Assignment

#2
Topic : Circulation,Gaseous exchange &
Temperature regulation in mamals

Submitted To:
Mam Sumrana Ramzan

Submitted By:
SIBTAIN Haider Shah

Roll NO:
BSZ-19-36 (M)

Ghazi university of dgkhan

Circulation in
mammals
The mammalian circulatory system is divided into three
circuits: the systemic circuit, the pulmonary circuit, and the
coronary circuit. Blood is pumped from veins of the systemic
circuit into the right atrium of the heart, then into the right
ventricle. Blood then enters the pulmonary circuit, and is
oxygenated by the lungs. From the pulmonary circuit, blood
re-enters the heart through the left atrium. From the left
ventricle, blood re-enters the systemic circuit through the
aorta and is distributed to the rest of the body. The coronary
circuit, which provides blood to the heart.
Pulmonary blood stream
Pulmonary circulation, system of blood vessels that forms a
closed circuit between the heart and the lungs, as
distinguished from the systemic circulation between the heart
and all other body tissues. On the evolutionary cycle,
pulmonary circulation first occurs in lungfishes and
amphibians, the first animals to acquire a three-chambered
heart. The pulmonary circulation becomes totally separate in
crocodilians, birds, and mammals, when the ventricle is
divided into two chambers, producing a four-chambered
heart. In these forms the pulmonary circuit begins with the
right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood through the
pulmonary artery. This artery divides above the heart into
two branches, to the right and left lungs, where the arteries
further subdivide into smaller and smaller branches until the
capillaries in the pulmonary air sacs (alveoli) are reached. In
the capillaries the blood takes up oxygen from the air
breathed into the air sacs and releases carbon dioxide. It then
flows into larger and larger vessels until the pulmonary veins
(usually four in number, each serving a whole lobe of the lung)
are reached. The pulmonary veins open into the left atrium of
the heart. Compare systemic circulation.

Gas exchange in mammals

Taking in of oxygen and giving out of carbon dioxide is
known as gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange in mamals occurs through:

Air passage way:

In mammals, pulmonary ventilation occurs via
inhalation (breathing). During inhalation, air enters the
body through the nasal cavity located just inside the
nose As air passes through the nasal cavity, the air is
warmed to body temperature and humidified. The
respiratory tract is coated with mucus to seal the
tissues from direct contact with air. Mucus is high in
water.
As air crosses these surfaces of the mucous membranes,
it picks up water. These processes help equilibrate the
air to the body conditions, reducing any damage that
cold, dry air can cause. Particulate matter that is
floating in the air is removed in the nasal passages via
mucus and cilia. The processes of warming, humidifying,
and removing particles are important protective
mechanisms that prevent damage to the trachea and
lungs. Thus, inhalation serves several purposes in
addition to bringing oxygen into the respiratory system.
From the nasal cavity, air passes through the pharynx
(throat) and the larynx (voice box), as it makes its way
to the trachea (Figure 20.7). The main function of the
trachea is to funnel the inhaled air to the lungs and the
exhaled air back out of the body. The human trachea is
a cylinder about 10 to 12 cm long and 2 cm in diameter
that sits in front of the esophagus and extends from the
larynx into the chest cavity where it divides into the two
primary bronchi at the midthorax. It is made of
incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage and smooth
muscle The trachea is lined with mucus-producing
goblet cells and ciliated epithelia.
The cilia propel foreign particles trapped in the mucus
toward the pharynx. The cartilage provides strength
and support to the trachea to keep the passage open.
The smooth muscle can contract, decreasing the
trachea’s diameter, which causes expired air to rush
upwards from the lungs at a great force. The forced
exhalation helps expel mucus when we cough. Smooth
muscle can contract or relax, depending on stimuli from
the external environment or the body’s nervous system.
Lungs: Bronchi and alveoli
The end of the trachea bifurcates (divides) to the
right and left lungs. The lungs are not identical.
The right lung is larger and contains three lobes,
whereas the smaller left lung contains two lobes
The muscular diaphragm, which facilitates
breathing, is inferior (below) to the lungs and
marks the end of the thoracic cavity.
In the lungs, air is diverted into smaller and
smaller passages, or bronchi. Air enters the lungs
through the two primary (main) bronchi (singular:
bronchus). Each bronchus divides into secondary
bronchi, then into tertiary bronchi, which in turn
divide, creating smaller and smaller diameter
bronchioles as they split and spread through the
lung. Like the trachea, the bronchi are made of
cartilage and smooth muscle.
At the bronchioles, the cartilage is replaced with
elastic fibers. Bronchi are innervated by nerves of
both the parasympathetic and sympathetic
nervous systems that control muscle contraction
(parasympathetic) or relaxation (sympathetic) in
the bronchi and bronchioles, depending on the
nervous system’s cues.
In humans, bronchioles with a diameter smaller
than 0.5 mm are the respiratory bronchioles. They
lack cartilage and therefore rely on inhaled air to
support their shape. As the passageways decrease
in diameter, the relative amount of smooth muscle
increases.
The terminal bronchioles subdivide into
microscopic branches called respiratory
bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles subdivide
into several alveolar ducts. Numerous alveoli and
alveolar sacs surround the alveolar ducts. The
alveolar sacs resemble bunches of grapes tethered
to the end of the bronchioles.
In the acinar region, the alveolar ducts are
attached to the end of each bronchiole. At the end
of each duct are approximately 100 alveolar sacs,
each containing 20 to 30 alveoli that are 200 to
300 microns in diameter. Gas exchange occurs only
in alveoli.
Alveoli are made of thin-walled parenchymal cells,
typically one-cell thick, that look like tiny bubbles
within the sacs. Alveoli are in direct contact with
capillaries (one-cell thick) of the circulatory
system. Such intimate contact ensures that oxygen
will diffuse from alveoli into the blood and be
distributed to the cells of the body.

Thermoregulation in mamals
Mammals control body temperature via a gland in the brain
called the hypothalamus,. The thermoregulatory center in this
gland regulates heat loss and production. This center is
influenced by nerve impulses from receptors near the skin and
the temperature of the blood flowing through it.
  Maintain their body temperature in narrow range
(36.1°c to 37.8°c).
 They are endothermic (has high metabolic rate).
 Maintain their body temperature by
*Lose of heat
*Gain of heat

If our body needs to warm up, the mechanisms of

thermoregulation include:
1.Vasoconstriction:
As the blood vessels under the skin receive signals
they become narrower to decrease the blood flow
and retain heat to warm the inner body.

2.Thermogenesis
This process is mainly seen in all warm-blooded
animals. The body’s organs produce heat in a
variety of ways to keep the body warm.
3.Hormonal thermogenesis:
In this mechanism, the thyroid gland regulates to
release hormones in order to increase the body’s
metabolism, which produces a more amount of
heat to maintain a stable internal body
temperature.
If our body needs to cool down, the
mechanisms of thermoregulation include:
1.Sweating*
Here the sweat glands receive signals to
release sweat and it cools our skin as it
evaporates. This helps by lowering the internal
temperature.
2.Vasodilatation*
In this process, the blood vessels present
beneath the skin expand and increases the
blood flow, which cools by releasing the body’s
heat through heat radiation.