Engineering Geology Field Visit

A report on field visit to Malekhu
Preface
Nepal is a land of geological diversities. So the knowledge of engineering
geology is very essential for the engineering structures to be stable and
durable in this region. To provide the students, the basic concept of
engineering geology and geological structures, the Malekhu field visit was
extremely necessary because the students themselves can see everything in
front of them, they can measure themselves various geological parameters and
analyze the various geological structures such as folds, faults, unconformity
etc.
This report provides the gist of the Malekhu field visit. Every activity
performed, every data taken, every site visited and every difficulty faced and
each and every results of such site visit are orderly maintained in this report.
The sketches of each and every site along with their photographs, the location
of the site (in terms of chianage), the observations made and the findings of
the site including the techniques used, the description of the geologically
vulnerable zones, their causes, engineering significance and ways of control
make this report very visual and gives the readers a clear ideas about the visit.
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our deep and sincere gratitude to the

Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus and especially to the
section of Geology. Special vote of thanks goes to the instructors during the
field visit, namely Prakash sir, Basant sir, Hitendra sir and Shrawan sir, without
which the field visit would have been impossible. They shall be ever credited
for the in depth knowledge of the geology which otherwise would not have
gained!
Also, we are thankful to all the persons who are contributed so

immemorable, knowledgeable and entertaining. All of the friends who were
always with us in the field are thanked for making the field visit a worth time to
have and worth place to be.
Of course, on the course of our stay, Chitwan Triveni Hotel and its owner
helped us in every way to make our stay comfortable, to whom we
acknowledge. All others directly or indirectly helping us to make our field visit
successful are thanked.
All the references which helped in making our report meaningful and
knowledgeable are thanked. Also a special vote of thanks goes to Microsoft
Company and Bill Gates for making this wonderful Microsoft Word without
which report would not have been possible.
Last but not the least, group E thanks the manufacturer of laptop and
desktop on which this report is prepared!
-Group”E”
Introduction
Geology and civil engineering shared a close and intimate relation with
each other as no foundation can be laid in air, every civil engineering
structures stands on earth’s surface and therefore it’s vita to know about the
earth’s surface, various landforms and factors affecting it which coincides with
literal meaning of geology.
The present era is the era of construction, so civil engineering today not
only deals with construction of structures(buildings, dams, bridges etc) rather
it deals with construction of structures with maximum safety lesser efforts in a
shorter time at a minimum possible price.
For all these factors, we need to know a lot about the existing geological
condition. In the construction site, we need to know about the types of soil
and it’s properties so that we could modify, excavate or replace it as required.
We need to know about the rock underlying it, exposed at the site. We need to
know about the ground water condition, we need to know about the mass
movement and most importantly we need to know about the faults, folds and
fractures present at the site. For all these information, we could go nowhere
but study geology. So geology plays a vital role in civil engineering.
As we have already discussed the importance of geological knowledge,
only theoretical knowledge is lame when we are concerned with civil
engineering which is total practical.
It’s very difficult for us to understand the various geological features such
as beds, bedding plane, their orientation, strike, faults, folds, fractures, and
river morphology but it will become very effective when we see all of them in
front of our eyes. In the beginning phase, when we are just building our
geological knowledge, our basic concept must be very clear for which
geological field visit or trip is essentially required.
In a way, this reports provides us both the above mentioned aspects are
clarified. The readers will have knowledge of various geological features and
their civil engineering significance through this report.
Location
Malekhu lies on lesser Himalayan region of Nepal. It has peculiar
geological features within a small range of area. The Malekhu V.D.C. of
Dhading district lies about 70 kms south west of Kathmandu valley and is
located at latitude of 27o 50' 38'' to 27o 45' 50'' and longitude of 24o 49' 5'' to
84o 50' 50’’. It is situated on the bank of Trishuli and Malekhu River. The
Trishuli River is running from the eastern direction to the western direction
and the Malekhu River from south to north which mingles into the Trishuli
River. Also, the Malekhu River has a tributary namely the Apakhola which
meets the Malekhu River at a distance about 3 kms from the Malekhu bazaar.
Climatically Malekhu is a sub-tropical zone. Mainly the rainfall is during the
monsoon.
Objectives of field study

 To be clear enough about joints, faults and folds.
 To estimate, where the bridge site should be selected?
 To identify the rock type and its property.
 To measure strike of bedding plane.
 To measure the dip direction and dip amount of the bedding
planes and joints
 To study about the rock mass and its classification on the field.
 To study the mass movement.
 To understand the River morphology
Methodology
The primary method of collection of data was used in the field during
the field visit to Malekhu. The visit was a very useful tool to help develop a
concept about the geological structures, mass movement, rock mass analysis
and rating.
The primary methods used are:
 Sighting of the field
 Sketching of the field in its natural condition
 Photograph of the field
 Collection of data
 Interpretation and analysis of data
Study of Slope instabilities along road

corridor
Mass movement
Mass movement is the detachment of and down slope transport of soil
and rock material under the influence of gravity and accelerated by various
factors especially water. The sliding and flowing of the materials takes place
due to their position and gravitational forces but the mass movement is
accelerated mainly by the presence of water. The main cause of mass
movement is the gravitational force. As when gravitational force acting on a
slope exceeds its resisting force, slope failure (mass wasting) occurs. But
various factors like strength, folding, faulting, jointing, foliation, bedding, soil
depth, porosity, permeability, rock type and soil type play effective role in
mass movement.
Types of mass movement

Depending upon mechanism, types of material and rate of movement
mass movement can be classified into mainly three types viz. soil failure,
landslide and debris flow. They can be briefly defined as follows:
Landslides
Descent of a mass of earth and rock down a mountain slope is often
known as landslide. Landslides may occur when water from rain and melting
snow sinks through the earth on top of a slope, seeps through cracks and pore
spaces in underlying sandstone, and encounters a layer of slippery material,
such as shale or clay, inclined toward the valley. The water collects along the
upper surface of this layer which it softens. If the support is sufficiently
weakened, a mass of earth and rock slides down along the well-lubricated
layer. Some great landslide masses move slowly and spasmodically for years,
causing little destruction.
There are various types of landslides depending upon movements and
materials. They are:
a. Falls
b. Topples
c. Slides
d. Spreads
e. Flows
Debris flow
A debris flow is a fast moving, liquefied landslide of unconsolidated,
saturated debris that looks like flowing concrete. It is differentiated from a
mudflow in terms of the viscosity and textural properties of the flow. Flows can
carry material ranging in size from clay to boulders, and may contain a large
amount of woody debris such as logs and tree stumps. Flows can be triggered
by intense rainfall, glacial melt, or a combination of the two. Speed of debris
flows can vary from 5 km/h to up to 80 km/hr in extreme cases. Volumes of
material delivered by single events vary from less than 100 to more than
100,000 cubic meters. Variables considered important in debris flow initiation
include slope angle, available loose sediment, and degree of land disturbance
by activities such as forest harvesting.
Slope failure
Slope failure is the movement of weathered surface soil layer/rock of
steep slope in small dimension and rapid movement. In this there may be
absence of slip surface. These types of failures occur due to steep slopes, loose
soil, and excavation of rock or soil on downhill side. There are two kind of slope
failure. There are two kind of slope failure. They are (a). Slope failure (b).Rock
failure
The preventive measures for the mass movement are:-

1. Retaining structures: These are the walls are rigid walls which are
used to support the soil mass laterally so that the soil can be retained at
different levels on the two sides. Following are the type of retaining walls
constructed on risky zones for mass movement prevention:-
2. Gabion wall: Those wall are made by filling the stones in the wire net.
Those wall check the soil material without undergoing failure due to their
flexibility.
3. Stone masonry wall: Those walls are made by joining stones with the
cement concrete.
4. Concrete masonry wall: Those walls are made by mixtures of aggregates
of cement.These structures are only suitable to prevent small scale of mass
movements (mostly landslides).
5. Rock anchoring: In this method an anchor which is made steel bar or

wire is anchored to the sliding soil mass to the bed rock. However the bond
strength between anchor and rock at the anchor part should be considered
beforehand in this method.
6. Pile works: In this method sheet pile of f200-600 mm are driven
through the sliding surface to control landslide movement directly. This
method is employed for urgent and important locations. They are installed
from the center to the lower part of the landslide block.
Description of mass movement in each location

Location A(chainage 17+00 km, along Trivhuvan highway)
A typical type of mass movement was observed along the Tribhuvan
highway at 17 km chainage.A landslide was seen which showed different
features. Some debris flow as well as the slope failure was also seen.
The factors causing these may be:
a. Stress developed by vehicles and road construction.
b. Due to reduced strength of soil caused by various other geological
factors and violent rainfall.
Measures for remediation:

1. Both gabion wall and the concrete masonry wall at the side of
highway. Crib wall and the check dam were also seen.
2. Rock anchoring was observed was observed about 100 m ahead
which were preventing the movement of sliding mass.
SKETCH AND PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 1: Location A
Location B(Belkhu khola bridge along Prithivi Highway)

Another location to be observed was Belkhu Khola Bridge. This location
had a bridge which was a new one. However we could clearly see some
reminisces (pillars, old bridge parts) at the sides of existing bridge. Actually
what happened was that the old bridge span was swept away by the flood in
2050 B.S. This was due to the fact that the bridge span was kept below peak
flood level. However the existing bridge span is kept above the peak flood
level.
From the study, we came to know that the peak flood level should be
studied before making the bridges and such structures near the rivers.
The main thing to be studied however was the outcrop which was
observed at the right bank of Trishuli River. Amazing thing was that the slope
was vertical but stable. Many things contribute to make the slope stable, such
as there were vegetations in the upper layer of the slope. The shear stress was
balanced in the region, thus stabilizing the slope.
τ =σ tan ∅+ c
where,
τ =shear stress
σ =normal stress
∅=friction angle
c=cohesion.
Hence, it was interpreted that the normal stress, friction angle and the
cohesion are high in the slope.
Figure 2: Location B
Location C (chainage 42 km along Prithivi Highway)

A complex landslide was observed in this area. There were different ways
implemented in the area to avoid further landslide.
The remedies used in this area are:
1. Cascade drainage for surface drainage.

2. Gabion wall for stabilizing continuous moving mass.
3. Stone machinery wall for stabilizing the fixed mass in the bed rock
with weep hole and sub-surface drainage system.
4. Technique of bio-engineering used for which some special types of
plants like sishau, kaher, bakiyino,bhojetro are planted in a proper way.
Sketch and photograph
Figure 3:Location C
Location D(chainage 43 km along Prithivi Highway)

Rock slope failure was observed at the chainage of 43 km along the Prithivi
highway from Kathmandu.
Plane, wedge and toppling failure observed in that area. A colluvial fan was
also observed on the slope. The slope was however seemed to be temporarily
stabilized.
Failure mechanisms on rock slope:
There are three failure mechanisms on rock slope on the basis of
orientations of discontinuities with respect to the orientations of hill slope.
Plane failure
When the dip direction of planner features such as joints, beddings or
foliations is at the same direction (±20◦) as that of the hill slope or cut slope then
plain failure is possible. However friction angle has also influence in this
mechanism.
Wedge failure
When two planes intersects obliquely across the slope face and their line of
intersection plunges at the same direction as the dip direction of hill slope or cut
slope then wedge failure is possible.
Toppling failure
The toppling failure is possible when the planar features dip opposite to hill
slope or cut slope and the hill slope or cut slope is steep enough than the planner
features.The main causes for such failures in the location might be due to
improper cutting of rock bed during the road construction.
The preventive measured used in this location are:
a. Gabion walls are placed near the road as check wall and catch wall.
However, the slope has self- stabilized.
Figure 4: Location D
Measurement of attitude of rock bed
Compass
Compass refers to the device used for measurement of angles. In
geology, a magnetic compass is used to find out the attitude of bed, i.e. the dip
amount and dip direction.
Types of compasses
Clinometers compass
The compass which can measure bearing and orientation with

two sets is called clinometers compass. Since it doesn’t consist the
sprit level, it should be leveled by approximation and may not be
accurate.
Brunton compass:
It consists of sprit level and can measure bearing and inclination

with relatively less error.
Clar compass:
It can read both inclination and bearing at simultaneously. It is

relatively easier to handle.
Digital compass:
The value of the bearing taken are directly displayed as digits so

it is very simple to operate.
Digital PC compass:
This is similar to digital compass. In addition to it, this compass

is directly connected to the computer so there is no need to observe
the data and to note down it in the note book. The taken data are
directly transferred to the computer.
Handling of geological compass:
A geological compass is used to measure the attitudes of the

geological features (strike and dip) and orientation of the slopes. In
the past, the compass was mainly used for measuring the bearing of
object with respect to north and to measure inclination. The main
operation of geological compass consists of opening the compass
carefully, leveling the spirit level and placing the compass on the
planer feature for measurement.
Planar features and attitude of planar features
The planar features of rock consists of rock beds, joint plane and
foliation planes. The orientation of rock beds can be described from the
attitude. Attitude is the three dimension orientation of planar features of
rock. Attitude of beds or joint plane can be described from strike and dip.
Strike
Strike is the line formed by intersection of an inclined geological
plane and its own projected horizontal plane.
Dip amount and direction

Dip amount is the angle between geological plane and horizontal
plane which provides inclination of the bed.
And dip direction refers to the direction of the horizontal
projection of the bed. Strike and dip direction are perpendicular to each
other.
Measurements of attitudes of the rocks

Location No.L1:
About 50m far from the old (broken) bridge along Prithivi Highway the data of
rock strata are taken.
S.N. Dip Direction Dip Amount Attitude Plan Remarks

e
Observed by : Sujit Bhandari
1 S 82O E 30O S 82O E/30O J.P
2 S 75O W 10O S 75O W/10O J.P J.P=Joint
Plane
3 S 78O E 21O S 78O E/21O J.P
4 S 04O E 86O S 04OE/86O B.P
5 S 21O E 71O S 21O E/71O B.P B.P=Beddin
g Plane
6 S 70O W 50O S 70O W/50O B.P
7 N 56O W 84O N 56O W/84O B.P
8 S 09O E 86O S 09O E/86O B.P
9 S 83O W 61O S 83O W/61O J.P
10 S 87O W 63O S 87O W/63O J.P
Observed by : Sudeep Paudel

1 S 88O E 31O S 88O E/31O J.P
2 S 64O W 50O S 64O W/50O J.P
3 S 04O E 87O S 04O E/87O B.P
4 N 55O W 45O N 55O W/45O B.P
5 N 56O W 64O N 56O W/64O J.P
6 S 81O W 85O S 81O W/85O J.P
7 S 20O E 85O S 20O E/85O B.P

8 N 78O E 21O N 78O E/21O B.P
9 S 14O E 82O S 14O E/82O J.P
10 N 19O E 84O N 19O E/84O B.P
Observed By : Simpson Lamichhane

1 S 18O E 84O S 18O E/84O B.P
2 S 20O E 85O S 20O E/85O B.P
3 S 12O E 87O S 12OE /87O B.P
4 S 14O E 82O S 14O E/82O B.P J.P=Joint
Plane
5 S 20O E 84O S 20O E/84O B.P
6 S 11O E 83O S 11O E/83O B.P B.P=Beddin
g Plane
7 S 18O E 90O S 18O E/90O J.P
8 S 16O E 78O S 16O E/78O B.P
9 N 85O E 10O N 85O E/10O J.P
10 N 89O W 36O N 89O W/36O J.P
Observed By : Tshreya Bhattarai

1 N 84O W 47O N 84O W/47O J.P
2 S 16O E 78O S 16O E/78O B.P
3 N 56O E 76O N 56O E/76O B.P
4 S 82O W 64O S 82O W/64O B.P
5 S 18O W 90O S 18O W/90O J.P
6 N 19O E 84O N 19O E/84O J.P
7 S 17O E 87O S 17O E/87O B.P
8 S 11O E 86O S 11O E/86O B.P

9 N 56O E 84O N 56O E/84O B.P
10 N 60O W 79O N 60O W/79O B.P
Observed by : Sudip Thapa

1 S 14O E 89O S 14O E/89O B.P
2 S 75O W 52O S 75O W/52O J.P
3 N 89O W 36O N 85O W/36O J.P
4 S 19O E 75O S 19O E/75O B.P
5 N 86O W 52O N 86O W/52O J.P
6 N 85O E 10O N 85O E/10O J.P
7 S 85O W 86O S 85O W/86O J.P
8 S 04O W 84O S 04O W/84O B.P
9 S 68O W 67O S 68O W/67O J.P
10 N 89O W 58O N 89OW/58O J.P
Observed by : Sudesh Dahal

1 N 55O W 79O N 55O W/75 J.P
2 S 69O W 66O S 69O W/66 J.P
3 N 20O W 79O N 20O W/79 B.P
4 S 11O W 83O S 11O W/83 B.P
5 N 85O W 10O N 85O W/10 J.P
6 N 00O W 54O N 00O W/54 J.P
7 S 20O E 85O S 20O E/85 B.P
8 N 78O E 21O N 78O E/21 J.P
9 N 02O E 88O N 02O E/88 B.P

10 N 20O W 59O N 20O W/59 J.P
STUDY OF GEO-STRUCTURES
Structure geology deals with the mechanism and types of deformation of

rock or earth’s crust due to distribution of stress generated through various
geological processes. Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented
thin sections of geologic samples to observe the fabric within the rocks which
gives information about strain within the crystal structure of the rocks. They
also plot and combine measurements of geological structures in order to
better understand the orientations of faults and folds in order to reconstruct
the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog
and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.
Compressive, tensile and shear stress produce strain in the structures in

the earth’s surface. The deformation may be elastic, brittle, ductile; which
determines which structure is to be formed. The structures may be of
following types :
FOLD
The term fold is used in geology when one

or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces,
such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved
as a result of plastic (that is, permanent)
Figure 5: Fold
deformation. Fold is the ductile deformation caused due to compressive stress.

Fold most often occurs well inside the earth’s surface.
Figure 6:Folds and its types
The general types of folds are:
 Anticline: linear, strata normally dip away from axial center, oldest
strata in center.
 Syncline: linear, strata normally dip toward axial center, youngest
strata in center.
 Symmetrical: limbs form mirror image of each other, both limbs dip at
equal angle in opposite direction, axial plane is veritcal.
 Unsymmetrical: limbs donot form mirror image of each other, both
limbs dip at unequal angle in opposite direction, axial plane is oblique.
Engineering Significance:
1. For the foundation of dam in a large fold, upstream is more

favourable than the downstream.
2. In fold, there is more stress in the zone of hinge line than the
other zones.
3. In synclinal aquifer, the underground water potential is higher and
is adverse in case of anticlinal fold.
LOCATION
L6,
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
An anticline asymmetric fold was seen in the site. The existence of fold
was confirmed by the sighting of hinge line and the different dipping of the
rock in the boulder seen. Also, fold in the area was confirmed by the dipping of
the rock masses on different directions from the location.

Figure 7:Fold seen in the field
FAULT:
A fault is a
planar fracture or
discontinuity in a
volume of rock,
across which there
has been significant
displacement in the
plane parallel to the
fracture plane. Fault
is the result of brittle
deformation due to
tension, compression Figure 8: Normal and Reverse fault
and shear stress. Large

faults within the Earth's crust result
from the action of tectonic forces. Energy release associated with rapid
movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between
the fault plane and the Earth's surface.Since faults do not usually consist of a
single, clean fracture, geologists use the term fault zone when referring to the
zone of complex deformation associated with the fault plane.The two sides of
a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall. By definition,
the hanging wall occurs above the fault and the footwall occurs below the
fault.
Geologists can categorize faults into three groups based on the sense of
slip:
1. a fault where the

relative movement (or slip) on the
fault plane is approximately
vertical is known as a dip-slip
fault
2. where the slip is

Figure 9:Dip slip and Strike slip faults
approximately horizontal, the
fault is known as a transcurrent or
strike-slip fault
3. an oblique-slip fault has non-zero components of both strike and
dip slip.
Also, on the basis of genetic classification, the fault may be normal fault
and reverse fault.
1. Fault zones are not strong and cannot resist the heavy loads and
stresses, such as dams and high raise buildings.
2. As there are non-homogeneous rock masses in the zone of fault,
an extra calculation and expenses are needed in the case of such areas.
3. There is chance of water to come out from the fault, which even
more increases the risk of having more faults in this zone.
4. Violent faults may even cause earthquake and damage the

engineering structures.
LOCATION
L7, located at a distance of 200 m from old bridge on the left bank of
Malekhu River.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Small scale fault was seen in the site. The evidence of the fault was that of
the presence of powder gauge and breccia. Due to high heat and temperature,
the gauge was seen along with the breccia, which provides the direct evidence
of the existence of the fault.
Figure 10: Fault as seen in the field
THRUST
A thrust is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across which there
has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are
pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they
place older rocks above younger. Thrust faults are the result of compression
forces.
Thrust faults typically have low dip angles. A high-angle thrust fault is
called a reverse fault. The difference between a thrust fault and a reverse fault
is in their influence. A reverse fault occurs primarily across lithological units
whereas a thrust usually occurs within or at a low angle to lithological units. It

is often hard to recognize thrusts because their deformation and dislocation
can be difficult to detect when they occur within the same rocks without
appreciable offset of lithological contacts.
If the angle of the fault plane is low (generally less than 20 degrees from
the horizontal) and the displacement of the overlying block is large (often in
the kilometer range) the fault is called an overthrust. Erosion can remove part
of the overlying block, creating a fenster (or window) when the underlying
block is only exposed in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of
the overlying block, leaving only island-like remnants resting on the lower
block, the remnants are called klippen (singular klippe).
The engineering significance of a thrust is same as that of a fault but a

thrust extends over a larger zone and is more likely for re-occurrence due to its
low angle. Even some thrusts keep on being active with very small velocities.
Thus it should be taken in care before designing any civil engineering
structures.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS:
The Malekhu region also contains the Main Central Thrust (MCT), also
known as Mahabharat thrust extending throughout the Mahabharat range.
The evidence of the thrust has been laid by sighting the metamorphic rocks on
the earth’s surface along with the younger rock types on the surface. The
younging sequence has been reversed in the region giving indirect evidence of
thrust.
An inverted metamorphic field gradient associated with a crustal-scale

south-vergent thrust fault, the Main Central Thrust, has been recognized along
the Himalaya for over 100 years. A major problem in Himalayan structural
geology is that recent workers have mapped the Main Central Thrust within
the Greater Himalayan Sequence high-grade metamorphic sequence along
several different structural levels.
PHOTOGRAPH
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Figure 11: Evidence for the thrust
JOINT
The term joint refers to a fracture in rock where there has been no
movement in the plane parallel to the plane of fracture of one side relative to
the other. This makes it different from a fault which is defined as a fracture in
rock where one side slides laterally past the other. However, there could be a
perpendicular displacement to the plane of fracture. Joints normally have a

regular spacing related to either the mechanical properties of the individual
rock or the thickness of the layer involved. Joints generally occur as sets, with
each set consisting of joints sub-parallel to each other.
Joints are classified based on the attitude of joint w.r.t. the attitude of the
bedding and on the basis of the orientation of joint sets.
Geometric classification
Dip joint: strike of a joint parallel to the dip of bedding.
Strike joint: strike of a joint is parallel to the strike of the bedding.
Oblique joint: strike of a joint makes an angle with the strike of the bedding.
Genetic classification:
Mural joints: joints on the massive igneous rocks, three sets of joints
perpendicular to each other
Columnar joints: joints formed on volcanic igneous rocks such as basalts,

vertical prominent planes breaking the rocks into hexagonal prismatic columns
Sheet joints: one set of prominent joints found in massive igneous rocks
Tension joints: joints developed due to tensile forces acting on the rock,
found commonly on the
PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 12: Joints
ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE
1. The joints represent the areas where the rock mass has been
fractured. So, the rock mass may detach at the point and are
unnecessary in light of the engineering construction.
2. The reservoirs, tunnels and dams should not be constructed in
these regions as there are chances of water leakage.
3. There are chances of ground water seepage in the areas of joints.
4. As the areas of joints are the regions of breakage, the site is weak
and heavy constructions such as dams, high raise buildings, etc.
shall not be constructed in these areas.
Joint planes are more harmful than the fault planes but less harmful than
the bedding planes. However, the attitude of the joint planes have greater
significance in the construction within these palces.
UNCONFORMITY
An unconformity is a buried erosion surface separating two rock masses

or strata of different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not
continuous. In general, the older layer was exposed to erosion for an interval
of time before deposition of the younger, but the term is used to describe any
break in the sedimentary geologic record.
The rocks above an unconformity are younger than the rocks beneath
(unless the sequence has been overturned). An unconformity represents time
during which no sediments were preserved in a region. The local record for
that time interval is missing and geologists must use other clues to discover
that part of the geologic history of that area. The interval of geologic time not
represented is called a hiatus.
The formation of unconfirmity may be attributed to three main processes

like erosion, deposition and tectonic activities. Its development involves the
following stages:
1. The formation of the older rocks.

2. Upliftment and surfacial erosion of the older rock.
3. Again, the formation of younger succession of beds after long
interval above the surface of erosion.
There are three types of unconformity:
Parallel Unconfirmity
Parallel unconformity is a type of

unconformity in which strata are parallel;
there is little apparent erosion and the
unconformity surface resembles a simple
bedding plane. It is also known as
disconfirmity, nondepositional unconformity Figure 13:parallel unconfirmity
or pseudoconformity.
Angular unconfirmity
Angular unconformity is an unconformity
where horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary
rock are deposited on tilted and eroded layers,
producing an angular discordance with the
overlying horizontal layers. The whole sequence
may later be deformed and tilted by further
orogenic activity.
Figure 14: angular unconfirmity
Non confirmity
A nonconformity exists between
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or igneous
rocks when the sedimentary rock lies above and
was deposited on the pre-existing and eroded
metamorphic or igneous rock. Namely, if the rock
below the break is igneous or has lost its bedding
by metamorphism, the plane of juncture is a
nonconformity. Figure 15: Nonconfirmity
LOCATION
L3,
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Unconformity was seen and identified in the field. An unconformity
existed between the bed rock and the depositional layer. The deposited layer
was loose and consisted of small stone particles and sand, deposited over an
intact bed rock, exposed at that place. The difference in the depositional time
period was clearly seen which confirms the presence of unconformity.
Figure 16: Unconformity (Loose soil in the left and bed rock on the right)
STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF

ROCKS
Rock is defined as naturally forming, hard and compact solid aggregates

or assemblage of minerals forming crust of the earth. The branch of geology
that deals with the study of various aspects of the rocks, such as their mode of
formation, composition and occurrence is called petrology.
The rocks are classified as following on the basis of their mode of

formation:
A. Igneous Rock
The rocks formed by the cooling
and solidification of molten mobile
mineral called ‘magma’ by the
crystallization are called igneous rock.
The process of formation of igneous
rock is called magmatism.
Igneous rocks are formed
when molten magma cools and are
divided into two main categories:
plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic
or intrusive rocks result when magma
cools and crystallizes slowly within
Figure 17: Igneous rock
the Earth's crust (example granite),
while volcanic or extrusive rocks result
from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta
(examples: pumice and basalt) .[1]
B. Sedimentary Rock
The rocks formed by the
process of accumulation,
compaction, cementation, and
consolidation of the sediments
are called sedimentary rock. The
sediments are formed by the
weathering of old rocks, igneous,
metamorphic and even
sedimentary.
Sedimentary rocks are

formed by deposition of either
clastic sediments, organic matter, Figure 18: Sedimentary rock
or chemical precipitates
(evaporites), followed by compaction of the particulate matter and

cementation during diagenesis. Sedimentary rocks form at or near the Earth's
surface. Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones
20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone).[1]
C. Metamorphic Rock
The rock formed due to the
change in the nature and properties
of the pre-existing rock is called
metamorphic rock. When igneous
rocks and metamorphic rocks are
subjected to high temperature and
stress for very long period of time,
they gradually change their form and
evolve as a new form of rock known
as metamorphic rock. The process of
formation of metamorphic rock is
called metamorphism (examples: Figure 19: Metamorphic rock
slate, marble, diamond, etc)
Identification Of Rocks
Location no.L4
About 200m from the hanging bridge over the Trishuli River along Thopal
Khola i.e. in between location L2 and the hanging bridge. Following things we
observed in this location
Sample no.1
S.N. Physical Properties
1 Sample number 01
2 Colour Greyish
3 Texture Non crystalline
4 Structures Foliation plane/slaty cleavage
5 Grain size Fine
6 Sp. Gravity Low to medium
7 Acid test No reaction
8 Mineral comp.
9 Origin/rock type Metamorphic rock
10 Engineering Low strength

properties
Low blastability
Low drillability
11 Identification Slate: saltic cleavage
12 Uses Roofing, in electrical industry as switch board,

bases and various turned or shaped parts due
to its insulating property.
13 Attitude of the S 009o E/84o

rock:
Location no.L5
Sample no.2
S.N Physical Properties

.
1 Sample number 02
2 Color Dirtywhite
3 Texture Crystalline
4 Structures Bedding plane
5 Grain size Medium
6 Sp. Gravity Medium to high
7 Acid test Vigorously reacts with HCl in powder form
8 Mineral comp. Calcite
9 Scratch test Scratched by hammer
10 Origin/rock type Sedimentary
11 Engineering High strength

properties
High blastibility
High drillability
12 Identification Dolomitic limestone
13 Uses Raw material for cement,

aggregates
14 Attitude of rock S 0080 E/ 850
Location no.L8
Sample no. 3
Amphibolites
1 Sample number 03
2 Color Greish black
4 Structures/cleavage Massive/Foliation plane/slaty
5 Grain size Fine to medium
6 Sp. Gravity High
8 Mineral comp. Amphibolite group
9 Origin/rock type Metamorphic
10 Engineering properties High strength

High blastibility
High drillability
11 Identification Amphibole groups
12 Uses Can be used as good quality aggregates

Location no.L8:
Sample no 4
Phyllite

1 Sample number 04
2 Color Silver white
4 Structures/cleavage Foliation plane/slaty
5 Grain size Medium to coarse
6 Sp. Gravity Medium
8 Mineral comp.
10 Engineering properties Low strength

High drillability
Low blastability
11 Identification Phyllite
12 Uses Pavements, dry wall and slabing

Location no.L9
Sample no. 5
Quartzite
1 Sample number 05
2 Color Dirty white
4 Structures/cleavage Foliation plane/slaty
5 Grain size Fine
6 Sp. Gravity Medium to high
8 Mineral comp. Quartz
10 Engineering properties High strength

Low drillability
High blastsbility
11 Identification Quartzite
12 Uses For making reeling in home

applications, building stone, road
metal, concrete aggregates
13 Attitude of rock S0180E/780

PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 20: Sample no. 5
Location no.L10
Sample no. 6

1 Sample number 06
2 Color Silver white
4 Structures Foliation plane
5 Grain size Fine to coarse
6 Sp. Gravity Low to medium
8 Mineral comp. Garnet, chlorite, quartz, horn blend,

talc
10 Engineering Low strength, incompetent, harmful

properties and undesirable rock
11 Identification Garnitiferous Schist
12 Uses Rock foundation, building stone,

aggregate for concrete, road material
13 Attitude of the rock S30oE/46o

PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 21: Sample no.6
Location no.L11
Sample no. 7

1 Sample number 07
2 Color White
4 Structures Foliation plane
5 Grain size Coarse
6 Sp. Gravity High

8 Mineral comp. Quartz, plagioclase, biotite,

muscovite

properties
Low drillability
High blastability
11 Identification Augen Gneiss
12 Uses as flooring mill and for building stone

or material
PHOTOGRAPH

Location no.L12
Sample no. 8

1 Sample number 08
2 Color White
4 Structures No plane of mineral orientation,

no bedding plane
5 Grain size Coarse
6 Sp. Gravity High
8 Mineral comp. Orthoclase, biotite,quart,

plaeoclase,
muscobite

properties
High blastability
Low drillability
Isotropic
12 Identification Granite
13 Uses As aggregates, foundations in the

construction and as slab
PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 23:Sample no.8

Location no.L14
Sample no. 9

1 Sample number 09
2 Color Whitish
4 Structures Bed plane/Foliation plane
5 Grain size Coarse
6 Sp. Gravity High
7 Acid test Vigorously react in powder form
8 Mineral comp. Calcite
11 Engineering Medium strength

properties
High drillability
High blastability
12 Identification Marble
13 Uses Used in cement factory,

In construction of civil engineering
structures
14 Attitude of the rock S15 o E/ 87 o
PHOTOGRAPH
River Channel Morphology
River patterns, or general shapes, depend on the geologic zone and the

climate of the location. There are three river patterns: meandering, braided,
and straight. A meandering pattern follows a winding, turning course. A

braided pattern has connected channels that resemble a hair braid. Some river
patterns are simply straight channels. Meandering and braided are the most
common patterns. Braided and straight patterns are usually located in the
mountains or hills below the headwater zone of rivers, while meandering
patterns is located in the middle and mouth zones of most rivers.
Meandering river morphology

A meandering river has looping bends of different sizes along its valley.
Each bend is the result of sediment depositing on the inside of the bend. The
topography of meandering river area is characterized by moderate relief,
medium gradient and velocity lower tthen straight river channel morphology.
As sediment deposits gradually build up, a point bar forms on the inside of the
bend. The point bar pushes the river flow against the outside bank of the bend,
eroding the bank opposite the point bar. Eventually the bend becomes so
sharp that the river bypasses it, cutting a straighter path. The arc of the bend is
left behind as the river moves past. The arc may form an oxbow lake, a pool of
water enclosed by the arc and riverbank. A meandering river’s bed is usually
covered with sand, while the floodplain is filled with silt and clay. Since the
energy level of such river is medium, the erosional rate and the depositional
rate of sediments is comparatively equal. Due to this phenomenon, the
channel shifting is prominent in such type of river system.
Braided river morphology

Braided rivers look completely different from meandering rivers. The
topography of the braided river area is characterized by low relief. The
gradient is low, area widned, and water flow with low velocity. They have
many channels that are constantly changing position because of frequent
changes in flow rate and sediment supply. The channels of a braided river
change course frequently, so the river’s water may cover the entire floodplain
on a regular basis. The sediments of braided rivers are usually gravel and
cobbles. Sometimes a meandering river may change into a braided river in the
middle zone if the supply of sediment increases as a result of farming or
grazing activities in the watershed.
Straight river morphology

This type of river follows a straight path. The topography of the area is
characterized by steep relief. The slope of the river is also high causing the flow
velocity of water high , since the energy level of such river is high erosional
rate is intensely higher than the deposition of sediments. Deep scouting along
the path is higher than the side cutting. Straight rivers are not common. They
are typically located in canyons in mountainous areas or exist as the result of
engineering structures that force a river into a straight course.
Features developed by river channel morphology

Alluvial Fans and Cones
These are cone shaped accumulation of stream debris that is commonly
found at places where small intermittent streamlets coming down from hills enter
the low lands. The apex of such a deposit points up hill and its slope may range
from almost flat to as much as 50. When the slope of the deposits is below 10, the
alluvial deposit is known as alluvial fan, and when it is from 10-50, the deposit is
known as alluvial cone. Alluvial fans and cones show contrasting patterns in
distribution of fragments and particles of various sizes at their apices, peripheries
and in the main body. Further repeated accumulations over an initial fan or cone
contribute to its considerable growth. Alluvium is usually very porous and will be
compressible if rich in clay and permeable if composed of gravel, sand or silt.
Flood Plain Deposits

Floodwaters are invariably heavily loaded with sediments of all types.
When these waters overflow the banks and spread as enormous sheets of water
in surrounding areas, their velocity gets checked everywhere due to obstructions.
As a consequence they deposit most of the load in the form of a thick layer of
mud, so commonly seen after major flood. Since such a process may get repeated
year after year, the low lying areas surrounding major rivers are actually made up
of the layers of mud deposits laid after a number of floods. These are generally
level or plain in nature and extensive in area and are called Flood plains. All the
plain around major rivers are actually flood plains. These are invariably very fertile
in nature and hence have been supporting population. Two major types of flood
plains known as convex flood plains and flat flood plains are known.
Deltas
Deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of roughly triangular shape that are
deposited by the rivers at the points where they enter into the sea. Herodotus
first used this term for the deposits of the river Nile at its entry into the
Mediterranean Sea. Deltas are very complex in their structure. A number of
fractures are involved in their formation, evolution and modification.
Oxbow Lake:
The isolated curve or loop shaped part of meandering river often contains
some supplies of water known as oxbow lakes in the shape of curve.
Figure 25: Formation of ox-bow lake.
Floodplain
Floodplain is a flat region of a valley floor located on either side of a river
channel. A floodplain is built of sediments deposited by the river that flows
through it and is covered by water during floods when the river overflows its
banks. During most floods, just a portion of the floodplain is covered with
water and only during infrequent, very large floods is the whole floodplain
covered. Floodplains tend to develop on the lower and less steep sections of
rivers.
River channel morphology in foodplain

River channels in floodplains adopt two kinds of patterns: meandering
and braided. Meandering rivers consist of a single main channel that bends
and loops. In some cases, the channel is so winding that the length along the
channel is several times the straight-line distance along the river valley.
Braided rivers have numerous distinct channels that repeatedly divide and
then merge again downstream. While a meandering channel occupies only a
small part of its floodplain at any one time, a braided river occupies much of
the floodplain over the course of a year.
Both patterns migrate across the floodplain, removing sediments from

their path and depositing them elsewhere. A braided river reworks the
sediment in its floodplain very frequently as the various individual channels
continually shift position. In meandering rivers, sediment is eroded on the
outside of bends and on the downhill side of traverses and deposited on the
inside of bends and on the uphill side of traverses. Over time, this causes
meander loops to migrate downstream. If the movement of one meander loop
overruns the next one downstream, then a meander cut-off, or chute, is
formed. This causes the course of the channel to be shortened as the two
meander loops join. The abandoned meander loop is gradually isolated as
sediment is deposited at each end by the water flow in the main channel. This
process eventually leads to the creation of an ox-bow lake. On average, about
290 km (about 180 mi) of the channel of the Mississippi River is abandoned
through the formation of meander cut-offs every 100 years, but the overall
channel length is not reduced because there is a compensating enlargement of
other meanders.
Many interrelated factors determine the form taken by river channels

and it is not precisely understood why some river channels have a meandering
pattern and others are braided. Meandering channels are more common
where the floodplain sediments are sand, silt, and clay. Braided channels are
more common where the floodplain sediment is mostly gravel or where there
is an increase in channel steepness. A braided pattern also tends to be favored
if the amount of water flowing in the river is highly variable or if the banks are
easily eroded and can provide abundant sediment to the channel.
Engineering significance of different types of river channels
As we well know that the civil engineers have to deal with varieties of
the river channel morphology for the construction of different structures as
well as availability of the construction material. If we consider straight river
channel morphology, then construction of masonry bridge foundation on river
channel is not applicable as deep scouring is intense along the path, whereas,
the straight river channel has low side cutting, in such case arch bridge can be a
good option. Similarly the construction of run off hydropower dam is an
option. In meandering river if the bridge is constructed in a curve portion then
the foundation on the striking band may be affected. Instead the site of the
bridge is selected on the straight potion of the meandering river.
Whereas, depending upon the construction material available like

granite boulders, gravity dam can be constructed in this type of morphology
like Kulekhani Hydropower Dam. In braided river condition, a span of bridge is
high with many pillars on the river path. In low land braided river morphology,
the hydropower project is impracticable, due to low gradient and high
sedimentation problem.
Location
L2, about 300 m from Malekhu suspension bridge towards Dhading Beshi.
Sketch and Photograph
Figure 26: River Channel Morphology
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA

COLLECTION
Engineering geological data
There are some factors whose condition in case of rock are observed and
recorded in order to determine the strength of the rock for laying foundation on it
is simply known as engineering geological data. These data also helps us to
determine the present condition and the nature of the rock. The data was
collected in location no.1 about 50m from damaged bridge on the left side of
Malekhu River.
Importance of engineering geological data

Purpose specific geological data collected from field (rock mass) which can
be quantified and used as design parameter. It is quantities diagnosis of an area. It
must be purpose specific. Site investigation is the investigation of particular area
for specific purpose data collection. It is very essential to draw any engineering
geological map or to solve any geological problems.
We always deal with a rock mass not only with a block of rock. Rock mass
means intact rock with its discontinuities. In many cases, the technicians are in
dark in this aspect. He collects a piece of sample and takes it to the lab and
concludes his result. This is not a correct way to publish any geological decision. In
fact, it is much more important to know the entire rock mass up to our concern.
Parameters of engineering geological data

Rock type:
1. Sedimentary
2. Igneous
3. Metamorphic
Rock strength:
a. High
b. Medium
c. Low
Weathering grade
a. Fresh weather (w0)

b. Slightly weathered (w1)
c. Moderately weathered (w2)
d. Highly weathered (w3)
e. Completely weathered (w4)
f. Residual soil (w5)
Rock Quality Designation (R.Q.D)

It is expressed in percentage. The expression for RQD has is:
RQD=115-3.3*Jv
Where Jv = Joint volume. i.e. number of joint per unit volume.
Spacing of discontinuity
It is expressed in cm and all the discontinuity is taken under considered area.
Aperture or separation of discontinuity
1. Tight (<1cm)
2. Open (expressed in cm, all the data are taken)
3. Wide (>30cm)
Infilling materials
 Sand/slit/clay/calcareous material
Persistence ( Continuity of discontinuity)
Roughness of discontinuity
1. Smooth
2. Rough
3. Undulated
Number of joint set

These are the number of parallel or nearly parallel sets of the joints in the rock
mass.
Orientation of joint set
Expressed including dip amount and dip direction, (i.e. dip amount/dip direction)
Ground water condition
1. Dry
2. Dripping
3. Seepage
4. Flowing
5. Damp/wet
Rock mass classification system

The rock mass classification system is the system of evaluating the composition
and characteristics of the rock mass. The foundation stands on the rock and the
properties of rock affects the stability of foundation. The problems related to
these things can be solved using the rock mass classification system. This system
helps to estimate the strength and deformation properties of the rock mass.
There are four methods of rock mass classification.
Description of Rock mass classification system
Terzaghi’s Rock mass classification

This classification is the earliest reference which is the descriptive classification.
 The rock with no joints: intact rock

 The rock with little strength along bedding surfaces: stratified rock.
 Rock mass jointed but cemented: moderately jointed rock
 Jointed rock mass without any cementing of joints: blocky and seamy rock
 Rock reduced to sand sized particles due to weathering: crushed rock
 Rock with clay: squeezing rock
 Rock squeezes primarily from mineral swelling: swelling rock.
Rock quality designation index (RQD)

D. U. Deere introduced a rock mass classification system based on the qualitative
estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs.
RQD=
∑ of core pieces>10 cm × 100 %
length of core
But in absence of core logs ,

RQD=115−3.3 J v,
which is suggested by Palmstom (1982) where Jv is sum of the number of joints

per unit length of all discontinuities sets or simply the volumetric joint count.
Bieniawski’s geomechanics classification

Bieniawski in 1976 published the details of rock mass classification called
the geomechanics classification and widely known as rock mass rating (RMR)
system. During the study of rock mass classification this method has been
adopted.
Six parameters are widely used in this system.
1. Intact rock strength

2. RQD
3. Spacing of discontinuities
4. Orientation of discontinuities
5. Condition of discontinuities
6. Ground water condition
Different rating value has been provided to different parameters and the
sum of all these parameters gives the final rating. The value of rating provides the
class of the rock.
Rock mass classification based on RMR

Class no. Rating value Rock quality
I 100-81 Very good rock
II 80-61 Good rock
III 60-41 Fair rock
IV 40-21 Poor rock
V <21 Very poor rock
Rock tunneling quality index (Q value)

Barton et. al (1974) proposed this theory. The value of Q varies on the
logarithmic from 0.001 to 1000.
Q value is defined by:
Q= (RQD*Jr*Jw)/(Jn*Ja*SRF)
Where,
 RQD= Rock quality designation

 Jr= joint roughness number
 Jw= joint water reduction factor
 Jn= joint set number
 Ja= joint alternation number
 SRF= stress reduction factor
Engineering geological data observed in the field
Location no. 04:
Rock mass classification by RMR system (rock mass rating)
Sample no. 1
S.N. Parameters Properties rating Remarks

1. Rock type Sedimentary
2. Rock strength Medium to high 12
3. Weathering W1 5
4. R.Q.D. test 88% 17

5. Spacing of 26,17,13,8,3,8,16,7,13 8
discontinuity (cm)
6. Separation Tight 6
7. Infilling materials Silt in traces 6 2nd class
8. Persistence 2.5-3.5m 4
Rock mass,
9. Roughness Rough 5
10. No. of joint set 2 Good rock
11. Orientation of joint sets S850W/590
N850W/59 0
5 Ground water Dry 15

condition
Total 78
Sample no.2
2. Rock strength Medium to high 12
3. Weathering W2 3
4. R.Q.D. test 88.6% 17
5. Spacing of 9,20,40,18,2,56,45 8
discontinuity(cm)
7. Infilling materials Clay 2 2nd class
8. Persistence 0.8-2m 4 Rock mass,
9. Roughness Very Rough 6
Good rock
10. No. of joint set 3
11. Orientation of joint sets S840E/610
N640W/48 0
S180E/800
5 Ground water Seepage 10
condition
Total 68
Sample no.3
2. Rock strength High 15
3. Weathering W1 5
4. R.Q.D. test 82% 17
5. Spacing of 10,7,2,3 15
discontinuity(cm)
7. Infilling materials No 6 1st class
8. Persistence 1-2m 4 Rock mass,
9. Roughness Rough 5
Very
10. No. of joint set 3
11. Orientation of joint sets S090E/840 Good rock
N630W/76 0
N900W/460
5 Ground water Dry 15
condition
Total 88
Photograph
Objectives of rock mass classifications

 Identify the most significant parameters influencing the behavior of a
rock mass.
 Divide a particular rock mass formulation into groups of similar
behavior – rock mass classes of varying quality.
 Provide a basis of understanding the characteristics of each rock mass
class
 Relate the experience of rock conditions at one site to the conditions
and experience encountered at others
 Derive quantitative data and guidelines for engineering design
 Provide common basis for communication between engineers and
geologists.
Engineering significance of rock mass classifications:
 Improving the quality of site investigations by calling for the

minimum input data as classification parameters.
 Providing quantitative information for design purposes.
 Enabling better engineering judgment and more effective
communication on a project.
Conclusions:
At last, we have concluded that Malekhu proves to be a good place for the
study and interpretation of the geology, its components and its significance in the
field of engineering. Actually, Malekhu, even small in area, contains large amount
of geological phenomenon and hence it can provide broad knowledge for the
learners.
Along Malekhu River, we found sedimentary rock and gradually
metamorphosed from Phyllite to crystalline schist and along the way to Dhading,
it gradually metamorphosed to lime stone to Phyllite and then to slate.
Every major bed was dipped in north direction. This proved the tectonic
movement is along the way from south to north. As the region lies in the zone of
Main Central thrust (MCT), there are evidences of different types of tectonic
activities such as unconformity, fold, fault, thrust, etc. within a small area.
Besides this, we have learnt different methods of geological data collection
through geological compass. By, the rivers channel morphology, we had known
how the river flows, what are the factors affecting erosion and deposition and
how it occurs. Also, we were able to gain board knowledge on the different
landforms formed by rivers.
Consequently the field trip was so much hard but in reality it had provided us
an opportunity to get closer to the real experience of practical study in the days
to come. This trip provided with a vivid knowledge of the geology which would
otherwise be hardly possible.
REFERENCES:
 Data collected during the field visit.
 Sketches drawn and photo taken in the field.
 www.geology.edu.np
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.google.com
 Journal of the Geological Society; 2008; v. 165; issue.2
 Britannica 8.0(2009)
 Microsoft Encarta
 Engineering Geology:
By Ghimire, P. Chandra;
Dhar, M. Singh
 A Text Book of Engineering Geology
Kesavul, N. Chenna

Engineering Geology Field Visit

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Engineering Geology Field Visit

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A report on field visit to Malekhu

We would like to express our deep and sincere gratitude to the

Also, we are thankful to all the persons who are contributed so

Objectives of field study

Study of Slope instabilities along road

Types of mass movement

The preventive measures for the mass movement are:-

5. Rock anchoring: In this method an anchor which is made steel bar or

Description of mass movement in each location

Measures for remediation:

SKETCH AND PHOTOGRAPH

Location B(Belkhu khola bridge along Prithivi Highway)

SKETCH AND PHOTOGRAPH

Location C (chainage 42 km along Prithivi Highway)

The remedies used in this area are:

1. Cascade drainage for surface drainage.

Sketch and photograph

Location D(chainage 43 km along Prithivi Highway)

Measurement of attitude of rock bed

The compass which can measure bearing and orientation with

It consists of sprit level and can measure bearing and inclination

It can read both inclination and bearing at simultaneously. It is

The value of the bearing taken are directly displayed as digits so

This is similar to digital compass. In addition to it, this compass

Handling of geological compass:

A geological compass is used to measure the attitudes of the

Planar features and attitude of planar features

Dip amount and direction

Measurements of attitudes of the rocks

S.N. Dip Direction Dip Amount Attitude Plan Remarks

Observed by : Sudeep Paudel

7 S 20O E 85O S 20O E/85O B.P

Observed By : Simpson Lamichhane

Observed By : Tshreya Bhattarai

8 S 11O E 86O S 11O E/86O B.P

Observed by : Sudip Thapa

Observed by : Sudesh Dahal

9 N 02O E 88O N 02O E/88 B.P

Structure geology deals with the mechanism and types of deformation of

Compressive, tensile and shear stress produce strain in the structures in

The term fold is used in geology when one

deformation. Fold is the ductile deformation caused due to compressive stress.

Figure 6:Folds and its types

The general types of folds are:

1. For the foundation of dam in a large fold, upstream is more

SKETCH AND PHOTOGRAPH

Figure 7:Fold seen in the field

and shear stress. Large

1. a fault where the

2. where the slip is

4. Violent faults may even cause earthquake and damage the

SKETCH AND PHOTOGRAPH

Figure 10: Fault as seen in the field

whereas a thrust usually occurs within or at a low angle to lithological units. It

The engineering significance of a thrust is same as that of a fault but a

An inverted metamorphic field gradient associated with a crustal-scale

Figure 11: Evidence for the thrust

perpendicular displacement to the plane of fracture. Joints normally have a

Strike joint: strike of a joint is parallel to the strike of the bedding.

Columnar joints: joints formed on volcanic igneous rocks such as basalts,

Figure 12: Joints

An unconformity is a buried erosion surface separating two rock masses

The formation of unconfirmity may be attributed to three main processes