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Chapter Objectives
This chapter will help students
Identify the causes and predict the consequences of soil erosion and soil
degradation
Outline the history and explain the basic principles of soil conservation
Chapter Outline
Section PPT #
THE SCIENCE BEHIND THE STORY: Dark Earth: A New (Old) Way 7-30
to Sequester Carbon
Conclusion 7-54 to
7-55
Teaching Tips
1. Bring soil samples to class on which students can conduct a soil texture “feel test.” In
general, sandy soils feel gritty, silty soils feel like flour, and clay soils are sticky
when moistened. Soils feel different because of the size of the most abundant particle
type.
Particles are categorized as follows:
Sand: 2.0–0.05 mm in diameter
Silt: 0.05–0.002 mm in diameter
Clay: less than 0.002 mm in diameter
2. For students to better grasp the differences in soil particle size, have them visualize a
barrel to represent a sand particle, a plate to represent a silt particle, and a dime to
represent a clay particle. Because most soils are a combination of sand, silt, and clay
particles, soil scientists use a more complicated method to determine the percent
composition of each type. A good addition to this soils lab would be to give each
group of students 100 g of soil from a different location. Have them run the soil
through a set of soil sieves and then weigh the fractions to determine the percent
composition of the different particle types (four or five types, depending on the soil
sieves, ranging from gravel to clay). Have students make a pie chart or a bar graph
3. Soil formation is a very slow process, and in some cases it can take 500 years for one
inch of soil to develop. To emphasize the importance of soil conservation, use the
timeline below to demonstrate the time required to form 2.5 cm of soil:
2002: West Nile virus infects humans in Canada.
1996: The first animal, Dolly the sheep, is cloned from an adult cell.
1989: The Berlin Wall is torn down.
1970: The first Earth Day is celebrated.
1962: The Beatles, a British pop group, make their first recordings.
1945: World War II ends.
1934: Dust Bowl occurs in the Great Plains.
1915: Albert Einstein formulates his general theory of relativity.
1885: Canada establishes its first National Park at Banff.
1854: Henry David Thoreau publishes Walden.
1681: The dodo, a large flightless bird, becomes extinct.
1608: Native Americans teach colonists how to raise corn.
1513: Juan Ponce de León discovers Florida.
1500: The Incan empire reaches its height.
4. Demonstrate runoff and erosion. First, put a piece of grass sod on a cafeteria tray.
Have a student pour water over the sod using a watering can or a spray bottle to
simulate rain. Observe the runoff. Repeat this procedure using a pile of loose dirt on a
second tray. Compare the runoff. Repeat the procedure with each tray held at a 20- to
30-degree angle to simulate the problems on slopes.
5. Assign students to read the first chapter of The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck.
This chapter of the classic novel describes the conditions of Dust Bowl Oklahoma
that ruined crops, causing massive numbers of foreclosures on farmland.
6. Contemporary agriculture occupies a large area of the Prairies that was formerly
Tallgrass Prairie. Innovations in agriculture are re-examining the capacity of this
landscape to produce biomass efficiently. Some cattle producers are removing cattle
from large feedlots and returning them to permanent pastures composed of local
native prairie grasses and wildflowers. Native prairie vegetation also has a
tremendous potential to store carbon in its root system. When compared to non-native,
cool-season European grasses commonly planted for hay and pastures, prairie species
are able to absorb and hold much more rainwater and, because of the root system,
more carbon. To prove this to students, secure seeds of common, cool season lawn
grass such as perennial rye and native prairie species such as Big Bluestem, Little
Bluestem, and Side Oats Grama. Have students plant several seeds in clay or peat
pots, place them on a windowsill, and watch the events unfold. When several inches
of growth has accumulated, gently pull the plants near the base and observe the root
system. Depending on the time of year, the prairie grasses will exhibit robust root
growth and might even be pot-bound. Prairies produce two-thirds of their biomass
underground, making them excellent carbon sinks.
7. Use signalling for concept understanding. There are several sets of concepts in this
chapter—soil horizons, types of erosion, and erosion reduction methods, for instance.
Now show students a photo or ask them to decide on the type of erosion that
would occur in a particular circumstance. Each student, on your mark, will
indicate the answer with his or her signal. You can instantly tell which students
know the correct answer, which are uncertain (hesitating, glancing around at
others), and which have incorrect answers. This is an easy way to know if you
need to cover a concept more thoroughly or if students are ready to go on.
Discussion Questions
1. What are some of the difference between soil in North America and Sub-Saharan
Africa?
Wind, water
Figure 7.18
Essay Questions
1. What are the five factors that influence soil formation?
Soil colour: the soil can indicate its composition and sometimes its fertility.
Black and dark soils are usually rich in organic matter whereas pale grey
to white colour often indicates a chalky composition, leaching, or low
organic content.
pH: The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil influences the soil’s ability
to support plant growth. Plants can die in soils which are too acidic or
alkaline.
Additional Resources
Websites
1. About the Dust Bowl, Modern American Poetry (www.english.uiuc.edu)
This website provides a brief description of the Dust Bowl, plus a map, photos, and a
timeline.
2. Soil Science Basics, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (http://soils.gsfc.nasa.gov)
This website provides information about soil formation, chemistry, microbiology,
and field characterization.
Audiovisual Materials
1. The American Experience: Surviving the Dust Bowl, 1998, PBS Home Video
distributed by WGBH (http://www.pbs.org)
This program looks at America’s “worst ecological disaster,” which brought financial
and emotional ruin to thousands of people in the Great Plains.
2. On American Soil, 1983, the Conservation Foundation, video distributed by Bullfrog
Films (www.bullfrogfilms.com/)
This video shows the nature and extent of erosion in America.
3. The Living Soil: The Value of Humus, 1991, distributed by Films for the Humanities
and Sciences (www.films.com)
This program is part of a series, Planet Under Pressure: Geochemistry and the Fate
of the Earth. This film examines how nutrients in the soil are replenished through
interactions between organisms and abiotic factors in the environment.
1. What is soil?
Soil is a complex, plant-supporting system that consists of disintegrated rock, organic
matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganisms.
2. Describe the three types of weathering that may contribute to the process of soil
formation.
Physical or mechanical weathering breaks down rocks without changing them chemically.
For example, ice wedges can form in small cracks in a rock, breaking it apart.
Chemical weathering results from water or other substances chemically interacting with
the parent material, and altering the composition of the constituent minerals.
Biological weathering occurs when living things are responsible for breaking down the
parent material by either physical or chemical means. For example, root growth wedging
cracks open, or organic acids dissolving some minerals.
3. What processes most influence the formation of soil? What is leaching, and what is its
role in soil formation?
The processes most responsible for soil formation are weathering, erosion, sedimentation,
and the deposition and decomposition of organic matter.
Leaching is a process in which soluble materials (usually in soil, rock, sediment, or
waste) are suspended or dissolved in a percolating liquid, and then transported through
the subsurface.
4. Name the five primary factors thought to influence soil formation, and describe one
effect of each.
The five factors influencing soil formation are:
Climate: Warmer and wetter climates have accelerated rates of chemical weathering,
whereas colder climates tend to have higher rates of physical weathering.
Organisms: Differences in local vegetation and other organisms alter the input of organic
material (both amount and type). Roots can sometimes contribute to biological
weathering, but sometimes they stabilize soils.
Relief: Steeper slopes lead to higher rates of erosion.
Parent material: Soil formed from the weathering of limestone will be different from that
formed from granite.
Time: Recently formed soils will not be as well developed as older soils.
• Forest/woodland: 274.8
• Tundra/desert: 59.3
• Pasture/cropland: 81.9
3. From the calculations you made and the information that is now in the final column of
your table, which biome type stores the most carbon per hectare? Which stores the least
carbon per hectare? How does the pasture/cropland carbon storage per hectare compare
to that in the natural ecosystems?
Forest and woodlands store the most amount of carbon per hectare. The tundra/desert
biomes store the least amount of carbon per hectare. Pasture/cropland managed
ecosystems are significantly lower than the natural ecosystems represented in this study,
with the exception of tundra/desert biomes.
4. Based on the data provided in the table, which of the natural ecosystems stores the
highest proportion of its carbon in plants? Which of the natural ecosystems stores the
highest proportion of its carbon in the soil? How does the proportion of carbon stored in
plants vs. soils in pasture/cropland compare to the natural systems? Do these results
surprise you? Why or why not?
In the pasture/cropland the carbon storage numbers are significantly lower, and the
proportion of carbon stored in soils (vs. plants) is much higher than for any of the natural
ecosystems. [One way to approach this analysis is to compare by dividing the amount of
carbon in soils by the amount of carbon in plants, for each ecosystem type.]
This does not surprise me because in pastures and croplands the plants are harvested and
the stored carbon is therefore removed periodically. In these managed ecosystems, soils
also may have been degraded or depleted so they cannot store as much carbon.
5. In terms of carbon storage in terrestrial reservoirs, what do you think would be the
overall result of the shift, shown in the graph, to increasing pasture/cropland at the
expense of forests and grasslands?
The overall result would be less carbon storage in terrestrial reservoirs, which most likely
would lead to increased levels of carbon in the atmosphere.
TAURISO
Pues ya se esconde el sol tras
las montañas,
dejad el pasto, ovejas,
escuchando
las voces roncas, ásperas y
extrañas
que estoy sin tiento ni orden
derramando.
Oid cómo las míseras
entrañas
se están en vivas llamas
abrasando
con el ardor que enciende
en la alma insana
la angélica hermosura de
Diana.
BERARDO
Antes que el sol, dejando el
hemisphero,
caer permita en hierbas el
rocío,
tú, simple oveja, y tú, manso
cordero,
prestad grata atención al
canto mío.
No cantaré el ardor terrible y
fiero,
mas el mortal temor helado
y frío,
con que enfrena y corrige el
alma insana
la angélica hermosura de
Diana.
TAURISO
Cuando imagina el triste
pensamiento
la perfección tan rara y
escogida,
la alma se enciende assí,
que claro siento
ir siempre deshaciéndose la
vida.
Amor esfuerza el débil
sufrimiento,
y aviva la esperanza
consumida,
para que dure en mí el
ardiente fuego,
que no me otorga un hora
de sossiego.
BERARDO
Cuando me paro á ver mi bajo
estado
y el alta perfección de mi
pastora,
se arriedra el corazón
amedrentado
y un frío hielo en la alma
triste mora.
Amor quiere que viva
confiado,
y estoilo alguna vez, pero á
deshora
al vil temor me vuelvo tan
sujeto,
que un hora de salud no me
prometo.
TAURISO
Tan mala vez la luz ardiente
veo
de aquellas dos claríssimas
estrellas,
la gracia, el continente y el
asseo,
con que Diana es reina
entre las bellas,
que en un solo momento mi
deseo
se enciende en estos rayos
y centellas,
sin esperar remedio al fuego
extraño
que me consume y causa
extremo daño.
BERARDO
Tan mala vez las delicadas
manos
de aquel marfil para mil
muertes hechas,
y aquellos ojos claros
soberanos
tiran al corazón mortales
flechas,
que quedan de los golpes
inhumanos
mis fuerzas pocas, flacas y
deshechas,
y tan pasmado, flojo y débil
quedo,
que vence á mi deseo el
triste miedo.
TAURISO
¿Viste jamás un rayo
poderoso,
cuyo furor el roble antiguo
hiende?
Tan fuerte, tan terrible y
riguroso
es el ardor que la alma triste
enciende.
¿Viste el poder de un río
pressuroso,
que de un peñasco altíssimo
desciende?
Tan brava, tan soberbia y
alterada
Diana me paresce estando
airada.
Mas no aprovecha nada
para que el vil temor me dé
tristeza,
pues cuanto más peligros,
más firmeza.
BERARDO
¿Viste la nieve en haldas de
una sierra
con los solares rayos
derretida?
Ansí deshecha y puesta por
la tierra
al rayo de mi estrella está mi
vida.
¿Viste en alguna fiera y
cruda guerra
algún simple pastor puesto
en huida?
Con no menos temor vivo
cuitado,
de mis ovejas proprias
olvidado.
Y en este miedo helado
merezco más, y vivo más
contento,
que en el ardiente y loco
atrevimiento.
TAURISO
Berardo, el mal que siento es
de tal arte,
que en todo tiempo y parte
me consume,
el alma no presume ni se
atreve;
mas como puede y debe
comedida
le da la propria vida al niño
ciego,
y en encendido fuego alegre
vive,
y como allí recibe gran
consuelo,
no hay cosa de que pueda
haber recelo.
BERARDO
Tauriso, el alto cielo hizo tan
bella
esta Diana estrella, que en
la tierra
con luz clara destierra mis
tinieblas,
las más escuras nieblas
apartando;
que si la estoy mirando
embelesado,
vencido y espantado, triste y
ciego
los ojos bajo luego, de
manera
que no puedo, aunque
quiera, aventurarme
á ver, pedir, dolerme ni
quejarme.
TAURISO
Jamás quiso escucharme
esta pastora mía,
mas persevera siempre en
la dureza,
y en siempre maltratarme
continua su porfía.
¡Ay, cruda pena; ay, fiera
gentileza!
Mas es tal la firmeza
que esfuerza mi cuidado,
que vivo más seguro
que está un peñasco duro
contra el rabioso viento y
mar airado,
y cuanto más vencido,
doy más ardor al ánimo
encendido.
BERARDO
No tiene el ancho suelo
lobos tan poderosos
cuya braveza miedo pueda
hacerme,
y de un simple recelo,
en casos amorosos,
como cobarde vil vengo á
perderme.
No puedo defenderme
de un miedo que en mi
pecho
gobierna, manda y rige;
que el alma mucho aflige
y el cuerpo tiene ya medio
deshecho.
¡Ay, crudo amor; ay, fiero!
¿con pena tan mortal cómo
no muero?
TAURISO
Junto á la clara fuente,
sentada con su esposo
la pérfida Diana estaba un
día,
y yo á mi mal presente
tras un jaral umbroso,
muriendo de dolor de lo que
vía:
él nada le decía,
mas con mano grossera
trabó la delicada
á torno fabricada,
y estuvo un rato assí, que
no debiera;
y yo tal cosa viendo,
de ira mortal y fiera envidia
ardiendo.
BERARDO
Un día al campo vino
aserenando al cielo
la luz de perfectíssimas
mujeres,
las hebras de oro fino
cubiertas con un velo,
prendido con dorados
alfileres;
mil juegos y placeres
passaba con su esposo;
yo tras un mirto estaba,
y vi que él alargaba
la mano al blanco velo, y el
hermoso
cabello quedó suelto,
y yo de vello en triste miedo
envuelto.