INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

(IEG 104)

Soil & Environment chemistry Ali Salehabadi

alisalehabadi@usm.my
Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry No.172, School of Industrial
by Stanley E. Manahan Technology, USM
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 Soil : 2 lectures

3 Apr. and 17 Apr.

13 Mar. and 27 Mar.

Energy : 2 lectures

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 - Agriculture
- Soils
- Nature and composition of soil
- Acid-Base and ion exchange reaction in soil
- Plant nutrients (Macronutrients in Soil and Micronutrient in
soil)

OUTLINE - Waste and pollutants in soil

- Soil loss and degradation
- Genetic engineering and agriculture
- Agriculture and health

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 Soil-Agriculture-Human
Soil is a critical part of successful agriculture and is the original
source of the nutrients that we use to grow crops.

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 SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
- Agriculture?
Agriculture is the process of producing
food, feed, fiber and many other
desired products by the cultivation of
certain plants and the raising of
domesticated animals (livestock).

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 Cereals Wheat, Corn,
Rice

Animal hay
fodder Crop farming
Plant photosynthesis is used to produce grain, fruit, fiber,
Fruit Sugarcane etc.
Crop farming
divisions
Vegetables Pineapple  Livestock farming
Domesticated animals are grown for:
Sugar beets
- meat, milk, skin, bone, Eggs, wool, hides
Specially - Cattle, sheep, goats, swine, Asses, mules, camels,
crops Tea/coffee buffalo, poultry

Tobacco
SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
Cotton

Cacao
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SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
Soil?
Soil is the final product of weathering action of physical and chemical and
biological processes on rocks.
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms
that capable of supporting plant life on the earth surface.
Soil is consisting of finely divided layer of weathered minerals, and organic
matter.
Soil is the most fundamental requirement for agriculture.
Soil is the most important part of the geosphere.
Soil is the medium that produces most of the food required by most living
things.
Good soil is the most valuable asset a nation can have.
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SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
Keywords (Google search )?

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 SOIL COMPONENTS

[PERCENT
AGE]
Air [PERCENT
AGE]
Mineral
Water
[PERCENT
About 50% of the AGE] [PERCENT About 50% of the
soil volume is pore space AGE] soil volume is solid particles
Organic
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NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
Water and air in soil
o Soil is a variable mixture of materials, water, and gas.
o It is the final product of weathering action of physical and
chemical and biological processes on rocks.
o Normal soil contains air space, solid fraction (5% organic matter,
95% inorganic matter), adsorbed water, surface water.
o Water is part of three phase: Solid-Liquid-Gas
o Water is the basic transport medium for carrying essential plant
nutrients from solid phase into roots, and farthest reaches of the
plant’s leaf structure.
o Transpiration: a process in which the water enters the atmosphere
from the plant's leaves.

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Plants water transport from the soil to the atmosphere Fine structure of soil showing solid, water, air space, etc.

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SOIL PROFILE
Typical soils exhibit distinctive
layers with increasing depth.
These layers are called
“horizons”. Horizons form as a
result of complex interactions
among processes that occur
during weathering. There are
five main horizons:

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 Soil Profile
Typical soils exhibit distinctive layers with increasing depth. These layers are called
“horizons”. Horizons form as the result of complex interactions among processes that occur
during weathering. There are five main horizons:
- O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover consisting
organic materials (20%) such as dead leaves and surface organisms, twigs and fallen
trees. It is the layer in which the roots of small grass are found.
- A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as the topsoil. It
NATURE AND is the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands. Typically, they are made
of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic matter. This layer is most vulnerable to
wind and water erosion. It is also known as. the root.
COMPOSITION - B horizon usually known as subsoil. This horizon is formed below the O, and A horizons

OF SOIL
and may contain high concentrations of silicate clay, iron, aluminium and carbonates. It is
also called the illuviation zone because of the accumulation of minerals. It is the layer in
which the roots of big trees end.

- C horizon lacks all the properties of the layers above it and called weathered parent
rock. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no organic material. It has cemented
sediment and geologic material. There is little activity here although additions and losses
of soluble materials may occur. The C horizon is also known as saprolite.

- R horizon is bedrock, material, compacted and cemented by the weight of the overlying
horizons. It is the unweathered parent material. Rock types found here include granite,
basalt and limestone.
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NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
 Mechanism of water absorption
There is a strong interaction between clays and water in soil.
 Clay structures:
T-type
Tetrahedral,
Octahedral, O-type

Clay
Tetrahedral-Octahedral,
Tetrahedral-Octahedral-Tetrahedral
TO- type

*Available form in Nature: TO and TOT

TOT- type

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 - Clay has a large surface
area to volume.
- About ¼ cup of mineral
clay has more surface area
than a soccer field.
- The large surface area of
clay allows it to
o Adsorb huge amount of
water
o Retain Nutrients
o Stick to other soil
CLAY particles

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 Inorganic components of soil
• The weathering of parent rocks and minerals to
form inorganic soil components results ultimately in
the formation of inorganic colloids.
• These colloids are repositories of water and plant
nutrients.
NATURE AND • Inorganic soli colloids absorb toxic substances.
COMPOSITION • The uptake of plant nutrients by roots is a complex
interactions with the water and inorganic phases, for
OF SOIL example; Nutrient held by inorganic colloids has to
traverse the mineral/water interface and
water/root interface.
• The most common elements in the earth’s crust:
Oxygen (O2), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe),
calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and
magnesium (Mg).
• The most of the mineral fraction of the soil: Silicon
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and Oxygen 16
NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Common soil mineral constitutes:

a) Quartz (SiO4),
b) Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8),
c) Albite (NaAlSi3O8),
d) Epidote {Ca2Al2(Fe3+;Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)},
e) Goethite (FeO(OH)),
f) Magnetite (Fe3O4),
g) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
h) Oxides of manganese (Mg) and titanium (Ti)

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 NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
 Organic matter in soil Humus

Organic compound in Soil

- Organic matter determines soil productivity.
- It serves as a source of food for
Fats, resins,
microorganisms. waxes
 Soil humus
Saccharides
-Humus is the residue left when bacteria and
fungi biodegrade the plant material.
N-containing
-is composed of a base-soluble fraction called organics
humic and fulvic acids, and its insoluble fraction
called humin. Phosphorus
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compounds 18
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 Soil solution is the liquid
phase (aqueous portion) of
soil containing dissolved
matter (solids and gases) ,
from chemical and
biochemical processes in soil.
SOIL SOLUTION
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This medium transports
chemical species to and from
soil particles, and also
provides intimate contact
between the solutes and the
soil particles.
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 ACID-BASE AND ION EXCHANGE REACTIONS IN SOILS
- Cations exchange is one of the most important chemical functions of soils.
- Cation-Exchange-Capacity (CEC): the number of milliequivalents (meq) of cations that can be
exchanged per 100 g of dried soil.

- It is the mechanism by which potassium, calcium,

magnesium, and essential trace-level metals are
made available to plants.

- As nutrient metal ions are taken by roots,

hydrogen ion is exchanged for the metal ions.

Soil}Ca2+ + 2CO2 + 2H2O Soil}(H+)2 + Ca2+(root) + 2HCO3-

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ION EXCHANGE EQUILIBRIA IN SOIL
Exchange constant (Kc): it is a semiquantitative values and is defined as a competition
of different cations for cation exchange sites on soil cation exchangers or the relative
tendency of soil to retain cations (here 𝐾 + and 𝑁𝑎+ ).

𝑁𝐾 𝑁𝑎+
soil}Na+ + K+ soil}K+ + Na+ 𝐾𝐶 =
𝑁𝑁𝑎 𝐾 +
NK : equivalent ionic fractions of potassium bound to soil
NNa : equivalent ionic fractions of sodium bound to soil
[Na+] : concentration of sodium ion in the surrounding soil water
[K+] : concentration of the potassium ion in the surrounding soil water

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 - A soil with a pH below 7 is acid, while one with a pH above 7 is
alkaline.
- There are three types of soils; Neutral, Acidic, Alkaline.
- Some examples of soils:
 Peat Soils,
 Sandy soils,
ACID-BASE  Black sand soils,
SOILS  Muck soils,
 Prairie soils,
 Cat-clay soils

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- Sandy soil is soil comprised of particles that are larger than
0.05 mm and smaller than 2 mm. Sandy soil retains little water
and aerates well because of the large size of its particles.

- Peat soils are the most dominant type of organic soils developed
through centuries under wetland conditions by the accumulation of
partially decomposed and undecomposed plant residues.

- Muck soil is a sapric organic soils that are saturated more than
30 cumulative days in normal years or are artificially drained. In
other words, it is a soil made up primarily of humus from drained
swampland (definition by USDA)
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- Prairie Soils (Mollisols) are dark fertile soils that are formed from the
accumulation organic matter produced by dense root systems of prairie
grasses (definition by USDA). The majority of Mollisols are found in
temperate climates with variable seasonal environments.

- Black sand soils are a well-structured, dark coloured surface horizon

which contain enrichment of high-quality humus down to a depth of
more than 40 cm (60 to 80 cm). It has a high percentage of the cation
exchange capacity which occupied by the basic cations Ca2+, K+,
Mg2+, and a moderate to high content in organic matter.

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- Cat clay soils are also called acid sulfate soils are naturally occurring soils
that are formed under waterlogged conditions. These soils contain iron
sulfide (pyrite) minerals or their oxidation products.
- Why cat? The use of the prefix 'cat' in the cat-clay soil name comes from the
Dutch vernacular. 'Cat-clay soils', or 'acid sulphate soils' is used to denote
soils with cat clay phenomena, those which have a very low pH and yellow
colour after drainage and aeration.
- Cat-clay soils are formed when neutral or basic marine sediments containing
FeS2 (pyrite) become acidic upon oxidation of pyrite when exposed to air.
- Oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) in soil → acid-sulfate soils (cat clays)
FeS2 + 7/2O2 + H2O Fe2+ + 2H+ + 2SO42-

- pH of the cat clay soils is very low ( as low as 3).

** The cat clay soils can be tested for potential acid-sulfate formation using a peroxide test,
where, the pyrite is oxidized using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), as:
FeS2 + 15/2 H2O2 → Fe3+ + H+ + 2SO42- + 7H2O
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Production of mineral acid in soil
Oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) in soil → acid-sulfate soils (cat clays)
FeS2 + 7/2O2 + H2O Fe2+ + 2H+ + 2SO42-

pH of the cat clay soils is very low (~3), commonly found in Delaware, Florida, Newjersey, ….
- Adjustment of soil acidity
Plants grow best in soil with pH near neutrality.
The soil containing sulfur (S) is highly acidic due to the formation of sulfuric acid through a
bacterially mediated reaction. S + 3/2O2 + H2O 2H+ + SO42-
Too acidic soil can be treated by CaCO3.
soil}(H+)2 + CaCO3 soil}Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O

Too basic (alkaline) soil can be treated by aluminum sulfate or iron sulfate.
2Fe3+ + 3SO42- + 6H2O 2Fe(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO42-
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 THANK YOU

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