Sensors & Actuators: B.

Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/snb

Glass varnish-based carbon conductive ink: A new way to produce T

disposable electrochemical sensors
Lauro A. Pradela-Filhoa,b, Isabela A.A. Andreottic, Jefferson H.S. Carvalhoc, Diele A.G. Araújoa,b,
Luiz O. Orzaric, Alexandre Gattic, Regina M. Takeuchia,b, André L. Santosa,b, Bruno C. Janegitzc,*
a
Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Uberlandia, 38400-902, Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
b
Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences of Pontal, Federal University of Uberlandia, 38304-402, Ituiutaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
c
Department of Nature Sciences, Mathematics and Education, Federal University of São Carlos, 13600-970, Araras, São Paulo, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Nowadays, there is growing interest in portable and disposable electrochemical sensors due to the low-cost,
Alkyd resin simplicity, and excellent analytical performance associated with these devices. Despite recent advances, how-
Paper-based electrode ever, there remains a need to create cheap, high-performance electrode materials. Thus, this study evaluated the
Screen-printed electrode suitability of carbon conductive inks prepared by the mixture of glass varnish and graphite powder to produce
Carbon conductive ink
disposable electrochemical sensors. Two different ink manufacturing processes and compositions were studied to
Estriol
produce different disposable electrodes, each providing high electrical conductivity and adhesion on paper and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, scanning electron mi-
croscopy, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy were used for the characterization of inks. The electrodes
were applied for the electrochemical determination of some compounds. For the paper electrode, the electro-
chemical detection of dopamine was performed, ranging from 15 μmol to 100 μmol L−1, with a detection limit of
4.1 μmol L−1; the individual electrochemical detection of catechol was performed ranging from 10 μmol L−1 to
1000 μmol L−1, with a detection limit of 9.0 μmol L−1. The detection of hydroquinone was performed, ranging
from 10 μmol L−1 to 1000 μmol L−1, with a detection limit of 5.3 μmol L−1. Also, the screen-printed electrode
was applied for estriol electrochemical determination in the linear range from 0.1 μmol L−1 to 8.0 μmol L−1 with
a detection limit of 0.08 μmol L−1. The glass varnish is an alternative to creating carbon composite electrodes,
and the new devices are inexpensive and simple to prepare, with attractive analytical performance.

1. Introduction
The development of compact and disposable electrochemical sen-
sors has received growing attention in recent decades. The attractive
features of these devices include their low-cost, combined with the
minimal chemical consumption and waste generation [1]. Moreover,
disposable electrochemical sensors minimize the problems associated
with electrode surface fouling since they can be designed for single-use
[2]. Thus, the development of new disposable electrochemical sensors
is of interest, as they can provide reliable, inexpensive, and fast ana-
lytical responses for crucial measurements in different fields such as
biomedical, environmental, and industrial sensing.
Screen-printed electrodes (SPE) were the first devices designed as
disposable sensors and have been successfully used for analytical mea-
surements since the late 1980s [3–6]. The screen-printing technique was
introduced in the early 20th century to produce electronic circuits [7] and
electrodes for solar cells [8]. Since then, this technique has been widely
employed in electroanalysis, allowing the development of new high-
performance sensing platforms. Screen-printing is an extremely versatile
and efficient technique to produce electrodes with several geometries
and different materials in a fast and inexpensive way [2].
The screen-printing technique can be used to produce disposable elec-
trodes, which can be inexpensive, easy to produce, compatible with min-
iaturized systems [9], and extremely versatile, as several chemical modifiers
can be immobilized on the substrate. In the literature, it is possible to find
several recent works that use screen-printing techniques to make new de-
vices, such as the gold nanoparticle-modified disposable biosensors devel-
oped by Zouari et al. [10], the gold screen-printed biomarker stacked with
carbon nanotubes by Premaratne et al. [11], and the electrochemical device
developed by Lamas-Ardisana et al. [12] for detecting multiple redox pairs.
Due to their adhesion characteristics on various substrates, paper,
and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-based electrodes have had a

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: brunocj@ufscar.br (B.C. Janegitz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.127433
Received 11 June 2019; Received in revised form 14 November 2019; Accepted 15 November 2019
Available online 17 November 2019
0925-4005/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al.
significant impact on the field. The pioneering paper-based electro-
analytical device was described by Dungchai et al. [13] in 2009; since
then, paper electrodes have continuously evolved, with new fabrication
methods introduced [14–17]. In this context, paper electrodes have
been successfully used in the electrochemical determination of ascorbic
acid [18,19], catechol [20], dopamine [21], nerve agents [22], and
metal ions [23]. On the other hand, the use of PET stands out due to its
excellent properties, such as chemical and biological inertness, flex-
ibility, dimensional stability, low toxicity, and safe handling [24,25].
Due to the large consumption of this material over the years producing
an increase in the amount of waste, which accumulates in landfills and
oceans as the final destination, this great product has turned into a
great problem given its high degradation resistance. The literature
contains some examples of sensors [26–29] and biosensors [30,31]
made from PET, which are significant initiatives for the recycling and
reuse of this material.
Regardless of the substrate, the production of efficient disposable
electrochemical sensors is highly dependent on the formulation of con-
ductive ink, which is also a real challenge to the large scale production of
analytical devices and flexible electronics [32]. Besides a hydrophobic
binder agent that is able to properly aggregate the conductive particles,
conductive inks must present high chemical stability and excellent adhe-
sion to a variety of substrate materials. Commercial conductive inks fulfill
most of these requirements [13,17]. However, their high cost is a limita-
tion regarding the preparation of disposable electrochemical sensors. This
limitation has encouraged researchers to produce conductive inks with
different conductive materials, such as Cu [33] and Ag [16] nanoparticles
and Pt-decorated graphite [34]. The variety of conductive materials fa-
cilitates the creation of new inks, especially carbon-based inks. In this
context, Metters and Banks et al. stand out as modern pioneers of this
technique, for their work with disposable carbon electrodes, using dif-
ferent allotropes, such as graphite [35–37], graphene [38,39] and carbon
nanotubes [40]. Alternative binder agents, such as polystyrene [33], cel-
lulose acetate [41], and nail polish [21], have also been used.
The glass varnish is an alkyd resin intended for decorative purposes,
which is suitable for glass, ceramics, and porcelain due to its transparent
and shiny finish. The alkyd resin is widely used as a binder agent for the
manufacture of different kinds of inks since it presents excellent chemical
and mechanical properties such as film hardness, durability, abrasion
resistance, self-oxidative cure, and compatibility with various polymers
[42,43]. It is mainly composed of glycerol, pentaerythritol, phthalic acid,
glycerides and fatty acids, all of which are compounds that give it
characteristics such as flexibility, fast-drying, and exceptional adhesion
[44]. Therefore, due to these properties, this resin has great potential to
be used in the preparation of cheap and efficient conductive inks.
In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the suit-
ability of a conductive carbon ink prepared with graphite powder and
glass varnish to develop disposable electrochemical sensors. Aiming to
evaluate the versatility of this conductive ink, two kinds of disposable
sensors, a single-electrode PE and a three-electrode SPE were studied; the
electroanalytical performance of these devices was evaluated using
phenolic compounds and the hormone estriol as model analytes.
2. Experimental
2.1. Reagents
The chemicals used to prepare the solutions were of analytical grade
and were used as received. All of the solutions were prepared with
ultrapure water (resistivity ≥18 MΩ cm). Graphite from Fisher
Chemical™ (New Jersey, USA) or Sigma-Aldrich® (São Paulo, Brazil)
with a particle diameter < 20 μm and glass varnish (ACRILEX®, São
Paulo, Brazil) were used to prepare carbon conductive inks.
Quantitative filter paper (model C42, 9.0 cm diameter and particles
retention of 1−2 μm) from Unifil® (Alvorada, Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil) and sulfite A4 size commercial paper (density = 75 gm−2) from
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Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433
Suzano Report® Premium (Pernambuco, Brazil) were used to prepare
the paper electrodes. The screen-printed electrodes were made by using
PET sheets reused from beverage bottles. Estriol pharmaceutical sam-
ples used for the analytical performance tests were the Ovestrion® pill
(Laboratories Eurofarma, Itapevi, Brazil) and the Stele® vaginal cream
(Biolab Sanus pharmaceutical, Taboão da Serra, Brazil).
2.2. Apparatus
The electrochemical studies were performed with a potentiostat/
galvanostat μAUTOLAB type III or AUTOLAB PGSTAT204, both from
Metrohm Autolab (Utrecht, Netherlands). Both instruments were in-
terfaced to a personal computer and managed by NOVA 2.1 software. A
three-electrode system was used to perform the electrochemical mea-
surements using paper electrodes as the working electrode, a platinum
wire as the auxiliary electrode, and an Ag/AgCl/KClsat as the reference
electrode. The working, auxiliary, and pseudo-reference electrodes of
the screen-printed PET electrode were made of graphite.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were performed with a
Vega 3 LMU (TESCAN, Brno-Kohoutovice, Czech Republic) system oper-
ating at 30 kV; the electrodes were covered by carbon tape. Fourier trans-
form infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements were carried out with a
Tensor II spectrophotometer (Bruker, Germany) with a resolution of
4.0 cm−1 in the absorbance mode. FTIR spectra were acquired in the range
from 400 to 4000 cm−1, and samples were prepared in KBr at a ratio of
1:100. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were performed by a Miniflex
II X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku), with a radiation source of CuKa, ranging
from 4° to 90°, with a step of 0.02° and 10° per minute of analysis time.
The carbon conductive ink used to prepare the screen-printed
electrodes was blended with a double asymmetric centrifuge
SpeedMixer™ Dac 150.1 FVZ-K (FlackTec Inc., Landrum, USA) with 2
repeating cycles at 3500 rpm for 180 s. The electrodes were constructed
with the same design as that described by Orzari et al. [20], and the
masks were prepared by using a cutting printer (Silhouette model
Cameo 3, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais) managed by Silhouette Studio®
software. The electrical contact with the potentiostat was achieved
using a lab-made connector, as also proposed by Orzari et al. [20].
2.3. Preparation of the paper electrodes
The paper electrodes were produced according to the procedure
described by Pradela-Filho et al. [21]. The carbon conductive ink was
prepared by hand-mixing the graphite and glass varnish in the ratio of
1:1 (m:m). For each batch of electrodes, 150 mg of the conductive ink
was prepared, and 500 μL of acetone was added to provide suitable
viscosity. The freshly prepared carbon conductive ink was spread onto a
piece (5.0 × 1.0 cm) of sulfite or quantitative filter paper using a paint-
brush. The piece of paper containing the carbon conductive ink was
dried for 12 h at room temperature and cut into pieces of 0.5 × 1.0 cm.
The area of the proposed electrode was delimited to a diameter of 3 mm
with a circular adhesive. An insulating layer had to be assembled on the
back of the electrodes to minimize water absorption via capillary action,
as described by Metters et al. [45]. The assembly process and a re-
presentative image of the paper electrode are shown in Fig. 1A–B.
The average cost of each conductive ink component and the paper
substrate was computed, and the cost to prepare 150 mg of the con-
ductive ink was estimated. Considering a loss of 20 %, this amount of
conductive ink provided 8 electrodes, leading to a value of approxi-
mately U$ 0.05 per electrode. However, in this configuration, only the
working electrode was constructed. On the other hand, the costs of the
auxiliary and reference electrodes were not computed.
2.4. Preparation of screen-printed electrodes
A double asymmetric centrifuge was employed to produce screen-
printed electrode conductive ink, so that an improved and complete
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al.
Fig. 1. A) Schematic representation of the assembling process. B) Image of the paper electrode.
homogenization could be achieved. As a result, this ink composition
consisted of 2:1 (m:m) of graphite and glass varnish. However, as the
process required a certain viscosity, 20 % (m:m) of a proper glass var-
nish solvent was added. Then, beverage bottles were cut to improve
their handling and pre-treated with a 70 % ethanol solution to clean
their surface and enhance wettability [46]. After that, PET pieces were
sanded with conventional sandpaper (nº 220 from 3 M) to produce
more adherent substrates. To spread the ink, an adhesive label mask
(27.94 × 21.59 cm) containing the cutout of the three-electrode system
was glued to the PET surface. The ink was deposited on the adhesive
masks and spread in one direction only. Immediately after the ink ap-
plication, the masks were removed, and the device was left to dry for
24 h at room temperature. After that, the screen-printed electrodes
were finished, and the electrochemical studies were performed
(Fig. 2A). The developed device was ∼2.0 cm long (Fig. 2B1), which is
an adequate size that allows the analysis of micro-volumes with low
chemical consumption and waste generation, presenting a geometric
radius of ∼2.4 mm and an area of ∼18 mm in the working electrode.
After raising the average values of each conductive ink component, the
relative costs of each component for the production of 5 g of ink were
calculated. With the amount produced, it was possible to make a total of
50 electrodes with a loss percentage of 20 %, and an estimated total
value of ∼U$ 0.59, with each unit having an aggregate value of ∼U$
0.01. Several folds and hand manipulation of the dried ink/device were
performed to evaluate its mechanical resistance (Fig. 2B2). No de-
formation or conductivity loss was observed during these handling
tests, indicating that the conductive ink produced was able to provide
both electrical conductivity and some flexibility to the final screen-
printed electrode device.
2.5. Estriol sample analyses
Three distinct samples were analyzed: water collected in the city of
Araras − Brazil (22º18'22.6" S 47º22'52.1" W) and two commercial
pharmaceutical samples, the first being a vaginal cream and the second, a
pill. The water sample was fortified with known concentrations of estriol
before analysis by square wave voltammetry (SWV). The pharmaceutical
samples had different treatments. The vaginal cream contained 1 mg g−1
estriol in its formulation; therefore, to obtain a stock solution of 1.0 mmol
L−1 estriol, 0.29 g of cream was dispersed in deionized water, given that
this cream mass contains ∼2.9 × 10−4 g of estriol (MM =288.38 g
mol−1). For preparation of the tablet, units were macerated and dispersed
in ethanol to obtain a stock solution of 1.0 mmol L−1 estriol. From these
stocks, solutions of known concentrations were prepared for analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Paper electrodes
3.1.1. Optimization of paper electrode preparation
The paper electrodes were initially prepared by spreading 100 mg of
the conductive ink on the filter paper pieces (5.0 × 1.0 cm). These paper
pieces were weighed before and after the ink application, and the mass of
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Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433
the conductive ink that was effectively impregnated was determined by
calculating the difference. Following this procedure, it was observed that
the amount of the ink effectively impregnated on the paper substrate was
7.5 ± 0.7 mg cm−2 (N = 4) when 100 mg of the conductive ink was
spread. The electrodes prepared according to this procedure gave low
background currents and showed well-defined voltammetric peaks for
the electrochemical probe [Fe(CN)6]4− with peak potential separation
(ΔEp) of approximately 150 mV, which is significantly lower than the
observed for other paper-based electrodes proposed in the literature
[14,40–42]. Fig. S1 (presented as Supplementary Information) shows the
cyclic voltammograms recorded in the presence and absence of 1.0 mmol
L−1 [Fe(CN)6]4− at a scan rate of 100 mV s−1.
The composition of conductive ink strongly affects the electro-
chemical performance of the electrodes, and the effect of this parameter
on both the voltammetry of [Fe(CN)6]4− and stability was evaluated.
Stability was assessed through 100 potential cycles in the presence of
1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe(CN)6]4− (in 1.0 mol L−1 KCl) using paper electrodes
prepared with inks at different compositions. The 100th cyclic vol-
tammograms for the different carbon ink compositions are shown in
Fig. 3A. The influence of the number of cycles over the cathodic vol-
tammetric charge is shown in Fig. 3B.
As shown in Fig. 3A, the paper electrode prepared with 60 % of glass
varnish provided a poor voltammetric profile with low peak currents
and ΔEp =340 mV. This behavior is indicative of an electrode with high
electrical resistance, which is expected for this electrode, regarding the
high amount of binder agent (an electrical isolating) used to prepare it.
The electrodes containing 20 and 40 % of glass varnish showed higher
peak currents, but exhibited some variation in their voltammetric
charge which was higher than 10 % after 100 successive potential cy-
cles, indicating that these electrodes were less stable than the other
compositions. This behavior can be ascribed to a swelling effect, which
increases the electrochemical area and, therefore, the voltammetric
charge. The swelling effect is favored when the paper substrate is not
efficiently covered by the conductive ink, which allows penetration of
the supporting electrolyte into the paper by capillarity action [45]. The
results from Fig. 3B show that the conductive inks prepared with 20 and
40 % of glass varnish have a low covering ability and were not ap-
propriate for the construction of disposable electrochemical sensors.
The best combination of voltammetric profile for [Fe(CN)6]4−/3− redox
couple and electrode stability was obtained with the paper electrode
prepared with 50 % glass varnish and 50 % graphite (m:m). Therefore,
this composition was adopted in all subsequent experiments.
The effect of the paper substrate used to produce paper electrodes
was studied using quantitative filter paper and office sulfite paper (Fig.
S2). The office paper electrode was observed to have a poor voltam-
metric profile (ΔEp =340 mV) compared with the quantitative filter
paper (ΔEp = 105 mV), which is in good agreement with the previous
report by Adkins et al. [1]. Based on this result, the quantitative filter
paper was selected as the best substrate.
The next step in this study was to evaluate the effect of the amount
of carbon ink spread on the quantitative filter paper piece
(5.0 × 1.0 cm). In this study, electrodes were prepared with 100 and
150 mg of carbon ink total mass. These results are presented in Figs. S3
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al. Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Fig. 2. (A) Schematic representation of the conductive ink and screen-printed electrode preparation. (1) Mixing of glass varnish, solvent, and graphite. (2)
Preparation of PET substrate and ink application. (3) Finished disposable electrochemical sensor ready for the (4) electrochemical measurements. (B) Representation
of the dimensions of the proposed electrode. (1) Electrode length and geometric area of the working electrode. (2) Image of the screen-printed electrode and folded
device demonstrating the electrode flexibility.

Fig. 3. A) 100th cyclic voltammograms of paper electrodes

prepared with different contents of glass varnish. (―) 20 %; (
) 40 %; ( ) 50 %; and ( ) 60 % of glass varnish. Cyclic vol-
tammograms recorded in 1.0 mol L−1 KCl + 1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe
(CN)6]4−. ʋ =100 mV s−1. B) Normalized cathodic voltam-
metric charge as a function of the number of voltammetric
cycles. The voltammetric charge was normalized against the
voltammetric charge observed for the first voltammetric cycle
(taken as 100%).

4
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al.
and S4. Fig. S3 shows that paper electrodes produced with 150 mg of
carbon ink had better reproducibility, with relative standard deviation
(RSD) for the cathodic peak current (Ipc) for [Fe(CN)6]4−/3− redox
couple of 6.5% (N = 4). RSD for paper electrodes prepared with 100 mg
of carbon conductive ink was 21% (N = 4), indicating that this ex-
perimental condition is unsuitable. By weighing the paper before and
after the carbon ink application, we found that electrodes prepared with
150 mg of carbon ink had 10 ± 1.0 mg cm−2 (N = 4) of carbon con-
ductive ink effectively impregnated onto the paper piece. This value is
higher than that observed when 100 mg of the ink was used, which was
7.5 mg cm−2. Therefore, the amount of the conductive ink effectively
impregnated onto paper substrate depends on the total amount of ink
that was initially spread on the paper substrate.
Considering that 150 mg of conductive ink was spread on 5.0 cm2
paper pieces, the total mass of the conductive ink impregnated was
50 mg. This result shows that about 33% of the total amount of carbon
ink spread on the paper piece was forcefully impregnated, while the
remaining ink was lost to the paintbrush. Fig. 3A shows that even after
100 successive voltammetric cycles, the paper electrodes still show the
voltammetric peaks for the electrochemical probe [Fe(CN)6]4−/3−. This
result indicates that even though the paper electrodes were designed for
single-use, they can also be used for multiple experiments if necessary.
Based on these results, 150 mg of the conductive ink was adopted to
prepare paper electrodes for further analyses. The reproducibility of the
fabrication method was evaluated with five electrodes made in different
batches (Fig. S5). An RSD of 9% (N = 5) for Ipc values for the [Fe
(CN)6]4−/3− redox couple was obtained, indicating satisfactory re-
producibility. The RSD value found with paper electrodes prepared in
the same batch was 4% (N = 4). The conductive ink was spread onto a
5.0 cm2 paper piece, cut in smaller pieces of 0.5 × 1.0 cm, which were
used as the electrodes. As four electrodes have shown almost the same
response for the [Fe(CN)6]4−/3− redox couple (RSD = 4%), it can be
concluded that the conductive ink was spread onto the paper piece with
an acceptable uniformity despite its manual spreading.
3.1.2. Characterization of the paper electrodes
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the filter paper
substrate before and after spreading 150 mg carbon conductive ink are
shown in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4A, it is possible to observe the cellulose fibers
of the paper. On the other hand, in Fig. 4B we can observe the con-
ductive ink spread uniformly on the paper piece, indicating that the
substrate was entirely covered with the proposed carbon conductive
ink. Also, Fig. 4B shows graphite agglomerates smaller than 100 μm
uniformly distributed along the paper substrate. This is a highly ad-
vantageous morphology since it can produce paper electrodes with a
high active electrochemical area.
The active electrochemical area of the paper electrodes was determined
by using chronoamperometry and Cottrell’s equation (Eq. (1)) [47].
nFAD1/2C
i (t ) =
1/2t 1/2 (1)
Where i(t) is the current in a specific time in Ampere, n is the number of
electrons transferred in the electrochemical reaction, F is Faraday constant,
A is the electroactive area in cm2, D is the diffusion coefficient of the
electrochemical probe in cm2 s−1, C is the redox probe concentration in
mol cm−3, and t is the time in s. The measured areas were compared to the
active area of a conventional 3 mm diameter glassy carbon electrode
(GCE). The parameters used to calculate the electrochemical active area
values were: concentration of [Fe(CN)6]4− = 1.0 × 10−5 mol cm−3,
Faraday constant = 96,485 C mol−1; number of electrons transferred = 1;
an average diffusion coefficient of the ferrocyanide ion in 0.5 mol L−1
KCl = 6.39 × 10−6 cm2 s−1 [48]. Fig. S6 shows the chronoamperometric
curves and the I vs. t−1/2 plots; the results are summarized in Table S1. As
expected, the paper electrode gave a higher electrochemical active area due
to its granular morphology (Fig. 4B), when compared with the smooth
surface of GCEs.
5
Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433
Fig. S7 shows the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
response for paper electrode and GCE in the presence of the [Fe
(CN)6]3−/4− redox couple. As can be observed, the GCE had the lowest
charge transfer resistance of ∼1.1 kΩ, and the paper electrode pre-
sented a charge transfer resistance of ∼4 kΩ. The better performance of
GCE was expected regarding its higher electrical conductivity compared
to the carbon ink. Although the performance of paper electrodes was
inferior to GCE, they can be inexpensively prepared as disposable
electrodes, which remarkably decreases the cost per experiment.
The proposed paper electrodes were also compared with GCE, and
the voltammetric profiles are observed in Fig. 5A. For the [Fe(CN)6]3−/
4−
redox couple, GCE presented ΔEp of 89 mV, and the paper electrode
exhibited ΔEp of 149 mV. The value of the paper electrode is acceptable
as ΔEp values higher than 200 mV are frequently observed in the lit-
erature [17,49–51]. Therefore, the mixture of glass varnish and gra-
phite has excellent potential to produce disposable electrochemical
sensors with high performance and low cost. To confirm the stability of
the electrodes for analytical applications in neutral media, a whole
analytical curve for [Fe(CN)6]4− was constructed using the same paper
electrode (Fig. 5B−C). The plots of Ipa and Ipc vs. the concentration of
[Fe(CN)6]4− were linear from 0.1 mmol L−1 to 1.0 mmol L−1, ac-
cording to the equations: Ipa (μA) = 7.57 C [Fe(CN)6]4− (mmol L−1),
R2 = 0.9998 and Ipc(μA) = −7.34 C [Fe(CN)6]4− (mmol L−1), and
R2 = 0.9996. This study indicates that the paper electrodes are stable
over the time scale of this experiment, since Ipa and Ipc showed an ex-
cellent linear correlation with the [Fe(CN)6]4− concentration. There-
fore, even though paper electrodes were designed as disposable devices,
they can be used for multiple measurements if needed.
The stability of the paper electrodes was also evaluated in neutral,
acidic, and alkaline aqueous solutions (Fig. S8A–B). The electrodes
were stable in neutral and acidic aqueous solutions over 100 con-
secutive cycles of potential, with a voltammetric charge variation below
5%. Despite the lower stability in alkaline solution, the electrode can
still be successfully employed for analytical applications in alkaline
solutions if it is designed as a disposable electrochemical sensor
3.1.3. Analytical performance for phenolic compounds
The paper electrodes were evaluated for measuring the phenolic
compounds dopamine, catechol, and hydroquinone as proof of concept.
Dopamine is an essential human neurotransmitter, and dopamine defi-
ciency causes many problems to human health, among them Parkinson’s
disease [52]. Therefore, the reliable determination of dopamine in bio-
logical fluid samples is important for diagnosis and treatment monitoring
purposes. Catechol and hydroquinone are phenolic compounds that are
widely used in the textile, cosmetics, and dye industries [53]. These
compounds are very harmful to the environment, and there is growing
concern about their spread into the environment as pollutants. Therefore,
the development of analytical methods for the quantification of dopa-
mine, catechol, and hydroquinone is highly relevant. These three phe-
nolic compounds are electroactive, and are often chosen as model ana-
lytes to evaluate the analytical performance of new electrochemical
sensors [54]. In order to better observe the standard deviations of each
sample concentration in their respective analytical curves, Fig. S9 de-
monstrates a maximized shape of each point. The voltammetric re-
sponses of these analytes are presented in Fig. 6A−C (dopamine, ca-
techol, and hydroquinone, respectively), and the oxidation reactions for
these three phenolic compounds are shown in Fig. S10. The analytical
parameters obtained for each analyte are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that wide linear ranges, excellent linearity, and good
limits of detection (LOD) were obtained for the analytes, indicating that
the paper electrodes prepared with glass varnish and graphite are pro-
mising as disposable electrochemical sensors. LOD values were calcu-
lated using three times the standard deviation of the blank signal (N = 5)
divided by the slope from the analytical curve (LOD = 3.0 × SDblank/
slope). As can be seen in Table S2, the analytical performance of elec-
trodes is acceptable when compared with other reported electrochemical
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al. Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Fig. 4. SEM images of the filter paper substrate before (A) and after (B) spreading the carbon conductive ink.

sensors. Also, paper electrodes are simple to make, disposable and in-
expensive, which are the additional advantages of these devices.
3.2. Screen-printed electrodes
3.2.1. Morphological and electrochemical characterization
To achieve the desired electrical conductivity in ink, not only must
the conductive species be dispersed in the polymeric vehicle, but the
structure must also allow free bands for the electrons to go through.
Such architecture can be reached by diminishing the conductive par-
ticle size and/or adjusting the total material percentage, as poor con-
ductivities were provided by less than 50 % of the conductive compo-
nent [55]. Therefore, the composition used in this study can produce a
highly conductive material, which is strongly desirable for the pre-
paration of disposable electrochemical sensors.
Alkyd resin has a high number of functional groups, such as esters,
ketones, and ethers, which increases the interaction between the resin
and the graphite particles, providing an efficient dispersion. To achieve
a better understanding of the ink, morphological and spectroscopic
characterizations were carried out for the final conductive ink and its
components. Fig. 7A presents the SEM images of the screen-printed
electrode device. In Fig. 7A1−3, the polymeric PET substrate can be
observed to present a relatively homogeneous and smooth surface with
a slight roughness induced by the sanding process. When the con-
ductive ink is coated on the substrate, a completely different mor-
phology is observed (Fig. 7A1, A4, and A5), demonstrating that the PET
substrate was efficiently covered by the conductive ink. For the ink
layer scattered on the PET surface, a rough and porous topography (50
μm) was observed, in addition to the graphite blades exposed on the
surface (10 μm), characteristics that increase the geometric area. This
result may be related to the manual screen-printing technique for
making the devices. This graphite-glass varnish ink was also char-
acterized by using FTIR technique, which provides information about
the functional groups present in the conductive ink. By knowing these
functional groups, it is possible to discern, or even expect, different
electrochemical behaviors, especially in the presence of the analyte.
Fig. 7B shows the FTIR spectra of the graphite (A), graphite-glass var-
nish composite (B), and glass varnish (C). Spectrum C has the char-
acteristic alkyd resin bands, such as the presence of ester in the COO−
asymmetric and symmetrical vibration at 1730 and 1450 cm−1,

Fig. 5. A) Cyclic voltammograms recorded in 1.0 mol L−1 KCl in presence of 1.0/1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe(CN)6]3−/[Fe(CN)6]4− for GCE (a) and paper electrode (b), ʋ
=100 mV s−1. B) Cyclic voltammograms recorded with a same paper electrode in 1.0 mol L−1 KCl in the presence of different concentrations of [Fe(CN)6]4− at
100 mV s−1. a) 0.1; b) 0.2; c) 0.3; d) 0.4; e) 0.5; f) 0.6; g) 0.7; h) 0.8; i) 0.9; j) 1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe(CN)6]4−. C) The respective analytical curves.

6
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al. Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Fig. 6. A1) Baseline-corrected SWV voltammograms recorded with paper electrode in 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at different concentrations of dopamine.
a) 15; b) 25; c) 35; d) 45; e) 55; f) 65; g) 75; h) 85 and i) 100 μmol L−1 dopamine. Voltammetric conditions: f =75 Hz; ΔE =50 mV; ΔEs =2 mV; A2) Analytical curve
for dopamine. B1) LSV voltammograms recorded with paper electrode in 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at different concentrations of catechol. a) 10; b) 20;
c) 40; d) 60; e) 80; f) 100; g) 200; h) 400; i) 600; j) 800 and l) 1000 μmol L−1 catechol. ʋ =100 mV s−1; B2) Analytical curve for catechol. C1) LSV voltammograms
recorded with paper electrode in 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at different concentrations of hydroquinone. a) 10; b) 20; c) 40; d) 60; e) 80; f) 100; g) 200; h)
400; i) 600; j) 800 and l) 1000 μmol L−1 hydroquinone. ʋ =100 mV s−1; C2) Analytical curve for hydroquinone.

Table 1
Analytical parameters obtained for the phenolic analytes using the paper electrodes.
Analyte Technique Linear range/ μmol L−1 R2 LOD/ μmol L−1 Sensitivity/ μA μmol−1 L

Dopamine SWV 15 - 100 0.9998 4.1 0.109

Catechol LSV 10 - 1000 0.9995 9.0 0.021
Hydroquinone LSV 10 - 1000 0.9999 5.3 0.020

respectively [56]; CeO–C and CeO stretch vibrations at 1240 and
1150 cm−1 [57,58]. In spectrum B, we observed a decrease in the resin
ester band by 1730 cm−1 and an increase in the vibration CeC com-
pared to spectrum A. The decrease in C=O bands may be related to the
high amount of graphite exposed on the electrode surface, partially
blocking the exposure of the varnish, since the band remains in the
spectrum but at a smaller intensity. The spectra of the other char-
acterizations corroborate this explanation, demonstrating the decrease
in bands after the joining of the compounds. Also, it is possible to ob-
serve similar bands in the spectra obtained for the three materials: at
3421 cm−1N–H vibration and OeH bands, attributed to hydrogen
bonds; C]C bands at 1636 cm−1 referring to alkenes; CeC bands at
1386 cm−1, referring to alkanes; and CeH bands at 613 cm−1, referring
to aromatics (out-of-plane bend). Therefore, the FTIR results suggest
the existence of interactions between the graphite and glass varnish,
which is consistent with the formation of the conductive carbon ink.
As shown in Fig. 7C, XRD analyses were carried out for the graphite
powder (a), the graphite-glass varnish composite (b), and the varnish (c),
in order to better understand the crystallinity of the materials. The ob-
tained alkyd resin profile (inset) is in agreement with that found in the
literature [59], in which the authors used the amorphous alkyd resin
profile to determine changes in the object structure. The expected (002)
plane for graphite [60–62] was found at 2θ = 26.4° (crystal size:
13.9 nm; layer spacing: 1.74 Å). For the composite, the noted graphite
plane slightly shifted to 26.2°, with a crystal size of 26.9 nm, and no
significant difference to the layer spacing.
As this device uses a carbon reference electrode, it is of great in-
terest to investigate the differences that this could bring. In order to
observe the redox response, different electrodes were used with dif-
ferent references: carbon, Ag/AgCl (KClsat) and Ag ink was evaluated (v
=100 mV s−1). The obtained results are present in Fig. S11. The
pseudo-reference of carbon was expected to present a shift in the Ep,

7
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al. Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Fig. 7. (A) SEM images of the screen-printed electrode device: 1−3 the PET substrate. 4 and 5 the PET substrate covered by the conductive ink. (B) FTIR spectra of
graphite (a), graphite-glass varnish (b) and glass varnish (c). (C) XRD spectra of graphite powder (a), graphite-glass varnish composite (b) and varnish (c and inset
with zoom). (D) Cyclic voltammograms recorded in 0.1 mol L−1 KCl in the presence of 1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe(CN)6]3−/4− for the screen-printed electrode at different
scan rates. (E) Plots of anodic (◼) and cathodic ( ) peak currents vs. the square root of the scan rate (v1/2).

8
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al.
due to the different specific conditions required by this type of electrode
[63,64]. Therefore, a shift of −210 mV from the conventional Ag/AgCl
(KClsat), and of −145 mV from the Ag inked electrode was observed.
The difference between the current magnitudes could be due to the
conventional Ag/AgCl electrode being too big and deforming the so-
lution drop, thus producing an unavoidable charge concentration. In
the literature, it is possible to find works that bring new ideas for dis-
posable devices using a carbon electrode as a pseudo-reference, which
has been applied with success in other works already present in the
literature [26,65,66].
Several tests were performed to evaluate the device flexibility. Firstly,
the same electrode system was bent 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 times, followed
by subsequent analysis, as previously described, at v =100 mV s−1 (Fig.
S12A). In these voltammograms, it can be observed that the current re-
mains mostly the same (deviation of 1.2 %) following bending 20 times.
Around 40 bends, the current starts to decrease, and the device is no
longer useful. However, as a disposable device with a short life span, it is
unlikely that these many bends will occur to incapacitate the measure-
ment. The following test aimed to evaluate the current response of a flexed
device, with the results shown in Fig. S12B It is of interest to note that no
current or potential impairment was obtained under these conditions.
Also, the voltammetric response was analyzed with completely flat and
electrodes bent to 90°, as presented in Fig. S12C. It can be seen that the
peak potentials also remained the same, but with a slight loss of current
magnitude: 27.0 μAflat, and 22.8 μAbend. This behavior may have been due
to some noticeable deformation in the working or counter electrode.
The device stability was estimated by cyclic voltammetry at v
=50 mV s−1, using 20 different electrodes, aiming to reveal the current
deviation between them. Therefore, a relative standard error (RSD) of
3.5 % was obtained (n = 20) (Fig. S12D). Another test, targeting the
electrode endurance, was performed by repeating the same measure-
ment 10 times with the same electrode. In these, the obtained RSD
equals 5.6 % (n = 10) (Fig. S12E). Both of these results demonstrate
that, despite the devices being manually made, they were stable and
similar results were achieved for many devices.
The active electrochemical area of the working electrode of the
screen-printed electrode device was estimated based on the
Randles–Sevcik equation (Eq (2)):
Ip = ± 2.69 × 105 n3/2ACD3/2v1/2 (2)
Where Ip is the peak current, n is the number of electrons in the reac-
tion, A the electroactive area, C the redox probe concentration, D the
diffusion coefficient of the probe, and v the scan rate. The slope of the
plot Ipa vs. ν1/2 from the cyclic voltammograms recorded at different
scan rates in the presence of the electrochemical probe [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−
(Fig. 7D, E) was used to estimate A. The diffusion coefficient of [Fe
(CN)6]4− in 0.1 mol L−1 KCl used in this calculation was 7.60 × 10−6
cm2 s−1 [63]. The obtained active electrochemical area was
0.186 ± 0.001 cm2 which was higher than that obtained for paper
electrodes, indicating that the use of the double asymmetric centrifuge
promotes a more efficient dispersion of the graphite, leading to a higher
electrochemical area.
The electrochemical characterization of the electrode was per-
formed by EIS and cyclic voltammetry in the presence of an equimolar
solution of 1.0 mmol L−1 [Fe(CN)6]3−/4− as the electrochemical probe.
These studies were conducted using a 0.1 mol L–1 KCl solution as the
supporting electrolyte. The charge transfer resistance (Rct) obtained for
the electrode was 39 kΩ (Fig. S13). The ΔEp obtained for the redox
couple was 560 mV (Fig. 7D), which is comparable with other dis-
posable electrochemical sensors proposed in the literature [17,49–51].
3.2.2. Analytical performance of screen-printed electrodes for Estriol
determination
The detection of endocrine-disrupting compounds in water and ef-
fluents is of emerging importance because of their potential to impact
9
Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433
human and environmental health [67,68]. Among the endocrine dis-
ruptors, estriol (E3; 1,3,5,(10)-estratriene-3,16α, 17β-triol) has re-
ceived attention due to its inherent association with the human re-
production cycle and pregnancy health. Moreover, some studies have
reported that high levels of estriol may be related to premature births,
which is one of the main causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality
[69–72]. Therefore, as a proof of concept, the screen-printed electrode
devices were employed for estriol determination in environmental and
pharmaceutical samples.
The electrochemical behavior of the hormone was studied by cyclic
voltammetry in a 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.0) in the
presence of 100 μmol L−1 estriol at the scan rate (v) of 50 mV
s−1 (Fig. 8A). It is possible to observe that the estriol electrooxidation
gives an anodic peak at 0.53 V with Ipa =3.0 μA. The redox mechanism
for estriol is shown in Fig. S14, following the behavior of other estro-
gens such as estrone and 17-β-estradiol [73,74]. Then, the pulse vol-
tammetric technique that demonstrated the best behavior for analyte
detection was determined. As shown in Fig. 8B, square wave voltam-
metry (SWV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) were tested
using 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer (pH = 5.7) in the presence of 10
μmol L−1 estriol. The SWV technique showed an anodic peak current of
0.7 μA at 0.51 V. The parameters used for the SWV and DPV tests were:
step =5 mV, frequency =25 Hz, modulation amplitude =20 mV, v
=125 mV s−1; and modulation amplitude =25 mV, modulation
time = 0.05 s, v=10 mV s−1, respectively. Considering the fast char-
acteristic of SWV, the higher current was obtained. In addition, the
differential pulse technique, which is known to be slow, hardly had a
distortion-free voltammogram at scan rates greater than 30 mV s−1.
Therefore, the SWV technique was chosen for estriol detection.
The SWV parameters were optimized, and the best values found
were frequency =90 Hz, modulation amplitude =80 mV, and step
potential =9 mV. The effect of pH on the voltammetric response for
estriol was also studied (data not shown), and the best response was
obtained at pH = 6.4.
Under the optimized experimental conditions, analytical curves
were constructed (Fig. 8C). The analytical curve (Fig. 8D) was linear
from 0.1 to 8.0 μmol L−1, according to the equation, Ip (μA) =
2.244 × 10−7 + 0.1971 CE3 (μmol L−1). The LOD, obtained by the
equation (LOD = 3.0 × SDblank/slope) was 0.08 μmol L−1. Reprodu-
cibility studies were performed in the presence of 8.0 μmol L−1 of es-
triol, and the calculated RSD for Ipa values was 3.4 % (N = 7).
The proposed screen-printed devices were applied for the quantifi-
cation of estriol in commercial pharmaceutical samples and spiked tap
water samples. The results from these studies are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 shows that recovery percentages ranging from 85.6–95 %
were obtained, which is a good indicator of the accuracy of the ana-
lyses. Table 2 indicates that the devices can successfully be used for the
determination of estriol in tap water and pharmaceutical samples. The
analytical performance of the screen-printed electrodes for estriol de-
termination was compared with other electroanalytical methods pro-
posed in the literature (Table 3).
As shown in Table 3, the electrodes present satisfactory analytical
performance for estriol determination, showing an even better linear
range and LOD than other carbon-based electrodes described in the
literature. The additional advantages of screen-printed electrodes in-
clude the simplicity and low-cost preparation and their miniaturized
size, which allows analyses with micro-volumes, and minimal sample
consumption and waste generation.
4. Conclusions
This study showed that glass varnish is a promising binder to produce
conductive carbon inks with high electrical conductivity and excellent
adhesion to paper and PET substrates. For both compositions, it was
possible to evaluate their electrochemical behaviors, stability, and mor-
phology, obtaining results that support their use for electrochemical
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al. Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 305 (2020) 127433

Fig. 8. – (A) Cyclic voltammograms of screen-

printed electrodes recorded in 0.1 mol L−1
phosphate buffer solution (pH 7.0) in absence
of estriol (black) and presence of 100 μmol L−1
estriol (red), v =50 mV s−1. (B) DP (black)
and SW (red) voltammograms of screen-
printed electrode recorded in 0.1 mol L−1
phosphate buffer solution (pH 5.7) in the pre-
sence of 10 μmol L−1 estriol. (C) SW voltam-
mograms of screen-printed electrode recorded
in 0.1 mol L−1 phosphate buffer solution (pH
6.4) in the presence of different estriol con-
centrations. (D) The analytical curve for estriol.

Table 2
Results of estriol determination in tap water and pharmaceutical formulation samples using the devices.
Sample Labeled/mg g−1 Added/μmol L−1 Found Recovered/%

Tap water — 0.80 0.74 ± 0.03 μmol L−1 93.1

— 5.00 4.30 ± 0.08 μmol L−1 85.6
Vaginal cream A 1.0 — 0.90 ± 0.09 mg g−1 90.0
Vaginal cream B 1.0 — 0.91 ± 0.06 mg g−1 91.0
Tablet 2.0 — 1.90 ± 0.07 mg g−1 95.0

Table 3 conductive inks prepared by hand-mixing graphite and glass varnish, the
Comparison between the analytical parameters for estriol determination by reproducibility of the fabrication method was satisfactory, with RSD
using the screen-printed electrode and other carbon-based electrodes proposed values of 9 % (N = 5) for the [Fe(CN)6]3−/4−. To prepare the electrode
in the literature. devices printed on canvas, glass varnish and graphite were mixed and
Electrode Linear range (μmol L−1) LOD (μmol L−1) Reference ground using the asymmetric double centrifugation technique, which in
turn allowed a more conductive material in the ink formulation. This
CNB/AgNP 0.7–3.0 0.16 [73] approach provided an excellent dispersion, improving the electro-
μTED 1.0–1000 0.053 [75]
chemical area of the working electrode and giving a consequent higher
rGO-AgNps 0.1–3.0 0.021 [76]
RGO-GNPs-PS/GCE 0.22–1.5 0.48 [68] current response. In addition, these devices have been successfully em-
GP-GV/PET 0.1–8.0 0.080 This work ployed for the quantification of estriol in water and dispensing phar-
maceutical samples, proving electrode functionality. Therefore, this
CNB/AgNP: glassy carbon electrodes carbon black nanoballs decorated with study has shown that glass-varnish-prepared carbon conductive inks are
silver nanoparticles; μTED: thread-based electroanalytical devices constructed suitable for developing low cost, miniaturized disposable electrochemical
using a cotton thread as the solution channel and screen-printed electrodes
sensors that can be used for micro-volume analysis with minimal waste
surface modified with carbon nanotubes; rGO-AgNPs: reduced griaphene oxide
generation and reagent and sample consumption.
modified with silver nanoparticles; RGO-GNPs-PS/GCE: glassy carbon elec-
trode with reduced graphene oxide, gold nanoparticles, and potato starch.
Declaration of Competing Interest
analysis. SEM images of the electrochemical sensors showed that the
paper and PET substrates were coated with the conductive ink and The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
showed evenly distributed graphite agglomerates on the substrates. The interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
FTIR spectra show the expected bands for the alkyd resin and its inter- ence the work reported in this paper.
action with the other paint components, reinforcing the homogeneity of
the final product. The paper electrodes showed stability in acid and Acknowledgments
neutral medium; good voltammetric profiles in the presence of [Fe
(CN)6]3−/4− redox pairs and sensitivity in determining phenolic com- The authors are grateful to FINEP (MCT/Finep/CT-INFRA01/2010),
pounds. Although these devices have been produced with carbon FAPEMIG (APQ-02905-15 and APQ-02078-15), CAPES (1687539),

10
L.A. Pradela-Filho, et al.
FAPESP (2019/04085-7, 2017/21097-3, 2016/12697-4, 2017/21898-
6) and CNPq (447668/2014-5 and 443315/2014-0) for the financial
support. D. A. G. Araújo and L. A. Pradela-Filho are grateful to CAPES
for the scholarships (finance code 001). The authors would also like to
acknowledge the Multiuser Laboratory of Chemistry Institute at the
Universidade Federal de Uberlândia for providing the equipment and
technical support for experiments involving scanning electron micro-
scopy. The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. Charles S. Henry from
Colorado State University for his revision of the English and scientific
content.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.127433.
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12.054.
Lauro A. Pradela-Filho received his Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Chemistry
(Analytical Chemistry) from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU), Ituiutaba - MG,
Brazil, in 2014 and 2016, respectively. Currently, he is a Ph.D. student in Chemistry from
UFU. He was a visiting scholar, as part of his Ph.D., in the laboratory of Charles S. Henry
at Colorado State University. His research involves the development of disposable elec-
trochemical sensors and microfluidics devices for the determination of drugs and en-
vironmental pollutants.
Isabela Aparecida de A. Andreotti received the Bachelor degree in Biotechnology
(environmental emphasis) from Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Araras - SP,
Brazil, in 2014. She received the M.S. degree in Genetics and Biology Molecular from
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas - SP, Brazil, in 2016. At present, is PhD
student in Biotechnology at Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos - SP.
Her project of research aims the development of disposable sensors for the detection of
compounds of environmental interest.
Jefferson Henrique de Souza Carvalho is undergraduate in Chemistry at the Federal
University of São Carlos since 2016. His current research interests include electro-
chemistry, electroanalytical chemistry, nanostructured materials, disposable electro-
chemical sensors and development of conductive inks.
Diele A. G. Araújo graduated at Federal University of Uberlandia (UFU), Ituiutaba – MG,
Brazil, in 2015. She received her Master’s degree in Chemistry (Analytical Chemistry)
from the UFU in 2018. She currently is a Ph.D. student from UFU and her research ex-
periences include the development of carbon paste electrodes and disposable screen-
printing electrodes for the voltammetric determination of metal ions and organic and
inorganic species of environmental interest.
Luiz Otávio Orzari is undergraduate in Chemistry at the Federal University of São Carlos
since 2015. His current research interests include electrochemistry, eletroanalytical
chemistry, nanostructured materials, electrochemical sensors and biosensors.
Regina M. Takeuchi received her Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry in 2007 from São Paulo
State University (UNESP), Araraquara-SP, Brazil. Currently, she is Associate Professor of
Chemistry at UFU, Ituiutaba-MG, Brazil. Her current researches are focused on the
electroanalytical determination of inorganic and organic compounds in pharmaceutical,
biological, and environmental samples.
André L. Santos received his Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry in 2007 from São Paulo State
University (UNESP), Araraquara-SP, Brazil. He is currently Associate Professor of
Chemistry at UFU, Ituiutaba-MG, Brazil. His principal research interest is the develop-
ment of new electrochemical sensors using alternative and low-cost materials.
Bruno Campos Janegitz received Ph.D. degree from Federal University of São Carlos, in
2012. He was a postdoctoral researcher at University of São Paulo between 2012 and
2014. At present, he is Professor at Federal University of São Carlos. His research interests
include electroanalytical chemistry, nanostructured electrode materials and modified
electrode surfaces, electrochemical sensors and biosensors for medical and environmental
analysis.