t i o n a l mi­

n o rities' l a n g u a g e s were degraded and th e p eo p le who s p o k e

them were h u m i l i a t e d .

The l a s t y e a r s o f t h e P a h l a v i d y n a s t y mark t h e e p o c h

o f cosm opolitanism t h a t l e d t o t h e econom ic, p o l i t i c a l , and

c u lt u r a l subjugation of the n a tio n (Iran) to th e w estern

pow ers. I t s t a r t e d w i t h t h e w e s t e r n i z a t i o n and n e u t r a l i z a ­

tio n of the languages and c u l t u r e s o f th e n a tio n a l m inori­

t i e s and t h e n a t i o n as w e l l . T h e w e s t e r n i z a t i o n o f t h e po­

litic a l e lite w as a n in te g ra l part of th is accu ltu ratio n

p o licy . M irroring th is policy in l i n g u i s t i c s — k n o w in g a n

European la n g u ag e , e s p e c i a l l y E nglish , was p r o m o t e d , and

l e a r n i n g o n e was a r e q u i r e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t h i g h s c h o o l . Ac­

c o r d i n g t o M arvin Zonis (1971:178) the p o l i t i c a l e lite of

I r a n s p o k e n o t o n l y t h e i r own F a r s i b u t E n g l i s h o r F r e n c h a s
 187

w ell. Be s a y s t h a t , of th e p o litic a l e l i t e , o n l y 17 p e r c e n t

s p o k e any I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e o t h e r t h a n F a r s i , and o f t h e v a s t

number o f e t h n i c l a n g u a g e s , only th o s e t h a t a re v a r i a n t s of

T u r k i s h a r e u s e d by t h e v i e l d e r s o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r . Only 5

p e r c e n t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e c l a i m e d f l u e n c y i n any o f t h e

indigenous languages of I r a n o th e r than F a rs i. Zonis adds

th at th is e lite i s by n o means r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e n t i r e

e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n of I r a n .

I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s t r o n g r e g i o n a l b a s e s o f power o r
p ro v in c ia l ru r a l or t r i b a l c o n stitu e n c ie s a re r e l ­
a t i v e l y r a r e among t h e group o f n a t i o n a l e l i t e .
To so me e x t e n t , th is is a fu n c tio n o f the s e l e c ­
tio n procedures i n i t i a l l y used to i d e n t i f y them .
To a g r e a t e r e x t e n t , how ever, i t i s an a c c u r a t e
r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l power i n
Iran today. L ocal, regio n al trib al, or eth n ic
b a s e s o f p o l i t i c a l power a r e o f l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e
in th e game o f p o litics as i t i s now p l a y e d i n
Tehran. ind u n lik e p a s t decades and c e n t u r i e s ,
t h a t game i s now i n i t i a t e d and p l a y e d o u t i n T eh­
ran. Bo l o n g e r do t h e o u tly in g c e n te rs play th e
r o l e s they did in th e p a s t. (Z o n is 1971-79)

D u r i n g Hohammad R e z a S h a h 's r e ig n , eth n ic-n atio n al

m i n o r i t i e s were s u p p r e s s e d lin g u istically p h y sically , eco­

nom ically, and c u l t u r a l l y . Perhaps i f th e n a tio n a l m inori­

t i e s o f I r a n who n e i g h b o r t h e S o v i e t O n i o n , Kurds and i z a r -

b a ija n is in general, G ilaks in p a r tic u la r , ha d n o t b e e n s o

g eo g rap h ically clo se to R ussia, had n o t been i n v o lv e d w ith

r a d i c a l economic re fo rm , and had n o t demanded t h e i r n a t i o n ­

a l - e t h n i c r i g h t s t h e y m ight h a v e b e e n g i v e n some p r i v i l e g e s

of c u ltu ra l autonom y. The w e s te rn powers t h a t dom inated

 1W8
I r a n during t h i s p e r i o d w ould p o s s i b l y have t o l e r a t e d sever­

a l sm all, separate, autonomous r e g i o n s a s p a r t of th e de­

f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t Onion, B u t t h a t v a s n o t t h e may i t

vas, and e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s s u f f e r e d a g r e a t d e a l because of

the p o litic a l s itu a tio n . Therefore, because of a n ti-s o v ie ­

t i s m and an a n t i - p r o g r e s s i v e n e s s p o l i c y , access to the Ira ­

nian o i l , G i l a n 's g e o p o l i t i c a l p o s itio n , and i t s ovn p o l i t i ­

c a l r e b e l l i o n G ila n s u f f e r e d th e m ost. And, a s a r e s u l t o f

th e c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n ts's p o l i c i e s of su p p ressio n , oppres­

sion, and h u m i l i a t i o n G i l a k i h a s been r e p r e s s e d t o th e ex­

te n t th at i t h a s been a c c u l t u r a t e d and F a r s i z i e d m ore t h a n

o th e r I r a n ia n languages.
 C1£PT2B f U

THE SOCIll STITUS OP 6 I L I K I

7.1 IMT80DOCTIOH

S o c i o l i o g u i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e sh ow n t h e s p e e c h

b e h a v io r of an i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r w i t h i n a s p e e c h co mm un ity

to be of th e g re a te s t relevance to language change. is

Fishman (1972:3) in d icates:

u n l e s s We c a n a t t a i n r e l i a b l e a n d i n s i g h t f u l d e ­
s c r i p t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l o r g a n ­
i z a t i o n in la n g u a g e use and b e h a v io r toward l a n ­
guages it w i l l obviously be im p o ssib le to
c o n t r i b u t e v e r y much t h a t i s sound tow ard t h e e x ­
p l a n a t i o n o f why o r how t h i s p a t t e r n changes or
rem ains s t a b l e .

Therefore, t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l f o c u s on a d e s c r i p t i v e

so cio lo g y o f th e G ila k i language. I t s g o a ls a re to portray

th e g en eral o r norm ative p a tte r n of la n g u ag e u se w i t h i n the

G i l a k i c o m m u n it y a n d t o p r o v i d e an answ er a s t o who s p e a k s

G i l a k i t o whom a n d when a n d t o what end. F u rth er, I w ill

e x p l o r e what accounts f o r th e s h if t in the lan g u ag e usage

norm an à i d e n t i f y t h e o v e r t b e h a v i o r t o w a r d s G i l a k i a nd G i­

lak s.
 190
7 .2 iETHODOLOGT

T he methods o f data c o lle c tio n and a n a l y s i s used

h e r e a r e common t o a l l s o c i o l o g i c a l i n q u i r i e s . The s t u d y ' s

g o a ls , th e s e l e c t i o n of sam ple p o p u la tio n , t h e s e l e c t i o n and

e l i c i t i n g o f inform ants, the a n a ly s is of th e d a ta , and t h e

explanation o f s o c ia l b e h av io r have a l l been i n f l u e n c e d by

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l methods o f s o c i a l r e s e a r c h .

7.2.1 Investigative procedures into the Social Status of

Gilaki

I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e an a n sw e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n r a i s e d

above, during th e summer o f 19 7 9 I i n t e r v i e w e d a group o f

G i l a k s who l i v e d i n T e h r a n . T h ese i n f o r m a n t s were s e l e c t e d

on t h e b a s i s of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample and n o t by ra n d o m

selectio n . B olfram and F a s o ld (1974:38) s a y :

As an a l t e r n a t i v e t o s t r i c t random s a m p l i n g , i t i s
o f t e n mor e e f f i c i e n t t o o b t a i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
sample f o r predeterm ined s o c i a l categories. In
t h i s p r o c e d u r e , t h e s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e sam­
p le i s f i r s t determ ined, th e n in fo rm a n ts a r e cho­
s e n t o r e p r e s e n t t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , w h i c h a r e so me ­
tim es r e f e r r e d to as c e l l s of th e s a m p l e .... This
p ro c e d u r e a v o i d s t h e problem of o v e r and u n d e r r e ­
p re s e n ta tio n fo r p a r tic u la r s o c ia l c a te g o rie s , be­
cause th e in v e s tig a to r s to p s s e le c tin g inform ants
f o r g i v e n c e l l s when a q u o t a i s r e a c h e d .

The b a s i c r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p lin g

was t h a t th e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t path of th e 1979 r e v o l u t i o n

and t h e developm ent o f l e f t i s t p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s had

c o n t r i b u t e d to th e s o c i a l c l a s s c o n sc io u s n e s s of I r a n i a n s in
 191

g e n e r a l and G i l a k s s p e c i f i c a l l y . T herefore, a B arzist so­

c i a l c l a s s a n a l y s i s would be p o s s i b l e . I n f o r m a n t s were cho­

sen a c c o rd in g t o the v ariab les of sex, age, occupational

lev el ( c la s s ) , ed ucation, m arital s ta tu s , and t h e l e n g t h of

t i m e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l had l i v e d away f r o m G i l a n . By i n ­

t e n t i o n w as to in q u ire in to th e sociopsychology of G ila k i

u s e i n a F a r s i s p e a k in g com munity. T h e r e f o r e , I m a nag e d t h e

in te rv ie w s so t h a t I was a b l e to le a rn a n a tiv e s p e a k e r's

a t t i t u d e s o f shame, in ferio rity , c o n f i d e n c e , o r a n x i e t y when

speaking G ila k i.

The i n t e r v i e w e e s w e r e my f r i e n d s a n d r e l a t i v e s who

h a d no p r o b l e m i n r e v e a l i n g t h e i r t r u e f e e l i n g s i n a n s w e r t o

my q u e s t i o n s . A lthough the term i n t e r v i e w i m p l i e s a fo rm al

exchange, th e inform ants* fam iliarity w ith the in te rv ie w e r

overcame an y h e s i t a n c y t h a t m ight h a v e o t h e r w i s e been p r e s ­

en t. I, th erefo re, w ill c a l l our c o n v e rsa tio n s inform al

d iscu ssio n s.

The in f o r m a n t s * e d u c a t i o n a l , age, and s o c i a l p ro ­

f i l e s a re as follow s:

1) Nurse: A G i l a k woman o f a b o u t #9 who h a d s p e n t t h e

first tw enty y e a r s o f her life in G ilan. She a t t e n d e d

c o l l e g e in Tehran and rem ained t h e r e . Her husband i s

a lso a G ilak, and th e y have two c h i l d r e n .

2) E ngineer; B ale of h alf Turk and h alf G ilak descent

 192

«h o l i v e d in G ilan f o r the f i r s t 22 y e a r s of h is l i f e .

He i s a b o u t 4 9 . His « i f e i s G i l a k .

3) L a b o r e r : i G ila k «ho i s about 48. He « a s i n B a s h t

f o r only th e f i r s t fiv e y ears of h i s l i f e , b u t he has

■ o r e s y m p a t h y f o r G i l a k i t h a n some o t h e r s . He c o m p l e t e d

th e eleventh grade. H is wife i s Pars, a n d t h e y h a v e two

ch ild ren .

4) T e a c h e r : k G i l a k i f e m a l e o f a b o u t 49 y e a r s o f a g e

who l i v e d i n G ilan f o r tw e n ty -six y ears. She d id not

attend c o lle g e, and t a u g h t a t t h e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l le v ­

el. Her husband i s a l s o G ila k .

5) T e c h n i c i a n : H a l e o f a b o u t 55 y e a r s o f a g e who i s a G i­

la k and l i v e d i n G i l a n u n t i l he was 2 0 . He a t t e n d e d t e c h n i ­

c a l school. His w i f e i s Pars.

6 ) H ousew ife: I G i l a k widow o f a r o u n d 60 who was b o r n a n d

l i v e d i n G i l a n f o r m o re t h a n f i f t y y e a r s . She h a s r e c e i v e d

no f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n and c o u l d r e a d o n l y t h e K o ra n . R ecently

h e r tw o d a u g h t e r s m a r r i e d m i d d l e c l a s s P a r s .

Q u e s tio n s and r e s p o n s e s :

1) When do y o u s p e a k G i l a k i ?

B urse: When I am t a l k i n g to an o th er G ilak.

E ngineer: Whenever i t is necessary. I lik e to p ractice

G ila k i in o rd er not to fo rg e t i t .

Worker: w i t h my f a m i l y a n d G i l a k s .

T ech n ician : Wh e n I am t a l k i n g w ith G ilak s.

 193

Teacher: H i t h my f a m i l y a n d G i l a k s .

H ousew ife: I h a v e f o r g o t t e n hew t o s p e a k G i l a k i .

S h e was a g u e s t a t a p a r t y when I a s k e d h e r , i n

an i n t i m a t e mood, how i t was t h a t s h e had f o r g o t t e n

G ilaki. She a n s w e re d , " 1 am n o t a g a i n s t G i l a k i ,

b u t I am l i v i n g i n a l a r g e c i t y among P a r s , a n d I

have t o p r o t e c t m y s e l f ."

2} How do you f e e l when y o u a r e s p e a k i n g G i l a k i ?

nurse: I f e e l f r e e and f r i e n d l y .

Engineer: I feel free, i f o t h e r people speak G i l a k i .

H orker: I f e e l f r e e b ecau se I can e x p re s s m yself

w ell. I f e e l no p r e s s u r e .

T eacher: I feel free.

T echnician: H ot o n l y d o I f e e l fre e , but I i n s i s t on

speaking i t i f I am s p e a k i n g t o a G ilak.

Housew ife: I t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r me t o s p e a k

in G ilaki.

3) Are y o u a s h a m e d when s p e a k i n g G i l a k i i n t h e p r e s e n c e

o f a Pars?

H urse: I am n o t a s h a m e d , b u t I d o n 't lik e i t .

E ngineer: Ho, I d o n ' t f e e l any shame.

H orker: He, I a= n o t a s h a m e d o f my own l a n g u a g e .

Teacher: Ho, I am n o t a s h a m e d , b u t I am a f r a i d

they d o n 't l i k e i t .

T echnician: Hhen I a n s p e a k i n g G i l a k i i n t h e
 194
presence of a P a rs, s i i n l t a n e o n s l j I prepare

• j s e l f f o r c o n f l i c t and q u a r r e l . I a s k e d him

«by a n d h e a n s w e r e d " b e c a u s e t h e y t h i n k o f

G ilaks a s s tu p id p e o p le ."

4) Do you t h i n k i n F a r s i o r G i l a k i ?

B urse: G ilaki

Engineer: I n G i l a k i o n l y « h e n I t h i n k o f my

personal l i f e ,

iorker: G ilak i

T echnician: I t d e p e n d s on t h e l a n g u a g e o f

th e group t h a t I a s th in k in g o f .

H ousew ife: F arsi.

In o r d e r t o a s s e s th e c h an g e i n t h e G ila k s* a t t i t u d e

tow ards t h e i r language and t o t e s t t h e i r e th n ic conscious­

n e s s a t a tim e th r e e y e a rs a f t e r the 1979 r e v o l u t i o n , in th e

summer o f 1982 I d e v e l o p e d a new s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s a n d p u t

t h e m t o a g r o u p o f new i n f o r m a n t s . They w e r e s e l e c t e d ran­

domly a n d were a l l literate so t h a t th e y could answer t h e

w ritten q u estionnaires. The m a jo r s o c i a l categ o ries th at

t h i s s t u d y t o o k i n t o a c c o u n t we re age, sex, a n d number o f

years re s id e n c e o u ts id e o f G ilan. I had o r i g i n a l l y hoped t o

a d d a c l a s s f a c t o r t o my s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s , b u t s u c h an i n ­

v e s tig a tio n could not be a c c u r a t e b e c a u s e t h e e a r l i e r goal

s e t fay th e I s la m ic R epublic of Iran to re a lig n the s o c ia l

 195

s tru c tu re of Iranian so cie ty fo r th e b e n e f i t of t h e Hostaz*-

a f a n (oppressed people) had b e e n c h a n g e d t o o n e f o r t h e r e ­

stru ctu rin g of Iran ian society on t h e m od e l of Islam ic

i d e o l o g y ; t h e y e a r s o f mar betw een I r a n and I r a g have cau sed

extrem e s h o rta g e s o f food and the r a tio n in g o f a ll lif e 's

n e c e s s i t i e s ; t h e r e a r e t h o u s a n d s of unemployed. These fa c ­

t o r s have c re a te d a c h a o ti c s i t u a t i o n t h a t h a s m a de a n y s o r t

o f M arxist s o c i a l c l a s s d e l i n e a t i o n u n ten ab le.

T h e t o t a l nu mb er o f i n f o r m a n t s u s e d was f o r t y - s e v e n

G i l a k s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s : t h o s e who s t i l l l i v e d i n Gi­

l a n and t h o s e , in c lu d in g fo ur o f the e a r l i e r (1979) in fo r­

m a n t s , who l i v e d i n T::nran. There i s a com plete l i s t o f i n ­

form ants a v a i l a b l e i n A p p e n d i x B. T a b le s 8-10 provide a

sam ple o f t h e q u e s t i o n s and responses fo r th e second (1982)

group. Appendix C p r o v i d e s a c o m p le te copy o f t h e q u e s t i o n ­

n aire.
The resu lts of th is te st reveal th at th ere i s a

s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n G i l a k s who l i v e away f r o m G i l a n a nd

t h o s e who r e m a i n t h e r e i n how G i l a k i i s r e g a r d e d . A lthough

a l l o f t h o s e who l i v e i n G i l a n c o n sid e r G ilaki to be a l a n ­

g u ag e s e p a r a t e from F arsi, o n ly 38.84 p e r c e n t o f my G i l a k

i n f o r m a n t s who l i v e in Tehran th o u g h t of G ila k i as a sepa­

r a t e language. There was a d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n between

f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s on t h a t i s s u e . Female h o u s e w iv e s betw een

 196

T a b le 8

5 (rj G ila k i i s a language.

a
*r
2 (B) to
te
n
6 (P) G ila k i i s n o t a language/
o
# (B) It is a d i a l e c t ox F a r s i . K
IB
a
e
«a 2 (F) O ther rem ark s (I t h i n k i t
e
»
«a h a s some o r i g i n from F a r s i ; a
o a
o
M
»
a 27 G ila k i i s a language.
» a
or
a to
%
G ilak i i s no t a language/ a
a a
I t i s a d ia le c t of F arsi. • K
5
Ù>
n
(A
"V 1 (H) I d o mot know, ill I know

20-30 C i l ï k i h a s changed a l o t .

T otal «7

B ote: Th e t h i r d category r e f e r s t o G i l a k s t u d e n t s l i v i n g i n tne

D nited S ta te s .
 197

Table 9

13 lotbisg/lo difference.

8 I feel fine (I bave good feeling).

1 X bave a good feeling «bea I see u j partner

speaks in aj own language.

o,
o 8 I feel comfortable.

1 I feel more comfortable because I don't

«I
o get tired when I speak Gilaki.
o

»p 1 I feel I am myself.

n a I feel relaxed and fine.

•o
9
P
»r
n
a I feel comfortable and free from pressure.
p
p-

6 I feel more comfortable because I can

express myself well.

1 I feel peaceful because I am not obligated

to follow restrictions made by Farsi on

language.
 198
M IC 10

2 fcs
Tes, bst X fccl X sbevifl respect fars mad
speak farml la their preseace.

24 So
C» S
♦”
tr #
5 t 2 So; it people do aot eaderstaad se it is

sot sy faolt.

© 9 So; because 2 am proud ©f ay mother

s
» laaguage.
%
% 1 So; X am proud of it; because aot every

body cam speak Gilaki.

©
fr

m 2 So; because it is a sweet language.

z
•o 2 So; because I am a Gilak.
s
s
8 2 So; because I am proud of myself ; I know

three languages.

1 So; because Gilaki and Gilaks exist as a

symbolic representation of my culture

in Iran.
 199

th e ages ^>f f o r t y a n d fifty g e n e ra lly thought t h a t G ilaki

w as a d i a l e c t of F arsi. T h e r e w e re t w o o f t h a t g r o u p who

c o n s id e r e d G i l a k i t o be a s e p a r a t e la n g u a g e , b u t n e i t h e r i n ­

fo rm an t r e a l l y f i t i n w ith t h e group o f housew ives.

One was e x t r e m e l y b i a s e d toward n o n - G i l a k s , and th e other

was p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e and very conscious o f her c u ltu ra l

background and r i g h t s .

The t e e n a g e r group a l l considered G ila k i t o be a

language. I l l o f t h e T e h r a n G i l a k s who r e g a r d e d G i l a k i a s a

l a n g u a g e w e r e b i l i n g u a l a n d h a d n o G i l a k i a c c e n t when s p e a k ­

ing F a rsi.

In answer to th e q u e s t i o n . Do you c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f

t o be a G i l a k ? everyone rep lied , "yes." T h is sample i n ­

c l u d e d two women who ba d d e n i e d t h e i r G i l a k i e t h n i c i d e n t i t y

in 1979. A n o th er tw o o f t h e g ro u p a d d ed t h a t t h e y were I r a ­

nian as w ell. T h e r e w as a tw enty-tw o y ear o ld fe m a le c o l ­

le g e student among t h e i n f o r m a n t s who was u n a b l e t o speak

G ilaki, however, e v en th o u g h s h e had s p e n t h e r e n t i r e l i f e

i n T e h ra n , s h e c o n s i d e r e d h e r s e l f t o be G i l a k .

As n o t e d i n the previous c h a p te r, G ilaki h a s been

c o n s i d e r e d t o be an " i n f e r i o r " l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e o f t h e c h a u ­

v i n i s t i c p o l i c i e s o f th e governm ents of I r a n . It i s looked

upon a s a c o r r u p t e d f o r m o f F a r s i by n o n - G i l a k s , especially

Fars, t o whom t h e u s e o f G i l a k i i m p l i e s a l a c k o f m a n l i n e s s .
 200

C u l t u r a l l y G i l a k men h a v e b e e n p o r t r a y e d a s d i m u i t t e d , stu ­

p i d , and e f f e m i n a t e ; G i l a k women a r e p o r t r a y e d i n j o k e s a n d

f o l k l o r e as u n f a ith f u l w ives. To t e s t t h e a t t i t u d e s o f G i ­

l a k s tow ard th e p e j o r a t i v e j o k e s a b o u t th e m and t h e i r c u l­

tu re, I in clu d ed th e follow ing q u estion presented in ta b le

11 .
The s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r e p l i e s made by G i l a k s

who l i v e d i n T e h r a n a n d t h o s e who w e re b o r n and have l i v e d

in S ilnn exclusively in d icates th at the l a t t e r group h as

n o t been exposed t o t h e h o s t i l e an d ch au v in istic a ttitu d e s

of non-G ilaks t h a t a r e p re s e n t i n o th e r a re a s of I r a n .

To a s s e s s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n on t h e G i l a k

f e e li n g tow ard t h e i r la n g u ag e and n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , I asked

th e m i f they f e l t any ch an g e i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of G i l a k i

s i n c e t h e 1979 r e v o l u t i o n . In response, th e m ajority (24)

a g re e d t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s had changed. Only s i x t e e n d e ­

n i e d any c h an g e . Four r e p l i e d t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n c a n n o t be

ig n o red , and th at h isto ry reveals th a t th e policy of the

P ah lav i dynasty was b a s e d on e t h n i c confrontation. They

f e l t t h a t u n d e r th e p r e s e n t regim e it was b e t t e r f o r p e o p l e

to express t h e i r native cu ltu res. One te e n a g e r rem arked

t h a t s h e now r e a l i z e d t h e d e g r e e o f o p p r e s s i o n t h a t ha d ob­

tain ed ag ain st national m in o ritie s (such a s G ilaks) under

t h e p r e v i o u s governm ent.
 201

T abie 11
■I-

K ]otM *r« • • • • t a t I f tk«T at* told

Im eilmtl?
( a ll • • t o kora aad li* # 4 la E lla a .)

5 Bid mot mmdarmtamd tfca fa a stlo a or had mo «a

kackgroaad o f tkoa* d irty )o t* a . Tkoy
aasoorod •koeaaa* tkay lova S ila t s .
' a l l vara kora amd liv tS i s S llaa)

d mo rayaoame

a Zgaoraaca of aos-C llaks

1 I t migkt ba kaaad oa tka s ia p llc it y of

Cl la ta . (a «oaaa o f aO-SO)

a d ivid e and coagaar.

3 Tkasa )okaa are aada to e x p lo it people

kacaose i t la the bast eey to dastract
p eop le's aa ity a ad co o p era tio t.

2 To iB S y lt C il a k s and d iv e rt tk e ir attaatio D

from s o c i a l c l a s s c o sflic t.

3 They a r e based on t h e m o n a rc h y 's c a l t a r e of

P a h la v i «hose a i e « a s t a h u a i l i a t e a l l a a t -
i o o a l i t i e s o t h e r th a n P a r s .

2 C i l a k s a r e th e e o s t c i v i l i z e d a a t i o a ,
because they have not been a f f e c t e d by
r e l i g i o u s aad s u p e r s t i t i o u s . T h e refo re
o th e r a a t i o a s have developed a s i n f e r i o r i t y
c o a p le : toward t h e a .

1 These jo k e s s t e a f r o a t h e r u d e n e s s of o t h e r
n a t i o n a l i t i e s e sp e c ia lly Pars. Tney ta k e
ad v a n ta g e of th e h u a a e i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s of
C ila k s t o d i v i d e and coaguer.
 202

I n sum , e v e n among t h o s e who d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e any

change in th eir a ttitu d es, it mas g u i t e o b v i o u s th a t the

a n ti-W e s te rn t h r u s t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n h as c r e a t e d a s e n se of

rev italizatio n of n a tio n a l consciousness and trad itio n al

c u l t u r a l b e h a v io r g e n e r a lly i n I r a n and e s p e c i a l l y in G ila n .

In ad d itio n , th is sense of ethnic r e v ita liz a tio n h a s emerged

as a sym bolic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e to th e im p o sitio n

of A rabic/Islam ic t r a d i t i o n by Islam ic r u le r s among o t h e r

Ir a n ia n n a tio n a l m in o r itie s a s w ell.

In o r d e r t o p o r t r a y t h e g e n e r a l o r n o r m a tiv e p a t t e r n

o f th e language s h i f t w ith in each g e n e ra tio n , I arranged a

s t u d y t h a t w o u ld c ro ss-c u t generations. The s o u r c e o f my

in fo rm a tio n i s a la r g e extended fa m ily , a n d The d a t a t h a t I

have c o lle c te d were ta k e n from t h r e e age groups— grandpa­

ren ts, p aren ts, and c h i l d r e n . O ther v a r i a b l e s in c lu d e in ­

tra g ro u p o r outgroup m arriag e, s o c i a l c l a s s , place of b irth ,

a n d t h e l e n g t h o f t i n e s p e n t i n T e h r a n away f r o m G i l a n .

F o r t y y e a r s a g o a man m ig r a te d from B ash t t o Tehran

w i th h i s two w iv e s . L ater, th e m an 's t h r e e s i s t e r s , th eir

husbands, and two b r o t h e r s o f h i s e l d e r w i f e moved t o Teh­

ran. T h i s f a m i l y now c o n s i s t s o f more t h a n 130 i n d i v i d u a l s .

Some r e l a t i v e s s t i l l liv e i n G i l a n , a n d t h e two p a r t s o f t h e

fam ily r e ta in c lo se co n tact w ith each o th er. Therefore,

th o se in Tehran have been a b le to keep t h e i r c u l t u r e and

 203

language a l i v e . I have m a in ta in e d a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith

t h i s fam ily fo r over tw enty y e a r s . The f a t h e r and m other

( e l d e r w ife) of th e o r i g i n a l m ig ratin g fam ily a r e octogena­

r i a n s a n d s p e a k G i l a k i w i t h a l l o t h e r members o f t h e f a m i l y .

The e l d e r w i f e h a s s e v e n c h i l d r e n , t h r e e s o n s o f 5 6 , 5 1 , a n d

HU y e a r s o f a g e a n d f o u r da ugh t e r s . The s o n s a r e a l l b i l i n ­

gual, b u t th e y speak only G ila k i w ith o t h e r G ila k s . Each o f

them i s m a r r ie d : one t o a K u r d , a n o t h e r t o a G i l a k , a n d t h e

th ird to a T ehrani (P ars). The s o n w hose w i f e i s a G ilak

s p e a k s w ith her in G i l a k i ; t h e o t h e r tw o s p e a k F a r s i with

t h e i r non-G ilak w ives. They a l l have c h ild r e n w i t h whom

th e y speak F a r s i. The f o u r d a u g h t e r s - a g e s 47, 4 1 , 35 , a nd

32 a r e a l s o m a r r i e d . ill of t h e i r husbands a r e n o n -G ila k ,

a nd t h e y s p e a k F a r s i w i t h t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d c h i l d r e n .

The y o u n g e r w i f e , age s i x t y - f i v e , s p e a k s G i l a k i w ith

h e r h u s b a n d a n d c h i l d r e n who a r e t h r e e s o n s a g e d 3 5 , 3 3 , a nd

30 and two d a u g h t e r s a g e d 27 a nd 2 4 . A l l o f th e m s p e a k F a r ­

si.

A ll of t h e f e m a l e s and m ales who w ere b o r n out of

G ilan speak F a rsi.T his p a tte rn i s common t o the p a rt of

t h e f a m i l y who liv e in G ilan . the o n ly exception to t h i s

p attern w e r e two women o f t h e f a m i l y who w e r e b o r n i n G i l a n ,

b u t m a r r i e d F a r s b u s in e s s m e n and l i v e i n T e h ra n . T he y c l a i m

t h a t th e y a r e unable t o speak G i l a k i , even though t h e y have

 204

been i n Tehran f o r l e s s th a n a d e c a d e , mere a o t h i g h l y e d u ­

c a t e d , and s p e a k P a r s i w i t h a G i l a k i a c c e n t .

In a c o n v e rsa tio n w ith th e e l d e s t son o fth e fam ily

I asked i f th e g irls of th e fa m ily co u ld n o t speak G ila k i or

if th ey j u s t d id not v a s t t o . H is answ er vas t h a t he v e n t

to college in Tehran, and th ere he learned t h a t people

l o o k e d upon G i l a k s a s i n f e r i o r s . The use o f G i l a k i i m p l i e d

ig n o ra n c e and a la c k o f m orals t o P a r s . T h erefo re, he tr ie d

to keep th e fam ily c lo se to g eth er, but he encouraged th e

younger c h i l d r e n t o le a r n and use P a rs i in order to prevent

being r id ic u le d a t school. Be a d d e d , " P a rsi i s considered

th e p r e s t i g i o u s language in Iran ."

In t h e r e s t of th e f a m i l y t h o s e vho ha d been born

and had l i v e d i n G ila n — t h e g e n e r a t i o n above f i f t y , a r e una­

b l e t o s p e a k P a r s i o r t h e y knov o n l y a f e v words u n l e s s t h e y

are li t e r a t e , or a r e em ployees o f t h e governm ent. S till

e v e n t h o s e G i l a k s have a heavy G ila k i a c c e n t . Th e g e n e r a ­

t i o n under fifty can a l l speak P a r s i b u t do s o w ith heary

G ilaki accen t, and t h e i r l e v e l o f perform ance d e p e n d s on

th e i r education. T h i s g r o u p u s e d F a r s i o n l y a t w ork i n o f ­

f i c e s o r when s p e a k i n g w i t h P a r s i s p e a k e r s . Among t h i s a g e

group, t h o s e vho were i l l i t e r a t e and had l i v e d a l l o f t h e i r

liv e s in a v i l l a g e c o n t e x t were n o t a b l e t o speak P a r s i a t

a ll. T h o s e below f o r t y y e a r s o f a g e were g e n e r a l l y e d u c a t ­

 205

ed; some o f th e m m e r e even high s c h o o l g rad uates. This

g r o u p s p e a k s G i l a k i a t h om e, v i t h r e l a t i v e s a n d f r i e n d s , and

t h e ; use Farsi (w ith a G i l a k i accent) only in o ffices or

schools. Only tw o o f t h e t e s t group speak P a r s i a t home

w ith t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and t h e y h o ld u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e s .

The g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d th ro u gh t h i s study

in d icates n o t only th a t G ilaki h as changed but th a t the

feelin g s of shame and i n f e r i o r i t y a s s o c ia te d w ith its use

have r e s u l t e d even in a denial of th e s p e a k e r's n a tio n a l

id en tity . F urther, t h e d a t a shows t h a t i t s use has r a p id ly

c h a n g e d a n d b e co m e f a r s i z e d d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e s b e t w e e n 1920

and 1970. Therefore, G i l a k s who l i v e i n T e h r a n e s p e c i a l l y

women who w or k i n p u b l i c o f f i c e s o r a r e h o u s e w i v e s a r e more

s e n s i t i v e t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a n d a r e c a r e f u l t o h i d e a n d de ny

t h e i r G ilak r o o t s . The y a t t c n p t t o speak F a rs i as best as

t h e y c a n when t h e y d o t h e i r s h o p p i n g , which i n Ira n i s usu­

a l l y the r e s p o n s ib ility o f th e housew ife. Shopping for a

h ousehold i s q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s than i t is in w estern

co u n tries. A h o u s e w i f e m u s t b oy e a c h i t e m fro m i t s s p e c i f i c

s h o p , so s h e must d e a l w i t h s e v e r a l p e o p le each d ay . Shop ­

k e ep e rs develop a face to face personal r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith

t h e i r c u s t o m e r s , a n d t h e y u s u a l l y d i s c u s s t h e s h o p p e r ' s fa m ­

i l y during th e t r a n s a c t i o n . O ften shopkeepers a re i n s e n s i­

t i v e an d r i d i c u l e n o n - F a r s i s p e a k e r s o r t h o s e who s p e a k F a r -
 2 0 6

si vith an a c c e n t openly o th e r th an Tehrani . Therefore,

h o c s e w i v e s a r e m o re v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e c h a u v i n i s t i c a t t i t u d e s

o f some F a r s .

It vas not in te n d e d t o e x t e n d t h i s s t u d y by e x p l o r ­

ing th e o r ig i n of th e c u l t u r a l h u m ilia tio n of G ila k s. Nev­

erth eless, sin ce it is a m ajor f a c t o r i n G ila k i language

change, i t i s n ecessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e the und erly in g s tr u c ­

tu re of the negative attitu d es e x p re ss e d tow ards G ilaks

th ro u g h j o k e s and f o l k l o r e by n o n - G i l a k s i n I r a n t h a t por­

t r a y G ila k s a s " t h e o t h e r s " and G ila k m ales a s e f f e m i n a t e .

In 1982 I examined n o n -G ilak a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s Gi­

l a k s w ith a group o f f i f t y n o n -G ila k T e h r a n is m o s t o f whom

were F a r s . The s a m p l e consisted of t w e n t y - f i v e men and

t w e n t y - f i v e women t h a t c r o s s - c u t t h e a g e g r o u p s o f t w e n t y t o

six ty years of age and from v a r i o u s s o c io e d u c a ti o n a l back­

grounds. I n o r d e r t o c o n t r a s t t h e i r r e s p o n s e s , t h e men and

women w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d s e p a r a t e l y . The f i r s t q u e stio n put

t o t h e m a l e s w a s . How w o u l d y o u d e f i n e a G i l a k man? The a n ­

swer o f nine of th e group w ere t o d e s c rib e G ilak men a s

"weak and u n a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e i r f a m i l i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r

w ives." When a s k e d t o b e more s p e c i f i c , one r e s p o n d e n t r e ­

f e r r e d t o a n i n c i d e n t i n which f i r s t c o u s i n s o f t h e o p p o s i t e

s e x were k i s s i n g one a n o t h e r , and t h e i r fath ers, who saw

then, had n o t o b j e c t e d . A nother r e f e r r e d to t h e economic

 207

dependence o f G i l a k men a n d t h e i r sabm issiT eness to th e ir

w i v e s ; some w e r e p a t o f f by t h e o p e n d i s c u s s i o n s o f l o v e and

s e x t h a t t a k e s p l a c e among G i l a k s . Three r e f e r r e d t o G ilak

women a s s h a m e l e s s b ecause th e y e x p re s s m utual f e e l i n g s of

l o v e to t h e i r h u sbands and l o v e r s . Eleven i d e n t i f i e d G ila k s

as "sim p leto n s." Only two o f t h e sam ple considered G ila k s

t o be " n i c e , p eaceful, understanding, a n d more o p e n - m i n d e d

than o th e rs in I r a n . "

The r e s p o n s e s o f n o n - G i l a k i women t o t h e s am e q u e s ­

t i o n s were c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . Eleven r e p lie d t h a t they

saw n o d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n G i l a k men a n d o t h e r s . Five o f th e

women who had had c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith G ilak f a m ilie s

id en tified G i l a k men a s " g e n t l e , u n d e r s ta n d in g , and a p p r e c i ­

ativ e of t h e i r w ives." Two of the fem ale r e s p o n d e n t s ha d

m arried tw ic e, one G ila k and one n o n -G ila k from s o u t h w e s t

I r a n each; th e y both answ ered t h a t i t wou ld be d i f f i c u l t t o

c o m p a r e th e m because they a re two e x tr e m e s of a spectrum .

T h e y s a i d t h a t G i l a k s w e r e n o t l i k e o t h e r men i n I r a n ; th ey

do n o t a c t a s i f t h e y own women. A fem ale t e a c h e r and an

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l who h a d w ork ed b o t h i n G i l a n a nd

in the cen tral c itie s of Iran id e n tif ie d G ilaks a s being

very h u m an itarian and understanding tow ards t h e i r fem ale

relativ es. T h r e e o f t h e women l a b e l e d G i l a k men a s " s i m p l e "

on t h e b a sis of jo k es and tw o t h o u g h t t h a t G i l a k men w e re

s e x y and r o m a n tic .
 208

G enerally# inform ation g a t h e r e d fr o m th is study

reveals the c u ltu ra l b i a s w hi c h i s b a s e d on t h e l a c k o f an

attitu d e of male suprem acy and d o m i n a n c e among G i l a k men.

T h i s c u l t u r a l b e h a v i o r may b e c l a r i f i e d b y an a s s e s s m e n t o f

th e socio-econom ic s t r u c t u r e o f the s o c ie ty . C u l t u r a l be­

havior i s a m a n ife sta tio n of " s p i r i t u a l behavior" which i s

g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d as t h e " t o t a l i t y o f s o c i e t y ' s m oral, ar­

tistic , s c i e n t i f i c and p h ilo s o p h ic a l attain m en ts." And t h i s

s p i r i t u a l behavior by i t s e l f is a r e f le c tio n of m aterial

c u l t u r e which i s

on t h e o n e ha nd t h e m aterial o b je cts th a t s a tis fy

'm a te ria l* n e e d s . . . , a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d , peo­
p l e ' s h a b i t s o f w ork an d s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e s o ­
c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l a b o r and t h e fo rm s t h a t o r ­
g a n i z a t i o n t a k e s and th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l i f e in
g e n e r a l . (B rom ley 1 9 7 4 : 2 7 )

To c l a r i f y how t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l a b o r c o n ­

t r i b u t e s to t h e c u l t u r a l b e h a v io r of G ila k s , i t is necessary

to assess t h e economic p a tte rn of G ilan. A dem ographic

study o f G ilan in d ic a te s t h a t the province i s regarded as

one o f I r a n ' s most f e r t i l e and p r o s p e r o u s a r e a s because of

r i c e production. R ice i s t h e m a jo r c ro p i n G ila n , and r i c e

cu ltiv atio n i s e x c lu s iv e ly im p o rtan t in th e province. G ilan

is more h e a v ily populated in th e ru ra l a re a s than in i t s

c itie s, and th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n is most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

G ilaks. In t h e C aspian l i t t o r a l a r e a , consum ption of r i c e

h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t 150 k i l o g r a m p e r person a y e a r . The

 209
m o s t p r o d u c t i v e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i s s m a l l e r a nd t h e i r d e p e n ­

dent population i s la rg e r (Suzuki 1981: 103, 116, 134, 145).

B ice c u l t i v a t i o n i s so im p o r ta n t t h a t i t a f f e c t s a l l

sp h eres of G ilak*s l i f e . For exam ple, alth o u g h r e l i g i o n i s

im p o rtan t, i f t h e r e i s a c o n f l i c t betw een r e l i g i o n and r i c e

farm ing, t h e p r o d u c tio n o f r i c e t a k e s p r i o r i t y and m o d if ie s

the r e lig io u s code. Suzuki (1901:264-65) r e f e r s t o the 1978

h a r v e s t o c c u r e d d u r i n g B a n a z ^ n ( t h e B u s l i m month o f f a s t i n g )

when F a m i l y f a r m e r s had t o keep th e f a s t during d a y lig h t.

H is r e p o r t o f t h e fo o d c o n su m p tio n i n a sam ple h o u seh o ld be­

f o r e and during th e f i r s t two weeks o f Bam azan i n d i c a t e s

t h a t th e fr e q u e n c y o f food ta k en was r e d u c e d t o two t i m e s a

day. The f a r m e r s s k i p p e d t h e t h r e e l i g h t e s t m e a l s b u t c o n ­

t i n u e d t o e a t t h e ma in m e a l s o f t h e d a y .

I n sum , t h e g e n e r a l i z e d I s l a m i c c o d e was m o d i f i e d by

the n atu re o f rice f a r m i n g a nd r e d u c e d frequency of e atin g

was c o n s i d e r e d c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e f a s t .

A nother example in d icates a sim ilar practice. In

t h e summer o f 1979 when I was i n G i l a n , a m ajor c o n f l i c t

a r o s e betw een r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e a n d women w o r k i n g in r ic e

farm s. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o m m i t t e e , a l l women

had t o wear I s l a m i c d r e s s . They were su p p o se d t o wear e i ­

t h e r p a n t s o r a l o n g gown w i t h a v e i l . Th e r i c e f a r m e r s i n

G ilan o b je c te d t o t h i s s t r i c t u r e ; th e y argued t h a t Isla m ic

 210

d re s s hindered a w o m a n 's f a l l p r a c t i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t in the

lab o r fo rce. T herefore, i t mould a p p e a r t h a t a l l a s p e c t s o f

life and t h e s o c i a l code r e f le c t th e im portance o f rice

farm ing in G ila n . I s S u z u k i (1981: 2 6 0 - 264) i n d i c a t e s , t h e

G i la k i farm ing i s b a s e d on t h e f a m i l y lab o r fo rce. There

a r e m ore f e m a l e s in th e la b o r fo rc e , and th e fem ale la b o r

p la y s an im p o rtan t r o l e i n r i c e farm ing.

lo me n a r e ex clu siv ely responsible f o r weeding and

tr a n s p la n tin g in a d d itio n to o th e r o p e ra tio n s. Both t r a n s ­

p l a n t i n g and w eeding a r e i n t e n s i v e a nd l a b o r i o u s , and a s

many l a b o r e r s a s p o s s i b l e a r e n e e d e d f o r t h a t c r i t i c a l p e r i ­

o d when t h e y o u n g p l a n t s a r e t a k i n g h o l d . n e v e r t h e l e s s , no

male p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h i s o p e r a t i o n . H a l e w o r k e r s may s t a y

i d l e in te a house w h ile t h e p l a n t a i o n househ o ld em ploys ex­

t r a fem ale l a b o r e r s .

G i l a k i / B a s h t i women c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o t h e G i l a k i

economy, a nd r i c e f a r m i n g c o u l d n o t b e d o n e w i t h o u t womens'

labor. In s h o r t , the sexual d iv is io n of la b o r w ith in the

f a m ily farm s has ra is e d th e s ta tu s o f G i l a k i women t o the

d e c i s i o n making a u t h o r i t y on r i c e production. As a r e s u l t ,

t h e i r s t a t u s in th e fam ily i s h i g h e r when c o m p a r e d w i t h wo­

men i n o t h e r r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n I r a n . A ccording t o O no's

m o n o g r a p h on f o u r I r a n i a n v i l l a g e s in the re g io n s o f S h iraz,

I s f a h a n , N is h a p u r, and a e z a 'i y e (Orum iye), women a r e n o t e s -

 211

sen tially in teg rated in to farm ing system s in those areas

(1971:l i a , 190, 263, 352). F e m a l e s do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n

any f i e l d o p e r a tio n i n o t h e r r u r a l com m unities o f I r a n .

So s i n c e «omen a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e farm ing

o p e ra tio n in G ilak i-B ash ti r i c e f a r m i n g n o t h i n g c a n co mpen­

s a t e fo r a l o s s o f a fe m a le 's l a b o r e x c e p t th e l a b o r of an­

o th er in d iv id u a l. For exam ple, i n some v i l l a g e s t h e b r i d e

p ric e i s not to be i n g o l d , n o t i n money, but instead i t

co n sists of a c e r t a i n p eriod of la b o r t h a t the groom mus t

p rovide.

To sum u p , the r u r a l popu lation i s the m a jo rity in

G ilan, and G i l a n 's economy i s based m ainly on a stap le

crop(rice). The p r o d u c t i o n o f r i c e i s p o s s i b l e o n l y by t h e

in ten siv e p artic ip a tio n of th e fem ale p o p u la tio n in ru ral

areas. In terestin g ly , G ilan h a s h ig h e r l i t e r a c y (50.7 per­

cent) than th e n atio n al average (# 7 .5 ), the r u r a l fem ale

population has a higher l i t e r a c y rate (31.8%) than th e I r a ­

nian n a tio n a l average (1 7 .# ), and t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l i t ­

e r a c y r a t e b e t w e e n r u r a l G i l a k men a n d women i s s m a l l e r t h a n

t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e . Th e g a p b e t w e e n t h e u r b a n l i t e r a c y a n d

t h a t in the ru ra l a reas i s a ls o sm a lle r than the n a tio n a l

a v erag e in G ilan (Plan and Budget O r g a n i z a t i o n 1 9 7 7 /7 8 ).

G iven, then, the f a c t s , i t i s n o t unexpected t h a t

t h e s e " h a b i t s o f w o r k an d so cial p ra c tice s, the so c ia l o r-

 212

gacizatioQ o f la b o r" (Bromley 1974) d e v e l o p i n t o a d i f f e r e n t

l i f e s t y l e and c u l t o r a l b e h a v io r which g r a n t s women h i g h e r

s o c i a l and econom ic s t a i n s i n G ilan. And a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e

r u r a l community a r e c u l t u r a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h e n , t h e y have

p r e s e r v e d t h i s f e e l i n g o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r women.

Hen i n I r a n h a v e b e e n a f f e c t e d by laws t h a t promote

male suprem acy and c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s such as bossy, ma­

cho, an d he-man im ages t h a t tend to make m a l e s a g g r e s s i v e

and dom inant. T herefore, it is not easy fo r non-G ilak/F ars

men to understand the G ila k 's c u l t u r a l behavior tow ards

t h e i r women.
 ClÂPTEB fill

LIB6016E CHIIGZ

8.1 I8TBOPOCTIOB

Language change i s i n e v i t a b l e . I t i s brought about

by c o n t a c t s betw een s p e a k e r s o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e communi­

t i e s a s v e i l a s by t h e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s o f i n t e r n a l c h a n g e .

D espite t h i s in h eren t p ressu re fo r change, there are parts

w ith in a language t h a t rem ain s t a b l e .

C h a p t e r 8 w i l l f o c u s on t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n s o c i a l

and l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s t h a t have a f f e c t e d la n g u a g e ch an g e i n

G ilan, e s p e c ia lly during t h e p e r i o d from t h e beg in n in g of

th e tw e n tie th c en tu ry u n t i l th e p re s e n t tim e.

W hile the i n t e r n a l processeses of g en eralizatio n ,

sim p lificatio n , strengthening, and weakening have taken

p lace, G i l a k i h a s u n d e rg o n e phonemic, l e x e m ic , and gram m ati­

c a l changes t h a t are the r e s u l t s of the varying c o n te x ts of

i t s outside co n tacts. Throughout its long h i s t o r y G ila n * s

f a r f l u n g t r a d e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e h a d a m a j o r i m p a c t on i t s

language. I t has been s u b j u g a t e d and r e l e g a t e d t o an in ­

fe rio r po sitio n and F a r s i z i e d b e c a u s e o f c h a u v i n i s t i c gov­

ernm ent p o l i c i e s t h a t d is c o u ra g e i t s use.

 214

8 .2 agTHOPOLOGT

In t h i s stu d y I f i l l fo llo w an in teg rated strateg y

t h a t i n c l u d e s b o th a l i n g u i s t i c and an e x t r a l i n g u i s t i c a n a l ­

y s is of G ilak i. H i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s p r o v i d e s t h e method­

o lo g y f o r t h e d i a c h r o n i c a n a l y s i s t h a t w i l l be u n d e rta k en i n

t h i s chapter. For th e synchronic a n a ly s is of G ila k i, see

c h a p t e r s Q and 5.

As Bynon (1 97 1 :1 7 1 } says "th e past s ta te s o f the

l a n g u a g e s u b j e c t e d t o c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s may b e e i t h e r a t ­

te s te d in w ritte n documents o r t h e p ro d u c ts of reco n stru c­

t i o n based on t h e com parison of r e l a t e d languages or dia­

le c ts." Here th e diachronic a n a ly sis of G ilaki w ill be a

com parative stu d y of the language in a s p e c i f i c tim e fram e

from th e b e g in n in g of th e tw e n tie th century to th e present

tim e. I w ill c o n c e n t r a t e on t h i s p e r i o d because th e l i n ­

g u i s t i c d o c u m e n t a tio n f o r an e a r l i e r period i s i n s u f f i c i e n t

f o r su ch an a n a l y s i s .

To a s s e s s t h e l i n g u i s t i c changes t h a t have occurred

during th i s cen tu ry , I have c o n d u c te d a s tu d y o f documents

w r i t t e n in G i l a k i t h a t d a t e from t h e m id - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

F u rth er, to a s c e r ta in the phonological and gram m atical

ch an g es t h a t have ta k e n p la c e i n t h i s tim e period, I have

selected six famous folk s t o r i e s , u s e d by other lin g u is ts

 215

from t h e b e g in n in g o f th e 20th c e n t a r y . They c o n t a i n e d a l l

the fe a tu re s of G ila k i. These t e x t s mere w r i t t e n i n s t a n ­

d a rd m o d ified A rabic o rth o g rap h y ; i n f o r m a n t s were a sk e d t o

t r a n s l a t e them i n t o G i l a k i . Three d i f f e r e n t age g ro u p s p a r­

t i c i p a t e d — grand pairents, p a r e n t s , and c h ild r e n . The s o c i a l

and e d u c a tio n a l backgrounds of these i n f o r m a n t s was also

taken in to c o n sid e ra tio n . Some t r a n s l a t e d t h e t e x t s r e a d i l y

s o t h a t I c o u l d t a p e them, b u t o t h e r s p r e f e r r e d t o d o them

in th e ir l e i s u r e tim e and taped th e ir tran slatio n s them ­

selves. Appendix 0 p r o v i d e s p h o n e t i c t r a n s l a t i o n s o f some

o f the t e x ts .

The e x t r a l i n g u i s t i c analysis of G ilaki in clu d es a

com plete h i s t o r i c a l record o f c o n t a c t s between G i l a k s an d

s p e a k e r s fr o m o t h e r language com m unities. There i s a de­

t a i l e d ex p lan atio n of h i s t o r i c a l c o n t a c t s in chapter 3 of

h i s w o rk . F urther, t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a c t u a l m e c h a n is m o f

' •» . , change, I have u n d e r ta k e n a d e t a i l e d s o c i o l i n g u i s -

c i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e mo de rn G i l a k i c o m m u n it y a s r e p o r t e d

i n c h a p t e r 7.
 216

8.3 im e is OS g g g i p g ÇQP T i g l S f i ! S I & Ü I

Belov I v i l l a s s e s s t h e im p a c t o f t h e v a r i o u s forms

o f la n g u a g e c o n t a c t on G i l a k i w hich i n c l u d e t r a d e , geograph­

i c a l proxim ity, p o l i t i c a l dom ination, s o c io p o litic a l pres­

su re, etc.

Bynon ( 1 9 7 7 : 2 1 6 ) argues th a t:

Th e m o s t s u p e r f i c i a l k i n d o f l a n g u a g e c o n t a c t i s
probably t h a t which e x i s t s b e tw ee n t h e p r o d u c e r s
o r c o n v e y o r s o f s om e c o m m o d it y a n d t h e i r c l i e n t s
i n o t h e r l a n g u a g e a r e a s , and i t i s a w ell-docu­
m ented f a c t of recent language h i s to r y t h a t the
n a m es o f s u c h o b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l tr a d e as
tea, c o ffe e o r tobacco r e a d ily t r a v e l w i t h th e m
a n d b e co m e p a r t o f t h e c o n s u m e r s * l a n g u a g e .

But la n g u a g e c o n t a c t :

a l w a y s p r e s u p p o s e s some d e g r e e o f c u l t u r a l c o n ­
t a c t , however l i m i t e d . And s i n c e , o f a l l s e c t o r s
of language, i t i s t h e l e x i c o n which r e f l e c t s t h e
cultu re of i t s s p e a k e r s m o s t c l o s e l y we s h a l l i n
our c o n s id e r a tio n of th e r e s u l t s of c u l t u r a l con­
t a c t on l a n g u a g e t u r n f i r s t o f a l l t o t h e l e x i c o n .

Th e m a j o r i m p a c t o f c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t on t h e l e x i c o n

o f G i l a k i t a k e s t h e form o f lo a n w o rd s and l o a n t r a n s l a t i o n s .

8 .3 .1 Loanwords ( L e x i c a l Borrowing!

The f o l l o w i n g w ords in G i l a k i meet B y n o n 's d e f i n i ­

t i o n f o r loanw ords (1977:224) a s " i n n o v a t i o n s which c a n n o t

be accounted f o r in term s of i n h e r i t a n c e and which can a t

t h e sa m e t i m e b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y related to ite m s in a donor

language." Th e c o m p a r i s o n o f G i l a k i w i t h t h e v a r i e d l e x i c a l
 217

form s t h a t e x is t in th e l a n g u a g e s w i t h which i t s speakers

had c o n ta c t gives th e correspondences b e t w e e n th e m a t the

tim e o f borrow ing. O f te n t h e borrow ed words h a v e u n d e rg o n e

sound changes t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o th e d i f f e r e n t ph o n o lo g ical

s y s te m s o f G i l a k i and t h e c o n t a c t la n g u a g e s . I w ill discuss

th e s e phonological d i f f e r e n c e s below . The f o l l o w i n g is a

l i s t o f s om e o f t h e many l o a n w o r d s t a k e n from R u s s i a n t h a t

a r e now t o b e f o u n d i n G i l a k i .

p a m ad or from R u ss ia n p am id o r "tomato*

boSkd f r o m R u s s i a n b o c k a /A •barrel *

ca/o rn il from R u s s ia n c e r n i l •ink*

prazôd fr o m R u s s i a n p a r a z o t •ship*

ganto/ur from R u s s i a n g / k a n t o r a •office*

lotka from R u s s ia n l o t k a •boat*

maT a z d fr om R u s s i a n m a g a z i n •s h o p *

galol from R u s s ia n g a l o s i •rubbershoe*

marozni f r o m R u s s i a n m a r o z n i n a ya • i c e cream*

samavar from R u s s i a n sam ovar •Samovar*

m atilka/A fr om R u s s i a n m a t u s k a • b e a u t i f u l woman"

nasin from Bussia.u m asin a/* •car*

sim i& ka^ f r o m R u s s i a n s i m y o c t ka •su n flo w er seed*

p utin from R u s s ia n B o t i n k i •shoes*

putnus from R u s s i a n podnos •saucer *

 218

R u ssian and G i l a k i s h a r e many o t h e r l e x i c a l item s th a t are

r e l a t e d t o m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and t h e n a t u r a l e n v ir o n m e n t, f o r

in s ta n c e term s o f m easurem ent, names of bird s, ty p e s of

fish , and te rm s r e l a t i n g to ric e c u ltiv a tio n .

There a r e a ls o hundreds o f A ra b ic loanw ords used i n

G ilaki. T h e s e came e i t h e r d i r e c t l y f r o m A r a b i c o r i n d i r e c t ­

l y from A r a b i c i z e d F a r s i . Hany o f t h e s e h a v e a d a p t e d t o the

G i l a k i / F a r s i s y n t a x and m orphology a n d h a v e (Aanged so t h a t

th e y a r e no l o n g e r i n t e l l i g i b l e t o s p e a k e r s o f A r a b ic .

A r a b ic has p la y ed an e s p e c ia lly s ig n ific a n t r o le in

a lte rin g the p e r s o n a l names o f G i l a k s . T r a d i t i o n a l nam es

were d e r i v e d from G i l a n * s c u ltu r e and n a t u r a l environm ent

h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y t h e nam es o f p r o p h e t s , sain ts, th eir

descendants, or a t t r i b u t e s d e sc rib e d in A rabic. Follow ing

a re exam ples o f the t r a d i t i o n a l names and th o s e l a t e r de­

r i v e d fr o m A r a b i c .

OLD HEW

K a s* fa ir s k i n , blond*, H o s e v n * t h e p r o p h e t Bohaamad*s

used to r e f e r t o gran d so n * , A rabic / t s s e y n /.

blue eyes.

Ha / a h x a n a n ’ Hoon L a d y . * Fa tom h * n o h a n m a d * s d a u g h t e r . *

G ul a j a * f l o w e r h e a d / dli*Hohammad*s s o n - i n -

c h i e f / H r . *• law* A r a b i c / ? & l i .

To r s i d xanan*sun lady.' Hutaraa xango*respected

lad y .'A rab ic ao'Ktsran. *

 219
V
f u s t 3 m*Ancieat I r a n i a n S» n s > d i n * s u n o f t h e f a i t h *

h e ro .* A rabic s n s o ld d in .

P l l i a zanam «G reat/ Kobra z a n a a ' G r e a t l a d y . *

E lder l a d y . *

Koca xairaa * S g a l l / sd% ra l a n m * S m a l l /

Younger l a d y . ' Y ou ng e r l a d y . *

PI113 a J a 'B r . G reat/ 3kbyr j J a ' B r . G r e a t /

C h ief/eld er. • -C hief/elder. *

[ u c * a Ja 'H r. S m all/ & 7 a 'B r. Young/

Y o u n g .* *S m a l l . * A r a b i c 3 E .s v % r

I t is not t h e purpose o f t h i s stu d y t o d i s c u s s the

ethnography o f names i n G ilaki but to c la r if y th e change

t h a t has ta k e n p la ce in th e tw en tieth century. Th e u s e o f

A rabic term s f o r p e r s o n a l n a m e s mas i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e i n ­

troduction of Islam ic ideology under S afavid S h iite s and

deem phasized w ith th e in creasing p o l i t i c a l secu larizatio n

d uring the e a rly tw en tieth cen tu ry . G ilak s over f o r t y years

o f a g e who l i v e i n u r b a n a r e a s u s u a l l y b e a r tw o n a m e s : one

is a r e l i g i o u s name t h a t i s u s ed on o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s s u c h

a s b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e s a n d o t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n m a t e r i a l s a nd

t h e o t h e r a n o n - r e l i g i o u s name from t r a d i t i o n a l G i l a k i c u l ­

tu re. The s e c o n d name i s t h e o n e u s e d by f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s

in everyday l i f e . These f a m i l i a r names a r e g e n e r a l l y ta k e n

f r o m n a t u r e a n d a r e t h e n a m es o f f l o w e r s , n a t u r a l phe nom en a .
 220

o r even a n c i e n t I r a n i a n b e r o s . F o r i n s t a n c e a woman m i g h t

be called h a T%r (H agar) , a relig io u s nam e, and §. i -

r i n (sw eet). A man m ight have t h e name Ba e s u l (m essenger/

p r o p h e t ) , and f t r e v d u n an A n c ie n t I r a n i a n h e r o ' s name. The

g e n eratio n of G ilaks under t h i r t y years o f age, esp ecially

t h o s e who a r e from e d u c a te d f a m i l i e s , are g e n e r a l l y given

o ld I r a n i a n names. These F a rs i n a m e s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m na­

t u r e a n d c o n s i s t o f na mes o f f l o w e r s , n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , or

personal a ttr ib u te s , su ch a s te rm s t h a t p r a i s e t h e b e a u ty of

women; H asculine names a r e o r d i n a r i l y ta k e n from t h e Old

I r a n i a n o r A ra b ic and a r e te rm s t h a t e x t o l l th e p e r s o n a l a t ­

t r i b u t e s o f b r a v e r y and h o n e s t y . These d a t a have been c o l ­

l e c t e d d u r i n g my own f i e l d w o r k .

G ilaki h a s borrowed many title s fr o m A r a b i c a nd

T urkish. T h e s e c a n b e s t b e s ho w n b y a h i s t o r i c a l s u r v e y o f

the te rm s bestow ed upo n t h e k in g s and leaders of G ilan.

Since p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s a r e u s u a lly th e f i r s t to adopt pres­

t i g i o u s na mes a n d t i t l e s of another, more p o w e r f u l c u l t u r e

a n d s i n c e i t would b e i m p o s s i b l e t o know t h e t i t l e s u s e d by

o rd in a ry people a t th e tim e o f such e l i t e borrow ing, title s

a r e e x c e l l e n t m arkers of c o n t a c t . A c h ro n o lo g ic a l l i s t of

how G i l a k e l i t e title s have changed over t i m e by b o r r o w i n g

fo llo w s.

P r i o r t o 1160
 221

£sp3hbod (a m a r s h a l ) sah ISkz rostB m

com m ander-in- king from azjan attached Ancient

ch ief a port in to place Iranian

G ilan n a m es t o hero,

mark

origin

Kia (lord/m aster) b o zorg/great

Kla Omid sah Yaz 1 rostsm

great hope king from azyan p lace Iranian

p o r t in G ilan marker hero.

Ebn ( s o n o f ) : Fo u n d a f t e r 1160 a n d A r a b d o m i n a t i o n ,

Sstandar keykavos Ibn hazar ">sp

governor King o f t h e son of thousand horse

general Kyan D y n a s t y (A rabic)

of old I r a n ben

M3 l(k (king): C irca 12 2 0 . From t h e A r a b i c m l e k .

m altk fair el doleh naoavar

king g lo ry , of w ealth, famous

p ride (Arab- g o v e rn m e n t, illu strio u s

ic a l) state (p r o p e r noun)

m allk hasam el doleh ard asir

king a sharp of governm ent, Sasanid king

sword. w ealth, etc.

 222

s w o rd 's

edge ti)

m ir/e ( p r i n c e , commander, c h i e f , or m aster): C i r c a 1307.

From t h e A r a b i c g m ir .

m ir/e mohammad tim ijfan i

prince personal place in orig in

name G ilan m arker

m ir p in s an A r a b i c o r G i l a k i p e r s o n a l name p l u s p la c e of

o r i g i n a s a f a m i l y o r l i n e a g e nam e: 1307 u n t i l p r e s e n t .

am ir moharnaad rast i

prince personal place in o rig in

name (A) G ilan m arker

amir sasan gaskar i

prince personal place in origin

name (G) G ilan marker

iki t i t l e s p lu s A rabic t i t l e :

kia ma le k ha z a r asp oskur i

king (G) king (A) t h o u s a n d horse p la c e in origin

G ilan marker

S id /Seyd/3ey e d (sir, m aster): C irca 1367. A ttached to th e

n a m e s o f G i l a k m a l e s who w e r e known t o b e d e s c e n d e n t s o f t h e

P r o p h e t Mohammad. From t h e A r a b i c , s a y y e d .

seyt d rskabzsn tonokabon i

sir, m aster o n e who s p u r s place i n G ilan origin

 223

sey£d am ir kia m arker

sir, m aster prince g r e a t, king, lo rd

M i r r a f s h o r t fo r m o f m i r z a d e . son o r d a u g h te r o f an 3 m ir) :

circa 1443. low a p p l i e s t o a c l e r k o r s e c r e t a r y s i g n i f y i n g

ed u catio n o r F a rsiz ed A rabic.

m irza 31i biA pis i

[prince) p e r s o n a l name [A) front riv er orig in

( A n c i e n t name m arker

f o r L ahijan) a

c i t y o f G ilan

Saltan [king): E arly s ix te e n th cen tu ry . From t h e T u r k i s h .

Began a f t e r Mongol d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e G i l a n r e g i o n ,

su ltan hassan biA pis i

king personal L ahijan orig in

name [A) marker

Xan ( n o b l e ) : C irca 1506. From t h e T u r k i s h / M o n g o l i a n ,

su ltan ahmad ran biA pis i

king personal noble Lahijan origin

name [A) m arker

M ultiple T itle s :

xan ahmad xan sah m altk fuman i

noble personal noble king king a town o rig in

[T) name [A) [T) (?) [A) i n G i l a n marker

 22k

Beyq/k [lord, prince): Early seventeenth cen tu ry . lo

l o n g e r used a s a t i t l e , however still used w ith th e s u f f i x

/i/ t o d e n o t e a l i n e a g e na m e,

darya beyg/k i

sea lord lineage/m arker

Basi (chief, p rin cip al, ex p ert, or m aster): E arly e i g h t ­

eenth c e n tu ry . S u f f i x t o t h e morpheme f o r p r o f e s s i o n . Prom

th e T urkish.

V
Ci (artisan , m e rc h a n t, o r tradesm an) : E arly e ig h te e n th cen­

tury. S uffix t o t h e morpheme fo r profession. From t h e

T urkish.
• V V
Mohammad Eeza xan abdolla q/T ur ci basi

personal p e rso n al noble A rabic arm s, maker m aster

name (A) nam e. (T) name, ammu-

sig n ifies (a s e r - n itio n

Shiism v ast,

slave or

w orshipper

o f God.)

These t i t l e s l a t e r were used a s f a m i l y nam es e i t h e r

because sons follow ed in t h e i r f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n s or they

were giv en t o th e d e s c e n d a n ts of p erso n s of c e r t a i n occupa­

tio n s.
 225

R ail (p ilg rim to H ecca): E arly e ig h te e n th cen tu ry . From

th e A rabic / h a c j i/.

b aji sdfi

pilgrim p e r s o n a l name ( A r a b i c s f i )

ha)i fam al

p ilgrim p e r s o n a l name

Aïa (M r., s i r , lord, lady): L ate e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu ry a f t e r

G il a n 's dom ination by t h e T u r k i s h trib e Q ajar. From t h e

T urkish.

ha5/ i ala bozorg muna^sm ba&i

pilgrim H r., g reat/ astronom er/ m aster,

sir personal a s tr o lo g e r / head

name lineag e

zanan a%a

lady ch ief/lo rd

From t h e l a t e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y to the early part

of the tw e n tie th c en tu ry G ila k i t i t l e s n o t only r e f l e c t th e

bearer*s occupation, th e y i n d i c a t e s o c i a l s t a t u s and a m an's

p o s itio n in th e p o l i t i c a l hierarchy.

âïa a 3 sum sah^b ex tiar

sir personal owner/ au th o rity

name bearer

m irza hoseyn muazpm el s a l t 3 n@

clerk personal d ig n ified of government.

 226

name honorable state,

gentlem an w ealth

m osir s91tana

m in ister, governm ent,

counsellor state

muayed divan

co n firm er c o u n c il of

state, high

c o u rt of c a ssa tio n

X a^i; [ m a s t e r , o w n e r , w e a l t h y man, t e a c h e r , o l d m a n ): Ear­

l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y when G i l a n wa s o c c u p i e d by t h e S a f a -

vids. From F a r s i x a i e . d ale c a n a l s o c a r r y t h e meaning

e u n uch

xa5 mohnmsd e m i n fu m s n i

m aster personal reliab le a to w n i n origin

name G ilan marker

Other t i t l e s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o G i l a k i by t h e

I s la m ic and S h i i t e b e l i e v e s .

H ast/d : A p i l g r i m who h a s v i s i t e d t h e s e p u l c h e r o f Emam-

Beza, t h e m a r t y r e d e i g h t Emaa o f t h e S h i i t e s , i n /M%sh%d/.

nashad . Mzshsed i s t h e m ajor c i t y o f K horasan, c a lle d the

place o f th e m artyr. Ha s t / d i p r e c e d e s t h e p e r s o n a l name b u t

follow s such t i t l e s a s a ï a and xannm. A p p l i e d t o b o t h men

a n d women.
 227

m asts zansm

lady

m asts a'Sa
sir

mas t s % i

personal

name

K ait / k a l b l a i : A pilgrim t o KXrbsla. Located so u th w e s t o f

Baghdad, it i s the s i t e of t h e martyrdom o f Emam h o s e y n ,

grandson o f th e p r o p h e t Mohammad. The t i t l e p re c e d e s the

p e r s o n a l name.

k alb lai hoseyn

p ilgrim p e r s o n a l name

A r a b ic and T u r k i s h h av e a l s o p ro v id e d k i n s h i p te r m i ­

nology fo r G i l a k i s p e a k e r s .

xali HZ from A rabic x a l

gam FZ from A r a b i c <%mmi

a mu Fb from A rabic £ 3^2

d aii MB from F a r s i da^i

d a ii T tzi MED from T u r k is h qe z ( d a u g h t e r / g i r l )

G ila k i has b o r r o w e d t h e s e t e r m s an d a d d e d them t o its own

d escrip tiv e k in sh ip term inology.

ESsar {G) MZS

du % t3 ^ (G)
 226

In very r a r e i n s t a n c e s T u rk ish and A rabic term s such a s d a i i

£t^[flPD ) or 2 1 £ i z i JPZd) have been re c o rd e d in G ila k i.

8 .3 .2 loam T r a n sla tio n fca lo n el

O f t e n when t w o l a n g u a g e s come i n t o c o n t a c t " t h e for m

and m eaning o f a f o r e i g n word i n s t e a d o f being c a r r i e d over

i n t o t h e r e c i p i e n t la n g u a g e a s a u n i t , i s m erely employed a s

a model f o r a n a t i v e c r e a t i o n " (Bynon 1 9 7 9 : 2 2 3 ) . G ila k i has

borrow ed form a s w e l l a s meaning fro m o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , but

o ften a new f o r m h a s b e e n c r e a t e d from a native co n stru c­

tio n .

%3t& ah3 n

lin e liaiso n iron

*r a i l w a y *

A lthough P a r s i speakers p re fe r a new f o r m to bor­

rowed w o rd s ,G i l a k i h a s b o rro w e d form a s well a s meaning

from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s .

pam idor (R ussian) p a m a d o r (G) g o j e farra^gi(F a r s i)

toaato plum f o r e i g n

• tom ato *

ma si nA / 3 ( R u s s i a n ) nasin (G) xod r o (Farsi)

car s e l f run

*a u to m o b ile *
 229

O ften th e sem antic concept of a f o r e i g n word has

been m o d i f i e d , t h a t i s , i t h a s b e e n n a r r o w e d down t o accom­

m o d a t e t h e new m e a n i n g . For i n s t a n c e , t h e word [noble,

m aster, head from t h e T u r k is h & is g e n e r a l l y u s e d f o r men

as s ir /m is te r in G ila k i. The word s e v i d ( s i r / m i s t e r i n A ra ­

bic) h a s been narrow ed t o d e n o t e o n l y t h e male d e s c e n d e n t s

o f t h e P r o p h e t Hohanmad.

seyid ATa Golmir D abica i

descendent name place of p lace of

o f Mohammad b irth orig in

m arker

As shown a b o v e , t h e word m i r z a . o r i g i n a l l y m irzade

[p rin c e 's c h i l d ) , has been s e m a n tic a lly m odified in G ilak i

to sig n ify a c le rk , s e c r e ta r y , o r educated person.

8.3.3 Changes in the Sound System; Phonology

Acq u i r e d Sounds. G ila k i* s sound system has acq u ired

some a d d i t i o n a l p h o n e m e s through th e v a r io u s form s of con­

t a c t t h a t G i l a k s h a v e ha d w ith sp e a k e rs of o th e r languages,

/z /: a c q u ired a f t e r th e beginning o f th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry

in contact w ith s p e a k e rs of o th e r Indo-E uropean languages.

P arely found, C ho dzk o [1842:108) does n o t m ention th is

sound, and C hristensen (1930) shows / z / only once i n /p3

 230

Z B orde/*rotten. It s t i l l i s not found i n the p h onological

sy ste s of a l l G ilak s, and / p a z morde/ i s n o t a G i l a k i word.

Sotndeh (1954), in h i s G ila k i d ic tio n a r y , says th a t / 2 / a l­

t e r n a t e s w ith / 5/ in a few words a s i n / i j g a r i , i z g » r * . / *to

c ry » o r a p p e a rs i n lo a n words such a s / g a r a z / 'g arag e* pro­

n o u n c e d / g a r a j y by many n a t i v e s p e a k e r s a n d /m arozni/ 'ic e

cream *. Th e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h i s s o u n d i s b e c o m i n g m o r e f r e ­

q u e n t , e s p e c i a l l y among e d u c a t e d G i l a k s who l i v e o u t s i d e G i ­

lan .

/g / : t h i s s o u n d was o r i g i n a l l y introduced to G ila k i a s / g /

(A rab ic/F arsi v o ic e le s s a s p ira te d uvular s to p ) . Its occur­

rence i s lim ited t o lo a n w ords from F a r s i , A r a b i c , and Turk­

ish . It is not asp irated as in A rabic, rath er i t is fre­

q u e n tly pronounced as / T / , / Ü/ or /g / . Those G i l a k i

s p e a k e r s who d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e s e sounds tend to sp iran tize

them a s i n , for in sta n c e , /în ia m / 'p e n ', /% oran/ 'K o ra n ',

and /T a to Y / a to tJ / ' s t e w ' . T his d i s t i n c t i o n betw een / Y / and

/V o r / q / and / Y / i s an a d e q u a t e m a rk e r o f t h e s o c i a l s t a ­

t u s a n d /o r e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l of a sp e a k e r.

/ Vî A v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l s t o p c o n s o n a n t t h a t h a s been added

to G ila k i th ro u g h c o n ta c t w ith both F a r s i and A r a b ic . /V

h a s been a s s i m i l a t e d to / 3 / by many n a t i v e G i l a k i s p e a k e r s ,

and a c c o r d in g t o t h i s s tu d y / V » r a th e r than / a / , i s used

o n l y by educated G ilaks of the younger g e n e r a tio n who a r e

betw een tw e n ty and t h i r t y years of age.

 231

g .% IM Tei lA L SOOWB CHIHGB

C e r ta in phones i n G i l a k i have been changed th ro u g h

tim e. Bechanism s o f s u c h i n t e r n a l c h a n g e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

below .

V eakening: There i s a r e l a t i v e phonological s tr e n g th th a t

^ re fe rs not to th e a b so lu te phonetic s tre n g th of elem ents,

b u t t o t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s t o on e a n o t h e r i n a pho­

n o l o g i c a l system a s d e fin e d t h e i r p r o p e n s i t y to undergo l e -

n itio n "[F o ley 1977:29). He a d d s t h a t :

S i n c e g e m i n a t e v o i c e l e s s c l u s t e r s we aken t o s i n g l e
v o iceless sto p s in the same e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t
v o i c e l e s s s t o p s weaken t o v o ic e d s t o p s and v o ic e d
s t o p s weaken t o v o i c e d c o n t i n u a n t s , i t may b e a s ­
su med f o r t h e n o n c e t h a t g e m i n a t e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s
a re s tro n g e r than s in g le v o i c e l e s s s t o p s . (Foley
1977:33)

In G ilaki, consonant c l u s t e r s tend t o weaken t o a s i n g l e

consonant through a F arsizatio n process. Some consonant

c lu s t e r s in th e word i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n t e n d t o be b r o k e n by

an e p e n t h e s i s vowel t h a t u s u a l l y s t a r t s w ith a s h o r t form o f

/9 / a n d b e c o m e s l o n g e r a n d m ore d i v e r s i f i e d in th e speech of

th e younger g e n e r a tio n and e d u c a te d p e o p le .

bb3r b9 b a r bib3 r bebsr •take*

bbur b3 b ô r bibôr bebor •cut •

brâr barâr bxrar •brother*

bfrôxt bî-f r ô x t b ifrô x t bef rô x t •sold*

bz 3n bazsn b£zan bezan •hit*

 232

Consonant c l n s t e r s i n word m e d i a l p o s i t i o n tend to

w e ake n t o a s i n g l e c o n s o n a n t .

cc eg nacci aaci 'k iss*

V V V ,
aacc maci

ss stS massa m a sd 'p in c e rs *

f£ faffara fafâra 'fo u n ta in *

T he v o i c e d v e la r stop / g / i s weakened t o t h e voiced v e lar

fricativ e / I / .

J a g a 13 (C h o d z k o 1 8 4 2 : 5 4 9 ) ===> 3 a T a i 3 ' c h i l d *

The v o i c e l e s s v e l a r f r i c a t i v e /% / i s deleted o r changed to

/h / (silen t/h /).

xalu (C h o d z k o 1 8 4 2 : 5 4 2 ) ===> h â l u / â l u ' p lu m *

Or o f t e n / x / i s w e a k e n e d t o / Î / -

tix (Ch odzk o 1 8 4 2 : 5 4 9 ) ===> t i Y ' r a z o r blade*

The v o ic e d a s p ir a te d stop / g h / has alread y disap p eared in

g i l a k i and v o i c e l e s s aspirated stops /p h /, /th /, and / k h /

te n d to d is a p p e a r in th e speech o f th e younger g e n e r a t i o n as

w e l l a s among e d u c a t e d G i l a k s .

The b i l a b i a l n a s a l /m / has changed t o the a lv e o la r

nasal /n /.

va •m‘& ssin s -> v a - n s - s s in

i m p e r a t i v e n e g a t i o n rub

m arker mark

* do n o t r u b *
 233

S tren g th en in g : Voiced l a b i o d e n t a l fricativ e /v / has

s tre n g th e n e d to a voiced b ila b ia l stop / b / .

v a l g / k [ C ho dz ko 1 8 0 2 : 5 5 5 } ===> b 3 r g "leaf*

V r f [ G e i g e r 6 Kuhn 1 9 0 3 : 3 5 1 ) ===> t o r f 'sn ow *

v iai(g eig er 1903) ===> b i n i ' n o s e *

/ z / the voiced a l v e o l a r f r ic a tiv e con tinuant hass tre n g th ­

ened to / d / th e v o iced d e n t a l s to p as in

zama(Chodzko 1802:551) ===> damad * g r o o a / s o n - i n - l a w *

/ x ^ / has changed t o /% /.

b a z ^ a s t ( G e i g e r 1903:377) ===> b a z a s t ’ w a nt ed *

/ b / the voiced b i l a b i a l stop has stren g th en ed to / p / the

vo iceless b ila b ia l stop.

gob ===> g a p ’ c o n v e r s a t i o n *

H ig h f r o n t v o w e l i n G i l a k i h a v e c h a n g e d t o low b a c k v o w e l s .

A ccording t o Foley (1977) t h i s p r o c e s s s t r e n g t h e n s t h e vow­

els.
i = = > "3 ==>Bf

b i n a k u d a n ( G e i g e r 1903) ===> b a na ( C h r i s t e n s e n 1903) ===> bat

na [younger g e n e r a t i o n )

hun ===> han ===> h%n [younger g e n e r a t i o n )

A nother change in th e sound system o f G ilaki i s th a t the

u n s tr e s s e d gem inate vow els te n d t o change t o a s i n g l e vowel.

aa== > a saar==> mar ’mother*

it==> £ piir==> p tr / p e r ’fath er’

oo= = > oo soon==> s o n ’ t o go’

 234

G eneralization: Through t h e F arsization process, various

prefix es of verbs tend to gen eralize to / b e / concom itant

m ith th e g e n e r a li z a ti o n o f v o w e l harm ony b e t w e e n the f i r s t

vow el o f a v e r b and t h e p r e c e d i n g p r e f i x . (See c h a p t e r 5)

duzan baxan bizan bexan ' t o c a l l '

feka& bakss b tkas bekaes ' t o p u l i '

d icin bicin btcin b ecin 'p ic k u p '

dûkûn bôkû n btkûn bekon ' d o , put on'

§•§ HOIPHOLOGT IBP S T B T H

Changes have been recorded in t h e morphology and

syntax o f G ilaki. Some r e d u p l i c a t e d words have been re ­

p la ce d w ith A r a b ic /F a r s i term s, e s p e c i a l l y words o r id io m s

th a t include body p a r t s or sexual organs. These G ilak i

w ords a r e now c o n s i d e r e d to be i m p o l i t e o r show a lack of

e d u c a t i o n among th e high s o c i a l c la s s of educated G ilak s.

Exam ples:

bgA bgA ===> d Jam a f r o m A r a b i c / d j a m a ^

make l o v e make l o v e

'm ake l o v e '

kuna k u u A ===> a b fr o m A r a b i c /fa egaib/

back back

're v e rs e '

kusa k u s i ===> h a r j o n a r ^ j

lit. vagina vagina

 235

*a s t a t e o f c h a o s *

x t r x£T« " l a r y n x * ===> g n l i / h » n j » r », f r o m / g a t l a / (F arsi)

;A rabic) =

kas k a s kodan ===> dasva, f r o m A r a b i c daepta

•to quarrel"

Some co m p o u n d nouns have been replaced by A rabic/F arsi

term s.

h/xun soon ===> g a i d d g i / h e y i x / b i n a m a z i

lit. b lo o d going

"m enstruation"

zosadaan ===> m a c c i - d â a n / b u s i d a n

"to kiss"

x a t t r xa ===> a s f S o r mzsuT, from A r a b ic ^aseq/m% {sug

"lover"

kus xul ===> d i v a n a

lit. vagina crazy

"crazy"

k a d x u d a m a r d i ===> i n s a f

" judgem ent"

kad xuda ===> T a z i , from A c a b ic /q a e ji ,

" judge"

zan x a z i ===> x a s t t g a r y

" w ife w anting"

xanafaru ===> ^ a r u

" broom"
 236

Te rm s r e l a t e d t o m e a s u r e m e n t h a v e c h a n g e d .

G ila k i has no term in o lo g y f o r nom inativea d j e c t i v e s .

In stead , th e speakers use a p h ra se to e x p r e s s t h e i r purpose,

but th ere is a t e n d e n c y among t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n a n d e d ­

u c ate d G ila k s t o re p la c e th e s e p h ra s e s w ith F a r s i te rm s ,

u n i k i g u f t i ===> g n y d n d l'sp eak er*

u n i k i XAndi ===> xandndi*singer*

The c o m p a r a t i v e c o n ju n c tio n has developed through F a r s iz a -

tio n process in G ilak i. The p r o c e s s o f i t s developm ent i s

given below .

No c o m p a r a t i v e c o n j u n c t i o n :

9 koor u koor a b u t a r

th is g irl th at g irl b etter

'T h is g i r l i s b e t t e r than t h a t g i r l . *

The f i r s t appearance o f th e com parative co n ju n ctio n :

una barar ^9 un p i l l a t a r a

h is brother (comp, c o n j . ) h im o l d e r is

* R is b r o t h e r i s o l d e r th a n him.*

C h a n g e i n w o rd o r d e r :

ana 5® sakar b tx tar n t bt

th is than hunt b etter not be

*No h u n t c o u l d b e b e t t e r t h a n t h i s . *

B e p l a c i n g / J a / w i t h / a z / by t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n o f s p e a k ­

ers.
V
3z asan bL xtar t^rd
 237

th an the* all b etter c o m p arativ e m arker is

*Be i s b e s t o f a l l . '

R e fle x iv e Pronoun. The f u n c t i o n o f the re fle x iv e

pronoun in G i l a k i d i f f e r s from th a t of other I r a n ia n lan­

guages. xod (self) i n F a r s i i s u s e d a s a common p r o n o u n f o r

a l l persons w ith p e r s o n a l s u f f i x e s t o show d is tin c tio n of

p e r s o n and n u m b e r . I n m i d d l e a n d o l d F a r s i xod w i t h o u t t h e

p e rs o n a l ending was u s e d a s a common p r o n o u n f o r a l l per­

sons.

sin g u lar plu ral

mae-n r o d g o f t z m — — — ma xod g o f t i m

• I m y s e l f s a i d . ' ------------------- ' l e o urselves s a id ."

to x o d g o f t i ---------— — ---- soma xod g o f t i d

•y o u y o u r s e l f s a i d - » ------------- ' Y o u y o u r s e l v e s s a i d . *

u xo d g o f t — — i s a n x o d g of ta rn d

»he h i m s e l f s a i d . * --------------- *They t h e m s e l v e s s a i d . '

In Bod ern F a r s i x o d s h o w s d i s t i n c t i o n fo r persons p lu s per­

so n a l ending a tta c h e d t o xod.

m%n xodaemg o f t t m *I m y s e lf s a i d . *

lo d zt * yourself*

xodzs * her/h im self'

xodeman * ourselves*

xodetan 'y o u rselv es*

xodesan 'them selves*

 23b

In G ilak i zS /â is generally used t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r n o m in a ­

t i v e pronouns, esp ecially th e f i r s t p e rs o n s i n g u l a r and t h e

th ir d person s i n g u l a r and p lu ral. But i n mo de rn G ilaki

th ere i s a tendency to fo llo w the same p r o c e s s o f change

t h a t took p l a c e i n F a r s i , n a m e l y some G i l a k s h a v e s t a r t e d t o

u s e / z 5 d 3 s / and /zodam / a s r e f l e z i v e pronouns.

P repositions. G i l a k i h a s an GV word o r d e r s o i t can

be assumed th at i t a lso has p o stp o sitio n s, and a s Bynon

[1977: 231) in d icates th a t " I t i s g en erally claim ed t h a t

m em be rs o f t h e ' o p e n * c l a s s e s [ n o u n s , v e r b s , and a d j e c t i v e s )

a r e m ore r e a d i l y b o r r o w e d t h a n those o f th e 'c lo se d * class-

e s [ p ro n o u n s , c o n j u n c t i o n s , and p r e p o s i t i o n s ) " . Thus, G ilaki

is not e zp e c te d t o d ev elo p p r e p o s i t i o n s through c o n t a c t , but

"it w o u ld a t any r a t e , s ee m l i k e l y t h a t borrowing from

closed c la s s e s w i l l only be p o ssib le in s itu a tio n s of in ­

te n s e l i n g u i s t i c exchange since i t presupposes th e cross-

lin g u istic equation of sy n tactic p attern s" (By non ,

1977:321). However, a few p r e p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o

G ila k i through tim e. The f o l l o w i n g p r e p o s i t i o n a l s e n t e n c e s

r e p r e s e n t th e p ro c e ss of change in G ila k i.

Old G i l a k i Modern G i l a k i

m3rL c i b 3 zasti? 1) o f t e n t h e sam e p o s t p o s i t i o n

me o f w h a t w a n t e d you i s used a s a p r e p o s i t i o n .

' W h a t d i d you w a nt j'a m^n ci baxasti?

fr om m e . '
 239
2} B o r r o w i n g t h e p r e p o s i t i o n

/ 9 z / from F a r s i .

3 z man ë i bazasti?

of I « h at «anted yon

S ince th e asage of p re p o s itio n s i s new in G ilak i,

many n a t i v e s p e a k e r s « ho a t t e m p t t o u s e th e m t o show a h i g h ­

e r l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a r e n o t a b le t o do s o p r o p e r l y . O ften

t h e y u s e two p r e p o s i t i o n s t o g e t h e r .

3 z b3 zana bamom

from to house I came

*I came f r o m t h e h o u s e . *

o r t h e y u s e them i n b o t h p re and p a s t p o s i t i o n s ( d o u b l e po ­

sitio n s) .

m3n z ay s m b a s i m i ma s i n - 3 - h a u r A basam birun

I want w ith/by your c a r w i t h / b y go I out

• I w a n t t o go o u t by (in) your c a r.*

N ote: Th e u s e o f p r e p o s i t i o n s i n G i l a k i i s a c c o m p a n i e d by

t h e c h a n g e i n word o r d e r ,

zana sid i

house g o i n g you

* Y o u / t h e y a r e g o i n g h o m e .*

sid i baxan ?

go you t o house
 240

8 .5 .1 S ta b le P a r ts o f G ila k i
ID s p i t e o f a l l t h e c o n t a c t s and e x p o s u r e s t o v a r i ­

o u s l a n g u a g e s , G i l a k i h a s r e m a i n e d c o n s e r v a t i v e i n some a r e ­

as.

8.5.1.1 Phonology

The v e l a r n a s a l / V / h a s b e en p r e s e r v e d . T h i s sound has been

recorded in few o t h e r I r a n i a n languages. I t does occur in

K urdi /m a^/ (moon) a s w ell a s in G ila k i. I t a l s o has been

re c o rd ed in F a r s i cuneiform i n s c r i p t i o n s and o t h e r o l d I r a ­

n ian te x ts . A spirated /p h / , / t h / , / d h / a r e p a r t s o f t h e Old

I r a n i a n sound s y s t e m a nd h a v e alm ost disappeared in other

Ir a n ia n lan guages alth o u g h they s t i l l e x is t in G ila k i.

Lexicon: G i l a k i h a s r e t a i n e d words t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o th e

n a t u r a l e n v ir o n m e n t and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , such a s term s used

fo r b ird s, fish , rice, ric e p lan tatio n {which e x c e e d a h un­

d re d ), c o lo r term inology, G ila k i c u is in e , and toponom y.

Morphology an d Syntax: G ilaki is a c o n s e r v a tiv e language

t h a t h a s r e t a i n e d t h e 07 s e r i a l o r d e r p a r a l l e l e d by a c o r r e ­

sponding o r d e r in o th er p a irs of elem ents in th e language

such as n o u n -a d je c tiv e , g en itiv e-n o u n , n o u n - p r e p o s i t i o n , and

stan d ard com parative. T h is can be c l a r i f i e d by c o m p a r i n g

 24 1

G i la k i w ith o t h e r I r a n i a n la n g u a g e s s u c h a s F a r s i w h i c h was

o rig in ally an OT language t h a t has r e ta in e d i t s OF fora

w hile o th e r s tru c tu re s of the language have changed t o fO

serializatio n under t h e i n f l u e n c e of A rabic. It has prepo­

s i t i o n s ra th e r than p o s tp o s itio n s , and t h e n e g a t i v e f o l l o w s

t h e noun, which i t m o d if ie s , a s do th e a d j e c t i v e s .

Jaffary {1965:10-11) refers to one of changes in

F a r s i which i s :

t h e i n c r e a s i n g r e v e r s e d p o s i t i o n o f a d j e c t i v e s and
t h e nouns and pronouns th e y q u a l i f y a s w ell a s t h e
g e n i t i v e s — a f a c t t h a t h a s be come t h e o r d e r o f t h e
day i n Bodern F a r s i and o t h e r I r a n i a n la n g u a g e s
w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f B a lu c h i and t h e C a s p ia n d i a ­
le cts.

T a b l e 12 i s a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e tw o l a n g u a g e s i n r e ­

s p e c t to change.
 242

T able 12

OV fO l a a g i a g a s

fo u -ia ^ a ctiv *

tS U tk i) fill* b#r% r tr a r c i) k K a d a r-a -b o rn e r

h l« h c o tk a r b ro tb o r b ig

v a z tr k a k k s h « r> ti llra b ic ) K z-k m b ir

9r« â t / b i 9 k la g

( C ia v lfe ra ia s c r ip tio a a )

tia a lla o a ItM : 120)

C o aitlT » * lo aa O o m a -O a a ltiv #

( C ila k i) al p ttr (P a ra i) p * d a r-« -a a u

a; fa tk a r fa tk a r % /aa

C a o a if o r a j a p itta (tra b ic ) t b — i

aj fa tb a r fa tk a r a j
C a a a if o r a ( la a ila o a lO a i: 32a I

■ o aa-’P o s t p o a i t i o a P ra p o a itio a -lo a a

teila k i) fgabl'Vdarea (P a ra i) d ara a-a-aa a

pet ia a id a ia a ld a koaaa
( ira b ic ) fi-X b*% t

a t tk a keaaa
 CliPlEB XX
COICLQSIOIS

Th e p r i m a r y undertaking of t h i s study has been t o

i n v e s t i g a t e language change i n G ila n , e s p e c i a l l y during th e

p e r i o d fr om th e beginning of the tw e n tie th century u n til

1979. By f o c u s i n g on t h e i n t e r p l a y betw een s o c i o p o l i t i c a l

and l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s t h a t ha v e affected language, I hope

t o have e x p l a i n e d c e r t a i n trends in l i n g u i s t i c change. Bore

sp ecifically , my i n t e n t i o n has been to explore cu ltu ral

a s p e c ts of G ila k i and t o a s s e s s t h e im pact each h a s h a d on

th e language. F u r th e r m o re , by d e f i n i n g t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r ­

e n c e s b e t w e e n G i l a k s and F a r s I h a v e p r o v i d e d a n e x p l a n a t i o n

of s o c io p o litic a l view t h a t u n d e r l i e s c u ltu r a l degradation

o f G ilaks in Iran.

f l à i S I Fi n d i n q s

ih e a n c e s to r s of G ilaks a re Pre-Aryan groups th a t

have liv e d in th e G ilan re g io n s in c e a n c ie n t tim es.

Even t h o u g h G ilak i sh ares certain aspects of lan ­

guage w ith o t h e r I r a n i a n l i n g u i s t i c g ro u p s , G ila k i s y n ta x i s

most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to th e lan g u ag e s spoken b y p e o p l e who

l i v e on t h e s o u t h e r n s h o r e o f t h e C aspian Sea; shares lex-

 244

ernes r e l a t e d to i t s c u l t u r e and e n v iro n m e n t v i t h t h i s C a s p i­

an language group.

N e v e r t h e le s s , G i l a k i has "autonomy". I t has i t s own

lexicon th a t is e sp e c ially related to the environm ent—

plan ts, a n im a l, and c l i m a t e — d a i l y l i f e , G i l a k i c u i s i n e , an d

household m a t e r ia l s as v eil as i t s o vn s p e c i f i c phonology

a nd s y n t a x vhen compared t o F a r s i and o t h e r I r a n i a n la n g u a g ­

es. To ponomy, p r o f a n i t i e s , o n o m ato p o eia te r m s , and r e d u p l i ­

c a t e d m or phem es a r e 99 p e r c e n t G i l a k i s p e c i f i c and a r e n o t

in tellig ib le to non-G ilaks. Only 4.48 p e r c e n t of G i la k i

v erb s o f e i t h e r a c tio n o r s t a t e of being a re i n t e l l i g i b l e to

non-G ilaks.

G ila k i has i t s own " v i t a l i t y " ; in sp ite of a l l the

changes i t has been th ro u g h , i t i s a l i v i n g language, spoken

b y more t h a n 1.5 m i l l i o n p e o p le i n e v ery d ay s i t u a t i o n s .

From a l l o f t h e e v i d e n c e s p re s e n te d above I s u g g e s t

th a t G ilaki is not sim ply a d i a l e c t o f F a r s i , a s many r e ­

s e a rc h e rs have s a id , r a t h e r along w ith th e C aspian subgroup,

G ilaki s p l i t from a p r o t o - I r a n i a n la n g u a g e . It developed

its ovn s p e c i f i c morphology i n response to i t s ovn s o c i a l

a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d h a s p r e s e r v e d i t s o r i g i n a l com­

mon SO? o r d e r . The " F a r s i z a t i c n " o f G i l a k i b e g a n v h e n G i l a n

l o s t i t s in d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e c e n t r a l government o f I r a n , as

Farsi i t s e l f has been A ra b ic iz e d , G ilaki has follow ed th e

d irectio n F a r s i has tak en fo r change.

 245

For th e in v estig atio n of language change, I have

used t h e methodology o f h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s . For a n aly z­

i n g t h e c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s o f G i l a k i , 1 have used an a n t h r o p o ­

lo g ic a l approach.

Th e G i l a k i l a n g u a g e c h a n g e ma s e z a m i n e d i n tw o d i a m -

eteric dim ensions: 1) h o r i z o n t a l l y o r s y n c h r o n i c a l l y , w h i c h

c o n s id e rs s o c i a l param eters such as s e x , a g e , e d u ca tio n , so­

c ia l class, degree of e t h n i c / n a t i o n a l co n sc io u sn ess, place

o f r e s id e n c e , and m a r ita l s t a t u s ; a n d 2) v e rtic a lly or dia-

chro n ically , which c o n s i d e r s t h e im p a c t s o f d i f f e r e n t fo rm s

o f c o n ta c ts such a s tr a d e , dom ination, ideology (sp iritu al

c o n t a c t ) , and t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t a t t h e tim e o f c h a n g e .

H o r i z o n t a l / s y n c h r o n i c f a c t o r s such a s s e x , a g e, edu­

c a tio n , occupational le v el [so cial c la s s ), m arriage s t a t u s ,

eth n icity , and t h e l e n g t h o f tim e t h e fa m ily r e s id e d o u ts id e

G ilan a r e i n f l u e n t i a l v a r i a b l e s t h a t a f f e c t language change,

but th e degree, stren g th , and i n f l u e n c e o f each v a ria b le

d iffers.
Sex is u sually a m ajor facto r w h ic h correlates

s tr o n g ly w ith language ch an g e. M ales have been c o n s id e r e d

m o re l i n g u i s t i c a l l y con serv ativ e. I t h a s be en sh own t h a t

although fem ale G ilak s resid in g outside G ilan f e e l more

in secu rity , th e p a tte r n of change was n o t c o n s i s t e n t among

them . B a t h e r , a l t h o u g h m i d d l e a g e d women who work i n p u b l i c

 24b

o f f i c e s and hoasevives a r e q u ite conscious of the so cial

stigm a attach ed to G i l a k s and a r e more s e n s itiv e to the

c h a u v in i s tic a t t i t u d e s o f non-G ilaks, t e e n a g e r f e m a l e s mho

o f te n have n e v e r been exposed to th e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y b eh av io r

o f t h e P a r s t o w a r d G i l a k i s p e a k e r s , f o u n d n o p r o b l e m i n com­

m u nicating f r e e l y w ith n o n -G ila k s.

The s e x f a c t o r d o e s n o t c o r r e l a t e t o t a l l y w ith la n ­

guage change f o r G ila k s l i v i n g in G ila n e i t h e r . T h e re were

no d i f f e r e n c e s between male and fem ale language behavior

among t h i s g r o u p . A r e v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n w a s shown among Gi­

l a k s l i v i n g i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s an d t h o s e o f th e low er s o c i a l

c l a s s w h e r e m a l e s h a d more a c c e s s o u t s i d e G i l a n a n d t o u r b a n

areas. T h e y w e r e o f t e n more e d u c a te d and t h e r e f o r e , less

co n se rv a tiv e about change.

Age i s r e c k o n e d as a fa c to r in which o l d e r g e n e r a ­

t i o n s w e r e more c o n s e r v a t i v e ; b u t m i d d l e - a g e d h o u s e w i v e s an d

t e a c h e r s l i v i n g i n T e h ra n were the exceptions to th is ru le .

T he y w e r e e v e n more c a r e fu l to hide or deny t h e i r G ilak

r o o ts in c o n v e rsa tio n w ith o th e r G ilak s.

S o cial class and t h e t y p e o f occupation c o r r e l a t e s

w ith th e la n g u ag e change in t h a t m em be rs o f t h e l o w e r c l a s s

a n d G i l a k s who h e l d m a n u a l o r t e c h n i c a l j o b s w e r e more c o n ­

s e r v a t i v e t h a n G i l a k s who h e l d p u b l i c o f f i c e , teachers, or

w hite c o l l a r w orkers.
 247

I t h a s b e e n shown t h a t a l t h o u g h h i g h l y e d u c a t e d G i­

la k s a r e l e s s c o n s e rv a tiv e tow ards language change, th e p a t ­

t e r n o f change i s n o t c o n s i s t e n t .

P lace of residence i s a m ajor f a c to r in language

change. Sot o n ly have G ila k s who l i v e i n T e h ra n changed

lin g u istically , th e y have developed d i f f e r e n t view s o f t h e i r

own l a n g u a g e a n d n a t i o n a l i t y . A l l o f t h o s e who l i v e i n G i­

la n co nsider G ila k i to be a language s e p a r a te from F a r s i ,

but only 38.4 p e r c e n t o f th e G i l a k i n f o r m a n t s who l i v e in

Tehran b e lie v e d t h a t G ilak i i s a s e p a ra te language.

G ilaks liv in g in G i l a n h a v e no f e e l i n g o f shame o r

h u m i l i a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r own l a n g u a g e , because th e y have not

e x p e r ie n c e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n from n o n -G ila k s . T h e re f o re , they

a r e n o t under s t r o n g s o c i a l p r e s s u r e f o r l i n g u i s t i c conform­

ity to F a rs i.

The l e n g t h of tim e a G ilak fa m ily has r e s id e d in

Tehran c o r r e l a t e s w ith change; t h e l o n g e r t h e y l i v e d i n Teh­

ran, t h e m ore c h a n g e was e v i d e n t ; th e second g e n e ra tio n of

G ilak im m ig ran ts d id not even sp eak G i l a k i .

M arital s ta tu s i s another fa c to r th a t accounts for

change. G ilaks who h a v e m arried non -G ilak s have changed

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y more t h a n t h o s e m a r r i e d t o G i l a k s .

Another f a c t o r t h a t has t o be c o n s i d e r e d in an as­

sessm ent o f th e G ila k i language change i s th at, u n lik e other

 248

n atio n al m in o ritie s, G ila k s have been most c o n c e rn e d a b o u t

th e ir so cial and economic r i g h t s r a th e r than c u l t u r a l and

l i n g u i s t i c r i g h t s i n t h e i r u p r i s i n g s a g a i n s t th e governm ents

of Iran.

E t h n i c i t y i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c to r o f change in

G ilaki. An a n a l y s i s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t o f t h e r e g i o n

a t tim es of ra p id F a r s i z a t i o n of G ilak i in d ic a te s t h a t , no

m a t t e r who h e l d p o w e r , t h e I r a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a s a b s o l u t e l y

re fu s e d to recognize the e x is te n c e of the non-F ars n a tio n a l­

itie s. T h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m and n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s have

encouraged chauvinism , a d i v i d e and co n q u er m e n t a l i t y , and

cosm opolitanism . The t h e o r e t i c a l underpinnings of these

v a r i o u s forms o f o p p r e s s io n have been t o decompose and t o

n eu tralize the b asic com ponents of such n atio n alities.

There a r e other m in o ritie s i n I r a n who h a v e s u f f e r e d from

p h y sic a l oppression, displacem ent, and a d e n i a l of t h e i r

h i s t o r i c a l background, a s w ell a s l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l

discrim in atio n ; bu t G i l a k s have been t h e t a r g e t o f c u l t u r a l

deg rad atio n , lin g u is tic d iscrim in a tio n , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l

hum iliation. The im p act o f t h e s e p o l i c i e s h a s b e e n sh ow n i n

th e "stigm atized" values a tta ch e d to the stereotyped fea­

t u r e s w hic h have p la y ed t h e major r o l e i n language change

among G i l a k s .
 249

D ia c h r o D i c a l l y G i l a k i h a s u n d ergone phonemic, leaem -

ic, and gram m atical changes in response to c o n t a c t s w ith

s p e a k e r s o f v a r i o u s l i n g u i s t i c c o m m u n i t i e s a s w e l l a s by t h e

n a tu r a l p ro cesses of i n t e r n a l change.

Trade has c o n trib u te d g r e a t l y t o th e G ila k i le x ic o n ,

but id eo lo g ical f a c t o r s have p la y ed a sig n ifican t ro le in

a l t e r i n g th e use o f t i t l e s and p e r s o n a l nam es. Th e d o m i n a ­

t i o n by F a r s governm ents and th e l o s s o f in d e p e n d e n c e have

caused a F a rs iz a tio n o f G ilan.

In s p i t e of a l l th e c o n t a c t s and e x p o s u r e s t o v a r i ­

ous languages inclu d in g th e s o c ia l p re ssu re f o r conform ity

to F arsi, G i l a k i has rem ained c o n s e r v a t i v e i n many a r e a s —

p h o n o lo g y , m orphology, and s y n t a x . G ila k i has r e t a i n e d i t s

own l e x i c o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t p a r t r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r a l a n d

c u l t u r a l environm ent o f G ila n , and i t s s y n ta x showing t h a t

t h o s e two a s p e c t s of G i l a k i a r e t h e m ost s t a b l e .

One o t h e r f i n d i n g of t h i s study is th at the a n t i ­

w e s t e r n t h r u s t o f t h e 19 79 r e v o l u t i o n h a s c r e a t e d a s e n s e o f

rev italizatio n in n a tio n a l consciousness and trad itio n al

c u l t u r a l b e h a v i o r , g e n e r a l l y i n I r a n and s p e c i f i c a l l y i n Gi­

lan . This n a tio n a l r e v i t a l i z a t i o n has helped th e G ila k s to

r e s t o r e t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m and prom ote n a t i o n a l p r i d e .

To sum u p , I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l make-up

or self-esteem o f any e t h n i c g ro u p is a cru cial fa c to r in

 2 5 ü

the p reserv atio n of lin g u is tic in teg rity ; a dem oralization

in the p sy ch o lo g ica l make op o f any e t h n i c g r o u p may c a u s e

the e x tin c tio n of its language j u s t a s a r e v ita liz a tio n of

e t h n i c p r i d e may h e l p t o r e s t o r e the v ia b ility of t h a t lan­

guage.

9 .1 I9 P L IC IT I0 B S

Is v ith many o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c e n d e a v o r s # t h e m o t i v a ­

t i o n f o r t h i s p r o j e c t l i e s i n a hope t o b e n e f i t mankind. By

q u e st has been t o u n d e r s ta n d G ila k s and t o h e l p o t h e r s un­

d e r s ta n d them . By d o i n g s o I d e s ir e to h e lp e lim in a te the

many p r o b l e m s f a c e d by G i l a k s t h a t h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y a mi­

sin terp retatio n of th e ir so cial a nd c u l t u r a l b e h a v i o r . It

is ly in ten tio n th a t t h i s study m ill have both p r a c t i c a l

b e n e f i t s f o r G i l a k s and t h e o r e t i c a l o n e s f o r o t h e r s c h o l a r s .

P ractically # c h a p t e r s h a nd 5 may b e u s e d a s a t e x t ­

boo k f o r t h e G i l a k i g r a m m a r . As s t a t e d a b o v e # none o f th e

p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t i n g s o u r c e s on G i l a k i i s a c o m p le te and a c ­

cu rate d escrip tiv e a n aly sis. These c h a p t e r s can be f a r t h e r

used in l e x i c o g r a p h i c a l u orks as a d i c t i o n a r y . As p r e v i o u s ­

ly m entioned# learn in g one European la n g u a g e vas a high

school requirem ent in Ir a n . As a t e a c h e r # I am v e i l a v a r e

of the s p e c i a l problem s o f s t u d e n t s vho b e lo n g to various

lin g u istic m i n o r i t i e s , a n d a s a Kurd# I have p e rs o n a lly ex-

 251

perieoced th e d ifficu lty of learning a th ird language, a

d i f f i c u l t y compounded by l a c k o f adequate resources. In

high sch o o l, in o rd e r t o le a r n English I had t o t r a n s l a t e

e a c h term from E n g l i s h t o F a r s i and t h e n f i n d t h e e q u i v a l e n t

term in K urdi. Ill too o fte n I mas u n a b l e t o f i n d a n a c c u ­

r a te eq uivalent. Therefore, I hope t h e s e c t i o n s of t h i s

s tu d y v h ic h c o n t a i n G i l a k i - E n g l i s h lexem es m ill h elp s i m p l i ­

f y t h e t e d i o u s c h o r e f o r G i l a k s mho a r e l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h .

On a more p o l i t i c a l l e v e l , I mould h o p e t h a t I r a n i a n

p o l i c y m a k e r s f o r l a n g u a g e a n d e d u c a t i o n m o ul d h e e d t h e f o l ­

l o w i n g r e s p o n s e s t o my q u e s t i o n : "Hom do y o u f e e l when you

speak G ilaki?" The f o l l o w i n g are rep resentative answ ers:

"I feel fin e": " I hav e good f e e l i n g s " ; " I f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e " ;

"I feel I am m y s e l f " ; " I f e e l re la x e d and fin e"; "I feel

f r e e fr om p r e s s u r e " ; " I f e e l more a t e a s e b e c a u s e I c a n e x ­

p re s s m yself w e ll" ; " I am n o t o b l i g a t e d t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s

made by F a rsi." "I f e e l m yself a n d am p e a c e f u l " ; " I am

free from p r e s s u r e and hypocrisy c o n v e n tio n a lly used by

F ars." p e r h a p s t h e b e s t summary o f a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d i m p o s i ­

t i o n of F a r s i and d e n i a l of n a ti v e tongue i s t h e s t a t e m e n t :

"O ther p e o p l e 's lan g u ag e i s o th e r p e o p le 's lang u ag e". Farsi

f o r G ila k s and other n a tio n a l m in o rities in Iran is "other

p e o p l e 's language" and a t h r e a t to e t h n i c / c u l t u r a l id en tity .

 252

F in ally , I b e lie v e th e t h e o r e t i c a l approach to t h i s

study, a h o l i s t i c look a t l i n g u i s t i c c h an g e v i l l be a con ­

t r i b u tio n to the s tu d y o f a n t h r o p o l o g y and lin g u istics and

may s e r v e a s a m od e l f o r t h e s t u d y o f c h a n g e i n t h e l a n g u a g ­

es of other Ira n ia n n a tio n a litie s .

 Ippeadiz A

CLOITOCBBOMOLOSI OF GILAKI IITB DTBEB IBillAS

LAV60AG2S

S & g lis b G i l a k i B a x a n d a ra n i K urdi F a rsi

»
m ig h t U b sa MMJt iacb'

hot dal dm daz daT

c o ld sard s » r d /b e £ a s a r d /c m y g soird

fa ll par por por

mem t a z » /m o an ta z > /o » e tm z d /n o

good s&b sa r z A s /b a £ sab

roomd g » rd gcrd grd gerd

dry h /zo A k zosk b e s k /v S k zosk

name mam mam aa« mam

sta n d b tssa n •sey k e r d a tn /b fsa n « is ta n / ista d c n ( in t .)
- iSid n - v essa n ista n d m n (Ir a n )
g iv e fa d â a n d e n n i/b K d e dan da den

»*7 b n g n f t m/bn g o t m b oD tzn M a tin g o tte n

a /b c z h rf-% d n
man m fta b m fta b bxiaM m ftab
man s o r ( O .C .) —- ZMKortaa r o r (Old F .)
mum x & r£ id z s r s id r G j la r /r o I j m r z o r s id
moon m ^ g (O .C .) aa/m ab ma/mab sa b
“ J?
sta r s& ta r ) se ta r e b K sarx. se ta r e

« w /a b mu/a •a mb
■a t e r
« ' b a r a n /a a r a n ba r a n /b a r id*Ji
r a in b a r m s/ e a r e s /T a r t n

^ * a a r is ta n io . c .) - - -
 2 5 4

war am* { 0 . 6 . } - - -
sto o e s t ij g « a jg b a r d /k S c tk •x n g
sa n d z a im t/r ig / rex r z r ig /n a s s e

- fm r s a k b ld t/ - - sen
- fn ré s a l -t - - -
c lo u d *br «hr hatar aabr

•■ L th za m in M a in za w i ZKmio

fir e a ta s t* s a g tr /a w m r / a z iK /a t Z s
- - - ah r ( o ld P a r s i )
a sb z a k a sta r k a le h /z a k s s ta c x b U l/s u t e k k ak est r
b ars b s o z ta n b s n ta n m u tian suztm n
- s u 5 a n a t a ( t r a n .) s n t a n e n ( t r a n .l su z a n e n -
- - - s u t a n e n ( t r a a .) so z a n d n
p a th Ï .d d ) / r a 5 a d » /r a h j e l3 /r t .y a 5adde
m ou n tain küh kuh k e f/s a z kuh
red sû rz sa rz s u r /a l sorz
green L 9 t2 sab z mowz s»b z
y e llo v zard zard zaerd zzrd
w h it e s tp id / • p e /is p e sp i s e fid /s e p id
- s fid esp l c z r a u /c Z r m eg -
b la c k s ia /s ia h s ia h res s ia h /a e s k i
- - - b z lw t/g a n u s i

e a tin g zûrd )n /bôzÜ F d*m bn rd aa zvarden zordan

b itin g g a z g ita n / g a z h ejtx n gacpgerten -

- g i f ta n - - g a z g e r e ftz n

- g a sta n - g a c s ia / -

- g a z z iv n - •a p ssd a tn g » 2 id * 5

- - - é e z in a is z x d z n

see d i:n h a d it n d iin d id C D /n egah k erd en

- fa n d sr a sta n - ia v p c k z fte n -
 2 5 5

& e«r isB » T » st» B / fS tO B i/ la a e ftS B stm id sn

bilB9TaSt»B bestr.seB ieaCziB

sle e p z o ftS B / b5zatas z /te n
z a b id C B (ia tr)

- bSxaftSa zab ao id X o (ira n s)

b & z 6 sa B i.B ( t r a B . ) ssfaaeB

(tra a s .)

2 ie a^s3r& »B / byaaerdaa • trdn sordafn/Bxrg

bamardaB :g s ir
a i r SKTg

to p iin (fo r

BBlmals)

tO B g ae xsbaB sebB B XV a n zZban

d rin k daaadas zw ardeB B fflid z n /a sa a id Jtn

- zo rd sn zanrdXB b X Ig o raaen

baelaaSiB

B O sin

b ir d parandd prmd pZlxrdr p g ra n d e /b a ld a r

s o r f
■aci
b a ld a r

dog SOT/ «g sag /

Mg
- sakad s e p lo t
lo o se sa b 95/ sp ic sp i
V
sepes
V

s a b a 5 k e /-

f i f S d ( b ig l o o s e )

tr e e dar dar dar 3 e r « t/d a r

dr at ( o ld P a r s i)
seed IbxtB ____ te s /tu ne
le a f T ilg (o .C .)/b a lg batrg g a rla /b x lg . b xrg
ro o t b iz rd sB /b tz / r i s e / b i x / t bar
b e m /b e n J
 256

bark d a rsp n st d arep ast p o s A o k c l/ p a s t/p a s te d erx zt

- - to k -

s k ia p ost p d s /p o s p o st.
fle s h g a s t/3 a a /g n s t tX a e g n s t g o it/z a c w a g a s t /g o s t c bcdca

b lo o d z n n /h a n zsa z v c a /h o a zua
booe zas •ste z n n ^ la /p e la n /
o stc z a a
- - - segaa -

- - - csza a

g rea se - é a x b i/r a T n n e»vri carbi

•9 9 aoryana azrT ae/ h ilk a /y ilk a t o z a e m o r f /t o z a

- - a%rTna3 -
«
bom sa z s a z /k o l la z /k « l la z
ta il dna d ea d u ck » doa
h a ir an ae q e z (a n )/a e an
head sa r /k n iia s» r s o r /k a la s s r /k x lle
fe a th e r par PStt p ar p ar
I aan sen sea aan
yon ttt/s ia i/s ia e to /s o a a tO /£ T 9 /iZ S to /so m a
ve aaA »aa la y ta a e aa
th is h a a /» n /h la ta K tX in
th a t n n /h u n /o n a ta «JE aa
vho ki ki k î/c

sh a t ci c i/c ic i CK (i
aot o is n /a ia /B ai
n is t
a ll h a a a e ta a hnaaa g îs t/b a a u b a a a e /h a a e g i
- - - ts& e i B ÿaegan
one i:ta /i: 3 tta /e ttd y a k /d a n e k y e k /y e k t a
tw o dn d e ta d n /d n a a do
big p illP /p il5 gat g a s r s /z e l b o zo rg
■ r
 2 5 7

le e g aerax g a t/d e r a z ir e i deraz

« « a ll k o c t/k u c i k u c ik bncek/ k a é e k /k e h

_ - - b a ek sla n a c k n ê a lu

- - - ckoimch

«an « 3 r d a y /« 3 r a a k m ard i p ia e /p ia g «KTd

«oaan z a s a y /z x a a k zcno iln zmn

fis h « a ii/« a b i «afci «a si «ahi

p e r so n k a s /a * fa r k«E5/ta kxs k jc s /n x fa r /â iz s
many p u r /£ Z r a ta n cvad ta f e r s /fx r a w a a fm r a w a n /b is
- x e y li - zor z e y li/z ia d /b e s y a r
b reast 5i5i m eakayazm cK p e s ta n
know dan» S ta n tgadunestKn z a a in d a n e s ta n
k ill fca stx n bèékast a k o z y a n /k o s t ia k o s t e n /k o s t e s o d e n
- - — m eranca ■ i;

s v ia sin a a b k n d x n s e n o /s n u /h a s a n u « m lc k e r te n s e a a k r d a /s e n a
- - - aw bazi senaw r i a b b a z i

p a r » g ifta n / p a n t h iu tn balZw g e r t e a p » r id « n /p * r w a z
fly
- - fr r in k cr d a c

w alk g a rd a S ts a / gaccdeSakerdam g a s t/g s r y a n g z d a s zedaji

- £ > rz a st> n ra b o rd e n - g in s t /g « r a e s /g ïs t * « n

co«e anon b i« a $ n /b e r u ha te n aazdan

lie T o r a b /d ô r ô ? d r3 ? d e r ô /d s la s » dorât

s it a is ta n h % sin /h e n istS D d a n ia n /d a n is t e n n e s z s tx n /n e ^ a c d « n

ear gas gas gw eckV gw e gas

eye c a « /c a s « ca« c a w /c z « /d id x c e s a /d id S h

« ose f i n i [Old G i l a k i ) deaa? lu t/d z a a x / b in i/d z n a T

a «a - b ern a -
 256

■OBth K»pS/d9k»B 4 « h a a /k c ta r d & h O B /d jth B B

to o th gm z dCBdOD Id a n /d ia B /d g m B d u d an

c la v é û ^ la s/c ttjg lQ S c^gli/ ^0 cK^g/p«n5“1

ca^gal czj;glibrzBe
fo o t pa li ^ g p a /p e pa
kBee ZBBl zana z ran i xanu

hand d9s dKSt dzs d *st

b e lly sd k a a e&kzm se k /se k / SekiEa

BLSbLB
neck qardsvB gacrdKB • e l / ’ gacdam ggr&tB
h e a rt d il/ja n d el d e l/g ia n
Jeÿ cr/jeg zr s ia
liv e r 3agB r 5 ig » r •iujgzr/ ktbed 'Arabic)
sa fg zr
 Ippecâiz B

SORTBTS

l a f o r s a a t s S«> *ça Laaal o f B d acatioa OceapatiOB Tears llv im g l a Gilan Bos l i v i n g in

1 B 30-ao 6th grade s e c u r it y sea born and liv e d in Gilan G ilan

2 R a o -5 0 6ta grade farm er bora and liv e d la Gilan G ilan

3 r aadar 20 Bigk s c k o o l s ta d e n t b om and liv e d in Gilan Gilan
a r BBder 20 kigk sc k o o l s ta d e a t bom and liv e d in Gilan G ilan
5 T aadar 20 k igb sc h o o l stu d e n t bom and l iv e d In Gilan G ilan

6 r aadar 20 kigh sc h o o l stu d en t born and liv e d in Gilan G ilan

T T ao-50 11th grade k o a s e a if c bam and liv e d in Gilan Gilan
8 B 30-ao 11th grade company bom and liv e d in G ilan G ilan
- - - sto ra g e man - -

9 B 20-30 k igh sc h o o l grad aate anaaployed born and liv e d in G ilan G ilan

10 n ao-50 k igh sc h o o l diploaa r e t ir e d bom and liv e d in Gilan Gilan

11 r ao-50 h igh sc h o o l diploma k o a s e v if e 6 Tehran

12 r ao-50 k igh sc h o o l te a c k e r 9 Tehran

13 R 50-60 2ad grade so r k e r at a 20 Tehran

- - - d ress making - -
- - - f a c to r y - -

la T ao-50 6th grade k o u s e a ife 25 Tehran

15 B ao-50 5 tk grade ta ilo r 12 Tehran

16 T 20-30 high sc k o o l grad aate amemployed - Tehran

17 T 20-30 k igh sc h o o l gradaate am eaployed bom and liv e d in G ilan G ilan
18 r ander 20 high sc h o o l stu d e n t bom and liv e d in Gilan G ilan
19 B ao-50 high sc h o o l d ip lo a a r e ir e d bom and liv e d in Gilan G ilan
- - - - ek -g o * ern a ea t - -
- - - - em ployee bom end liv e d in C il»u G ilan
20 a 30-ao high sc h o o l company -
- - - - em ployee born and liv e d in Gilan G ilan
21 a 20-30 kigh sc h o o l c a ca p lo y ed 21 Tehran
22 r ao-50 kigh sc h o o l d ip loaa k o asev ife 20 Tehran
 260

23 r 5 0 -6 0 kigfa sc h o o l B ip le sa r s t ir o d -
15 Tehran
- - - - ta a eh a r
2# B 5 0 -6 0 «th gcaSc c o a s tr a c t io s -
19 Tehran
- - - - co s tr a c to r
20 Tehran
25 B 2 0 -3 0 high sc h o o l s ta d e a t
12 Tehran
26 T « 0-50 h igh sc h o o l h o e a e a ife
20 Tehran
27 8 • 0 -5 0 6 th grodo shop keeper
20 Tehran
2B a 5 0 -6 0 3rd grad* •a c k e r
10 Tehran
29 r « 0-50 h igh sc h o o l diploma te a c h e r
18 Tehran
90 r « 0 -5 0 h igh s c h o o l diploma h o a s e a ife
19 Tehran
31 r 5 0 -6 0 h igh sc h o o l s ta d e a t
25 Tehran
32 B 20-3 0 e o llo g * s ta d e a t

33 T « 0 -5 0 6 th grade h o a a e e ife -
20 Tehran
36 t 2 0-30 c o lls g * sta d e a t

35 r « 0 -5 0 11th grade h o a a e e ife bora sad liv e d la C ilaa C ila t

36 T « 0 -5 0 6 th grade h o a s e a if e bora sad liv e d l a S ila a C ilan
37 B «0-50 h igh ach ool r e t ir e d - -
- - - - govera a ea t - -
- - - - em ployee bora sad liv e d in C ilaa C ilan
3R a « 0 -5 0 high sc h o o l r e t ir e d - -
- - - - te a c h e r bora aad liv e d la C ilaa C ila a
39 B 20-30 h igh sc h o o l d ip lo a a maealpoyed
•0 B 30-«0 3rd grade coapaay bora sad liv e d i a C ila a C ilan
- - - - em ployee - -
«1 f «0-50 3rd grade h o a s e a ife bora aad liv e d in C ila a C ilan
«2 r «na#r 20 high sc h o o l s ta d e a t bora aad liv e d ia C ilaa C ilan
•3 B 30-«0 6 t h grade • orker bora aad liv e d in C ilan C ilan
•« a « 0 -5 0 • th grade farmer bora and liv e d in C ilan C ilan
•5 a 20-30 h igh sc h o o l aaeap loyed bora aad liv e d in C ila a C ilaa
«6 B 30-«0 high sc h o o l goT craaeat bora aad liv e d in C ilan C ilan
- - - - em ployee - -
•7 r 5 0 -6 0 2nd grade h o a s e a if e bora aad liv e d in C ilan C ilan
 A ppendix C

1982 I R E B V I B I QOESTIOllAIBE

sex: Female Hale

Age: 50-70 60-50 50-*0_ 40-30 30-20 Under

20_ _

B i r t h p l a c e : __

E d u c a t i o n : __

O c c u p a t i o n : __

Fam ily Annual Income: Very high H i g h __ H iddle.

low V e ry l o w __

B irth p lace o f P aren ts: Father_ B o t h e r __

E d u c a t i o n o f P a r e n t s : ____F a t h e r _ B o t h e r __

occupation o f P a re n ts : Father, B o t h e r __

T ears liv e d in G ilan: _________ and what p e rio d o f t h e i r

liv es: ——

N atio n ality o f P arents: Father B o t h e r __

In « h a t la n g u a g e do your p a r e n t s com m unicate « i t h each o th ­

er: w ith you: w ith o th ers:

B irth p lace of grandparents: H aternal

G randm other: ___ ______ B aternal g randfather:

 262

P atern al grandfather: P aternal Grandm other:

N a tio n a lity o f G randparents:

B aternal G randfather: _____________ B a t e r n a l Grandm other:

____ P a t e r n a l G randfather: P aternal

G randm other: _____________

B irth p la c e o f Spoose:

E d u c a tio n o f Spouse:

O ccupation o f Spouse:

N a tio n a lity o f Spouse: G ilak Non-G ilak ______

T ears liv e d in G ilan : and what p e r io d o f l i f e :

In what la n g u a g e dose your spouse com m unicate w ith you?

C hildren: Son Age/Ages D aughter A g e /A g es

B irthplace of ch ild ren :

E ducation o f c h ild r e n :

I n what l a n g u a g e do you com m unincate w ith your children?

Do you C o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f a G i l a k ? Tes No O ther na­

t i o n a l i t y _____________

Tears liv ed in G ilan: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ T e h r a n ________________ a n d

w h a t p e r i o d o f y o u r l i f e _____________

O t h e r p l a c e s l i v e d a n d how l o n g : _______________
 2 6 3

Ire you a b ilin g u al (do yopu speak G ilaki and Farsi

flu en tly )? T e s __ Mo E x p l a i n whichone i s e a s i e r f o r

you?

I n w h a t o t h e r o c c a s i o n s o t h e r t h a n a b o v e do you s p e a k G i l a k i

___________ a n d t o whom______________________

Is G ilaki a language a d ialect of F arsi ________

I e i t h e r _______

How do you f e e l when you s p e a k G i l a k i ?

Do you f e e l a n y s h a m e when you speak G i l a k i in t h e p r e s e n c e

o f n o n - G i l a k s ______ E a r s _______

Do you f e e l a n y c h a n g e i n your f e e l i n g tow ards G ila k i a f t e r

the 1979 revolution? Tes _____ Ho Please explain

What l a n g u a g e do you u s e when you a r e th in k in g ? F a r s i ___

G i l a k i ___ O t h e r s ______

When y o u a r e i n a s t a t e o f a n g e r o r l o o s e y o u r t e m p e r , what

l a n g u a g e do you u s e t o i n s u l t t h e o t h e r p a r t y ?

I n what l a n g u a g e do j o k e s , p r o v e r b s , a n d a n e c d o t e s a r e more

m e a n in g fu l t o you? F arsi G i l a k i _____ O t h e r s ______

What language do you use f o r m athem atics and calculus?

F arsi G ilak i O t h e r s _____ ______

 ip p e n d iz 0

TAIZS

ita a d » a zab b i d i i : n a f s r k»r< ana p a l l s i a fadand

>rt. an9a f a ^ g i f t i bügliti n? a a n p u l l ttla ya n u f r a zay@m.

b a zin k i ez zab z i r i z < b a f a a a s t a k i zkb b i d l bu d a v a r d a z a c i

b 3 i a b b i z i zu Humana d a b a s t a zu d a s t a m d i r a z a knd hey bu-

gath aan u p a l l s i a y a zayaa# 3 mA h » r 5 i b û g û f t i d i n a az a z a

b a r ! bu n a a z a p u l . z u ria fsu s zurdi k i 5 i n a p u l i s i a y a ba

ca^gada.

A man h a d a d r e a m , i n w h i c h s o m e b o d y w a s g i v i n g him

s o m e c h a n g e money, a n d h e r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t i t . R a t h e r , he

was a s k i n g f o r s i l v e r o r g o l d money. I h e n he woke up a nd

realized t h a t he had b een dream ing, he closed h is eyes

ag ain , stre tc h e d his hands, and p r e t e n d e d h e w a s a s l e e p an d

said , I a c c e p t t h a t c h a n g e mon ey , b a t t h e r e was no money and

no dream. He r e g r e t e d t h a t h e h a d g i v e n up t h e c h a n g e mon­

ey.

II
( , y
d uta zanay i t a z a a k o s e r dev d astid i. mn g u f t i z ay

nisina un g u f t i z a y m i s i n a . d u ta zeuay sa h id am n a ë t i d i .
\
 265

bil3 z9c* busaidi Tazi zaxr»ta bidiaid Tazi ci g&. Vazi vbzti

$san3 gebaae bisn^vastt )@lladbbuguft» ki; zlakzda nimakun,

i tikz fadan 3 zaaaj u tikam fad»a nyta zsoay. ita ez a z>

oakan ki » gap^ bi^oavasta tarn ktft, 3 ma ayta Z3aay blaa gaid

g3ry zari g/kad3n ki 37 ata tar# bazuda zaakd vanavia.

agrar ti huka baa? man zay amzaa. %azi btfaaast» ki zay b»a

aaard siiQ. zaaks f3 da ham?, ayta zaazka ^»nta nfaaci bizt

a aakaad 5^ birnna kud.

Two women were gaarrelling over the castody of a

child. Each claimed the child to be hers, bat there were no

witnesses. Finally they went to the jndge's hoase to see

what he would suggest. then the judge had heard thee, he

sailed the executioner and ordered "cut the child in two

halves and give each woman a half." ihen she heard the

judge's order one of the women started crying and shouted to

the judge "if this is your judgement, then I do not want the

child." The judge, realizing that she was the child's real

mother, gave the child to her. The judge then had the other

woman lashed and kicked out of the court.

I ll

ita z3nay v ita m 3 r d a y h a m d i g a r a h9mr# a S t f - - a o s u î

b id. marday v a g a r d a s ta z^naks b u g u t ? k i man z a y e a b t s a n s a f a

r. cun t t r c z e y l i d u s d a r a m t u t i e g g u s t a r ? f a dan m a r t t a ha

r v a x t aart a ^ g u s t e r a n i g a bukunem t a r d bnyad b â a r a a . zanay

 266

V f
v a g a rd g st) bggat k i , ag ago t » r v gjpgustdc faandem, ta tu kg
r Tgzt t i g ^ g u stg niga bukuni v» b i d i a i gj^gustar n»naa bgyadt

xB d g k s fi k i tu mgrtgg^guStbr b g z a s t i r a man t g r i fa a g d a .m •
A woman a n d a mao l o w e d e a c h o t h e r . Th e man t o l d

t h e woman t h a t h e was g o i n g t o t a k e a t r i p , a n d h e s a i d " b e ­

cause I love 7 0 s v e r y much, you g i v e me a rin g so t h a t

everytim e I look a t th e rin g I w i l l remember y o u . " The wo­

man t u r n e d a n d s a i d , "no I w i l l not g i v e y ou a rin g so th a t

e v e r y t i m e t h a t you l o o k a t y o u r f i n g e r and do n o t s e e i t you

c a n remember t h a t yo u a s k e d f o r a r in g and t h r t I did not

g i v e you o n e . "

IV

i:ta duz Sdh buso i z n g f » r g zan g . hgrci vamozt*

h i c c i peyda nukudg. sabzang b i d a r o - b o s t g d u z d g b u g u f t g ey

b a r a r J a n mgn r u z t r o s e s mi z a n ? d u r u n h e r c i VA megem h i c o i

p e y d a nukungm t u %to z a y i t a r i k g s a b i c c i p e y d a k u n i b b a r i ?

One night a th ief enterred a m an 's house. 3e

sea rc h e d everyw here b ut could n o t f in d a n y th in g . The ow ne r

o f . t h e h o u s e woke up a n d s a i d t o the th ief, "hey b r o t h e r , I

c a n n o t f i n d a n y t h i n g i n my h o u s e i n d a y l i g h t , how d o you e z -

p e c t to f in d a n y th in g to take in the dark n ig h t? "

 2 6 7

i:ta ad9m3 p al dpkaft ba ab3 a ija n . a zu d?s com a

faru b u g /k ad d ab d docaa, hey vam B xti ta b » lk i pal bic9sp 9

cab S9I9 T9 zu p u lp b iru D b avrf. 9D9 dus vagerdasta ana bii-

g at ; rey 3 ^9b z a ri isi. ta hassa b ed tiy ita Siz hosk ita

hoskl dxg»ra b » casp t? ta a T c r zaiy p u la b aari 3 % &b b iru n ,

v a si f i l l ! T asin i caba sard# ta pul ba& aspa cuba sar # an Taz

pal9 baary a z ab biru n .

i m a n 's money h a d f a l l e n i n t o the w ater. P utting

h is cane in to th e w ater, he searched f o r t h e money m e a n i n g

for i t to s tic k to the cane. His f r i e n d looked a t him a n d

said , " b o y how s t u p i d y ou a r e . Ha ze you ewer s e e n any dry

th in g s tic k to a n o th er dry o b je c t. I f y ou i n t e n d t o b r i n g

y o u r money o u t o f t h e w a t e r , you s h o u l d r u b t h e s t i c k w ith

w a t e r s o t h a t t h e w e t money w i l l a d h e r e t o i t , a n d t h e n you

c a n b r i n g y o u r money o u t o f t h e w a t e r . "

71

ita p i r @ m a r d a y z o r t n i s t e bu a f o z d a r p J i r . ip ce a

ta ra fte r ita h i n d a v a n a baT n g h a b n . ^snta p llI3 p lll9 handn

Tanam b i c e b i d bans b id b a r s kanar. p ira m a r d a y z5 r& x 5 r 6

g u f t i zudagam t i (Udr9 t 9 T u r b a n -» - p l l l S y g i h i n d a v a n a a b a r

i k a z a l T9 a a T o z d a r s b s a b u l a n d i x a l T b u g / k u d i . hatoki z o rt

z i y a l gudandtbu i t a a?oz d a r a s a r a f i r b a k a t a b u i u r d a p f r a ma

rdakakalia b i s k a n t h u n bamo. p i r a m a r d a y du d a s t a k i b i g i t a x Q

k91ia, buguta x u d a ja n a g a r a t i hindavanan buxurdabu tik alls

a i a n mi maüTz p a x t - a - b o s t a bu z a m i n sark i.
 2 6 6

An o l d man v a s s i t t i n g n n d e r a w alnut t r e e . A few

s t e p s f u r t h e r on t h e r e wa s a w aterm elon g ard e n . Some v e r y

b ig w a term elo n s had b e e n p i c k e d up e n d w e r e s t a c k e d by t h e

g a rd e n 's s id e . T alking t o h im se lf, t h e o l d man s a i d : "oh

d e a r God I am i m p r e s s e d by y o u r p o w e r ; you h a v e c r e a t e d s u c h

a big w a t e r m e l o n on such a narrow b ra n c h and th is little

w a l n u t on s u c h a t a l l t r e e . " S h i l e h e was t h i n k i n g , a w a l­

n u t f e l l on h i s h e a d f r o m t h e to p of th e t r e e . I t h it the

old m a n 's head so hard t h a t i t s ta r te d bleeding. Keeping

h i s h a n d on h i s h e a d , he s a i d : "Oh d e a r S o d , i f o n e o f y o u r

w a t e r m e l o n s h a d s t r u c k me r a t h e r than t h i s w a ln u t, my h e e d

w o u ld now b e i n p i e c e s on t h e g r o u n d . "
 BIBLIO C BA PBT

l l e z e y e v , T .P . "Bodes o f P a c e F o r m a tio n and G eography o f

G e n e s." I n P a c e s and P e o p l e s : C ontem porary E t h n i c and
R a c i a l P ro b le m s , e d i t e d by S .T . K ozlov. Boscov:
P ro g ress P u b li s h e r s , 1977.

A por, Eva. " G i l a n i c a : L a n g e r u d i." A cta O r i e n t a l i a

A c a d e m i a e S c i e n t i a r a m H o n q a r i c a e . XXVII ( 3 ) , 1973:
351-372.

A fsar, I r a j . A h a n g h a - v e ma ha l i - v e G i l a n . [1338) T e h r a n :
E d a r e - y e h o n a r h a - y e z i b a - y e k e s v a r , 19 5 9 .

B a r t o l e d , B. B. I s t o r i i P ersodeskova Eposa. n . p . , 1915.

B e l l , R o g er T. S o cio lin g u istics. Hev Y o rk : S t . B eirtin*s

P r e s s , 1976.

B e r e s i n e , I . H. R e c h e r c h e s S u r l e s D i a l e c t e s P e r s a n s .
Casan: 18 5 3 .

B lo o m fie ld , Leonard. Language. Rev Y ork : Henry B o l t ,

1933.

Boas, F ran z. T h e H a nd book o f A m e r i c a n I n d i a n L a n g u a g e s .

Bureau o f American E t h n o lo g y , B u l l e t i n 4 0 , P a r t I .
W ashington B .C .: S m ith s o n ia n I n s t i t u t e , 1911.

R ac e , Language and C u l t u r e . Rev y o r k : Free

Press, 1940.

B r o m l e y , Y. V. Races and P e o p l e s : C o n t e m p o r a r y E t h n i c and

R a c ia l Problem s. E d i t e d b y S . Y. K o z l o v a n d I . B.
G rigulevich. Boscov: P r o g r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , 1974.

B r o v n , E d v a r d G. i. Y e a r Amo ngs t t h e P e r s i a n . London; A.

a n d C. B l a c k , 1 8 9 3 .

B u r lin g , Robbins. Ma n ' s Many V o i c e s : L a n g u a g e i n i t s

C u ltu ra l C ontext. Rev Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t and
W instons, in c . 1970.
 270

Bynon, T h e o d o ra . H is t o r i c a l l i o q g i s t i c s . Cambridge:
Cam bridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977.

Chodzko, A le x a n d e r. Specim ens the P o p ular P oetry of

P ersia. London: H a r r i s o n and C o . , 1842.

C h riste n se n , A rthur. C ontributions & la D ialecto lo g ie

Iran ien n e. Kobenhavn: B ia n c o L nnos B o g t r y k k e r i A/S,
1930.

C o x , O l i v e r C. C a s t e . C l a s s and B a c e ; 1 Studv in S o c i a l
D ynamics. G a r d e n C i t y , Hew J e r s e y : D oubleday, 1948.

D i a k u n o v , E. a . I s t o r i i B iddi. B. L . , 1956.

D o r n , B. " C a s p i a : Ober K ie E i n f a l l e d e r a l t e n B ussen i n

T ab aristan ." z a o i s k i im p . A k a d e m i i H a u k . S e r . OP, T .
I X I I I I t l ) , S P b ., 1875.

E vans-P richard, E.E. The H u er. O xford: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s , 1940. ”

__________. " H u e r B o d e s o f A d d r e s s . " T h e U g a n d a J o u r n a l 1 2 :

1 6 6 - 1 7 1 . R e p r i n t e d i n D e l l Hymes L a n g u a g e s . C u l t u r e a n d
S o c i e t y . 221-227, 1964.

P a r a v a s h i , B. " L i n g u i s t i c Bap o f I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e s . " Th e

A n c i e n t I r a n i an C u l t u r a l S o c i e t y B u l l e t i n , f 2, n o .~ l
[1965): 1-5.

F i s h m a n , J o s h u a A. l a n g u a g e i n S o c i o c u l t u r a l Change:
E s s a v s by Jo sh u a £ . F ish m an . S tanford: Stanford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 97 2.

F oley, James. F o u n d a tio n o f T h e o r e t i c a l Phonology.

C am bridge: C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19777

G e i g e r , H. K l e i n e r e D i a l e k t e un d D i a l e k t q r u p p e n : D i e
K a s p i s c h e n D i a l e k t e . G I P h . , Bd I , A b t . 2 , S t r a s s b u r g :
1898-1901.

G e i g e r , H. a n d E r n s t Kuhn. G ru n d riss der Iraiiischen

P h ilo lo g ie. S trassburg: V erlag von K a rl J. T r u b n e r ,
1 903.

G m e l i n , S . G. P u te sh e stv ia pg P u s s i i d lia Issledovania vsex

Trex T s a r s t v P é r io d e . SPB ., 1775.

The G r e a t S o v i e t E n c y c lop e d i a A t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e 3rd

e d itio n , vol. 6 . New Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n , I n c . , 1 9 7 7 .
 271

H ail, s. Hew P e r s i a o - E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y . Tehran: Ketab

F o r u s h i - y e B r n x i i , 1975.

H i c k e r s o n , Haney P a r r o t t , lin g u istic An t h r o p o l o g y , lev

Y o rk : B o l t , B i n e h a r t and l i n s t o n , 1980.

H o c k e t t , C h a r l e s F. 2 C o n tse i n B odern l i n g u i s t i c s , lev

York: H a c B i l l a a , 1958.

H u r e v i t z , J . C. e d . The B i d d l e B a s t a n d H o r t h A f r i c a i n
B o rld P o l i t i c s : A Documentary B eco rd . 2 n d . e d . , 2. lew
Haven a n d L o n d o n : 1979.

Hyman, L. B. Phonology T heory and A n a l y s i s , l e w Y or k:

H o l t , B i n e h a r t a nd l i n s t o n , 1975.

I v a n o v , H. S . Tari% e l o v i n e I r a n . T r a n s l a t e d from t h e
B ussian i n t o F a r s i , n . p . , 1977.

J a f f a r y , A l i Akbar. The A n c ie n t I r a n i a n C u l t u r a l S o c i e t y
B u l l e t i n . 2 , no. 1 (1965): 6 -1 1 .

J a k o b s o n , B. (1972a) " P r i n c i p l e s o f H i s t o r i c a l P honology"

i n K e i l e r 1 9 7 2 , 1 2 1 - 3 8 German O r i g i n a l TCLP « , 1 9 3 i .

J a v a n s h i r , F. B. H e a a s a - y e Dad: B ahsi P a r B ohtava-ve

S i a s i e Shahname. Tehran: S h e r k a t e S a h a n i - y e IAS . Tudeh
P r e s s , 1980.

K e d d i e , R i k k i B. B o o t s o f Be v o l u t i o n : An I n t e r p r e t i v e
H i s t o r y o f Modern I r a n , lew Haven a n d L o n d o n : Y a l e
u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 138“ .

K e n d e l , B. H a z d a r . "The K u rd s O nder t h e O ttom an E m p i r e . "

In P e o p le w ith o u t a C o u n try : The Kurd s a n d K u r d i s t a n .
London: Zed P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 .

Keshayarz, Karim. G ilan. Tehran: Sepehr P re s s , 1977.

K o n s t a n t i n o v , F . Y. e t a l . The F u n d a m e n t a l s o f B a r x i s t -
L e n in is t Ph ilo so p h y . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e B u s s i a n by
Robert D ag lish . Moscow: P r o g r e s s P u b l i s h e r s , 197».

Labov, W illiam . S o c io lin o u istic P atterns. P hiladelphia:

U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia P r e s s , 1972a.

L a h i j a n i , M. B e l a l e do h e z a r s a l e - y e G i l a n . Al M ajaf:
Metba a t o l a d a b , n . d .
 2 7 2

L e hm a n, V. P. H i s t o r i c a l l i n g n i s t i e s : an I n t r o d n c t i o n .
Hew York : H o l t , B i n e h a r t an d B i n s t o n , 19 6 2 .

L e h a a , H- P . a n d E s l e k i e l , z a k o v . P e r s p e c t i v e on H i s t o r i c a l
L in g u istics. A m sterdam /Philadelphia: John B enjam in
P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 8 2 .

L e n c z o w s k i , G. B o s s i a a n d t h e B e s t i n I r a n . 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 * 8 . Hev
Yo rk: I t h a c a , 19 *9 .

ly o n , John. In tro d u ctio n 1 © T heoretical L in g u istic s.

C am bridge: The O n v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 .

B a c i a n i , H. P a r z p u r . "Zaban o f a r b a n g - e - B a c i a n i . " BFLTIZ

16; 2 7 7 -9 6 , 1969-65.

H alinovski, B ro n islav . A rgonauts sL feg^efn P a c if ic .

L ondon : B outledge, 1923.

________ . " T h e P r o b l e m o f Be a m in g i n P r i m i t i v e L a n g u a g e s . "

~ I n y he m e a n i n g o f M e a n i n g . E d i t e d b y C. K. Ogden a n d I .
A. B i c h â r d s , * 5 1 - 5 0 1 . London: Began P a u l , 1 9 2 3 .

B a s h k u r , H, J a v a d . J n I n tr o d u c tio n t o B a r a s h i 's T a r i zee

T a b a r e s t a n va B u y a n va H a z e n d a r a n . E d i t e d by B . H.
T asbihi. Tehran: S h a r g b Book S h o p , 1 9 6 6 .

M a t t h e w s , C . B. E n g lish Surnames. Hew Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ,

19 6 6 .

B e l g o u n o f , G. E s s a i s u r l e s D i a l e c t e s de H a z a n d e ra n e t de
G bilan. ZDHG,. X X I I , 1 8 6 8 ,

Hohageq, B eh d l. A s 'a ri be L ahta-ye H a h ali. F1Z: 2*2-52,

1338 (1959) .

H obaseri. Ahangha 1 9 5 9 .

Ono, M ario. P e r s i a n o H o so n . Tokyo: U n i v e r s i t y o f Tokyo

P r e s s , 1971.

---------------. "On S o c i a l - E c o n o m i c S t r u c t u r e o f I r a n i a n V i l l a g e s
w i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e t o D e h . " The D e v e l o p i n g
Economics. 5 , n o . 3 , (1967): **5-*62.

P i g u l e v s k a y a , H. V. e t a l . Ta r i x%e I r a n : a z D o r a n e B a s t a n
t a Pa v a n - e s a d e - v e H e l d a h o a - e Hi l a d i . T r a n s l a t e d from
t h e B u s s i a n by Karim K e s h a v a r z . Tehran: E n tesh arat-e
P a y i a , 19 7 * .
 2 7 j

P i r n i a , H osbicodoleh. T a r i x - e I r a n - e B a s t a n » c i t . annd
K a rim K e s h a v a r z , T e h r a n : S e p e h r p r e s s , 1 97 7.

P la n and Budget O r g a n iz a tio n S t a t i s t i c a l C e n te r o f I r a n .

S alnam e-ve A m ari-ve K eshvar 2536 [1 9 7 7 /7 8 ) .

i U C flame~Te O s t a n - e g i l a n 2536 ( 1977/78)

P linns. C i t e d b v G e i g e r , W. a n d E r n s t K a h n . G r a n d r i s s d e r
Iranisch en P h ilo lo g ie . P . 374. S trassburg: 1903.

Q a s s e a l a , A b d u l Rahman. "K urdistan in Ir a n ." I n People

W i t h o u t 1 C o u n t r y : Th e K u r d s a n d K u r d i s t a n . London:
Zed P r e s s , 1 9 80 .

B a b i n o , H. L. "Les P ro v in c e s C aspiennes de l a P e rs e : Le
G u i l a n . " R e v u e pq B onde Bu s a i man. 1916-1917.

"One C hanson G u i l e k . " B o tes Sur l a P e r s e X I 7 I I I , 1914.

B a s t o r g o e v a , T. S . e t a l . G i l i a n s k i Tazik. Boscov:
A k a d e m i i a Rank SSSB, I n s t i t u t T a z i k o z n a n i a , 1 9 7 1 .

G ilia n s k o B u s s k ii S lovar. Boscov: Akadem iia

Rauk SSSB, I n s t i t u t T a z i k o z n a n i a , 198 0.

B a v i l n s o n , H. C . The P e r s i a n C u n e i f o r m I n s c r i p t i o n a t
B e h i s t a n . D e c y p h e r e d a n d T r a n s l a t e d ; v i t h a Memoir on
P e r s i a n C u n e i f o r m I n s c r i p t i o n s ; i n g e n e r a l , a n d on t h a t
of B eh istan in P a r t i c u l a r . L o n d o n : J o h n i . P a r k e r , W est
S trand. 1846.

B otes o f a J o urney from T a b r i z , th ro u g h P e r s i a n

K u r d is ta n t o t h e B a in s o f T a k h t i - S o l e i m a n . and from
t h e n c e b v Z a n i a n a n d Ta rom . t o G i l a n . Lon d r e : J.B .G .S ,
1 83 8.

S a p i r , Edward. " T im e P e r s p e c t i v e i n A b o r i g i n a l A m e r i c a n
C ulture: A Study i n M ethod." C anada, D ep artm en t of
B i n e s , G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , Memoir 9 0 ; A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
S e r i e s , n o . 13. O ttaw a: Government P r i n t i n g B u re a u ,
1916.

---------------. lan g u ag e. Hew Y o r k : B arcourt, 1921.

S a u s su re , F erdinand. Cou r s e i n G e n e r a l L i n g u i s t i c s . (orig.

1916) Hev Y o r k : P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1958.

S e b e o k , T. A. Cu r r e n t T r e n d s jLn L i n g u i s t i c s . 1970.
 274

S c k c l c r s , 7 . S. and T. I . P a z a l i n a . « G ilia n sk i T azik ." In

SoTrcaenni I r a n . S p a r v o s n i x . B o s c o v : , 1957.

So to d eh , H anochehr. Farhanoe G ila k i. Tehran: A njoaane

Ir a n S h e n a s i, 195*.

S tockvell, B obert. fo u n d a tio n o f S y n ta c tic Theory. Bev

Jersey: P r e n t i c e B a l l , I n c . , Englewood C l i f f s , 1977.

S t r a b o , c i t e d by K e s h a v a r z , Karim. G ilan. p. 11. Tehran:

S e p e h r P r e s s , 1977.

Suzuki, T osh io . "Land B e f o r a , T e c h n o lo g y , and S a a l l S c a l e

F a r m i n g : T h e E c o l o g y a n d Economy o f G i l a k i - B a s h t i B i c e
C u ltiv a to r s , B orthern Ir a n " Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
O n i v e r s i t y o f H ie h i gam, 1 9 8 1 .

T a b a ri, Ehsan. B a r x i B a r r e s i o a P a r B a r e - v e J a h a n b i n i h a va
Jonbeshha-ve E ltea a i Par I ra n , n . p . , 1 96 9.

T rezel[C olonel). " N o t i c e S u r e Le C h i l a n e t l e H a z a n d e r a n . "

Dans i s V o y a g e g n I r a e n i e e ^ ^ P e r s e â g g.. Amedee
Jau b ert. P aris: 1821.

V ahidian, T aq i. D s t u r - e F a r s i Ba g. v e s l e Asan g n o .
Hashad: A m ir K a b i r , 1 9 6 5 .

V o e g e l i n , F . H. a n d C . F . v o e g e l i n . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and
In d ex o f t h e W orld L a n g u a g es. Hev Y o r k , O x f o r d ,
A m s te r dam : E l s e v i e r , 1977.

N h o rf, B ejam in. "The D e l a t i o n o f H a b i t u a l Thought and

B ehavior t o Language." In S p ie r , 1 9 * 1 (r e p r in te d in
N h o rf ,1956, and i n B lo u n t, 1974).

L a n g u a g e . Thoug h t and B e a l i t v : th e Selected

W r i t i n g s o f B e n i a m i n L e e N h o rf . C a m b r i d g e , H a s s . : The
H .I .T . P r e s s , 1956.

W o l f r a m , W a l t a n d R a l p h W. F a s o l d . The S tu d y o f S o c i a l
D i a l e c t s i n Am e r i c a n E n g l i s h . Englewood C l i f f s :
P r e n ti c e H a l l , 1974.

Z a v i a l o v a , V. I . "P o n e tik a G ilia n sk o v o i Hazandaranskovo

lazik o v ." Ph.D . D i s s e r t a t i o n . N o v i e S v e d e n i a Po
Fonetike I r a n s k i % la z ik o v . G il a n s k i i

__________ . G i l i a n s k i i Haza n d a r a n s k v o l a z i k o v . Trudi

i n s t i t u t a l a z i k o z n a n a n i a An SSSB, Moscow: 1956.
 275

ZoD is, M arvin. P o litic a l E lite of Iran. P rinceton, Hew

Jersey; P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971.