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Settling Velocity • the drag on a spherical particle in a fluid is described by Stokes' Law for
the following conditions:
(Deposition) – fluid is a Newtonian incompressible fluid duk/dxk=0
– gravity is negligible g=0
– flow is creeping flow, i.e. Re<<1 duk/dxk=0
– steady-state flow duj/dt=0
• Navier-Stokes Equation # ∂u ∂u & ∂p ∂ 2uj
– Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 1960 ρ % j + uk j ( = +µ + ρgj
• for j=1, 2, 3...
$ ∂t ∂xk ' ∂x j ∂xk ∂xk
– here we will neglect gravity so that the last term is dropped, and we will make
dimensionless using characteristic velocity u0 and length l
• where Re=ρul/µ=(inertial fluid forces)/(viscous fluid forces)
• l=diameter # ∂u * ∂u * & ∂p * ∂ 2u*j
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• ρ=density ρ % j + uk* *j ( = * +
• µ=ρυ=fluid viscosity $ ∂t ∂xk ' ∂x j Re ∂xk* ∂xk*
• u=mean speed of the undisturbed flow upstream of the body
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• force balance on the particle
mp
dv
dt
= ∑ Fi Diffusivity
i
• let the applicable forces be gravity
and drag dv 3πµDp
– assume Re<0.1 such that CD=24/ mp = mp g + (u − v )
Re dt Cc
• binary diffusivity
• characteristic relaxation time, τ – using the Chapman-
– time scale required for the
dv Enskog theory and the
approach to steady motion
τ + v = u − τg hard-sphere approximation
dt – DAB = (λAB cA)(3π/32)(1+z)
gas A (carrier fluid) molecule
• terminal velocity of the particle in gas B (second vapor) molecule
this fluid, vt, where the particle has [cm2 sec-1]
reached steady state particle
for unit density spheres in air at 20oC
Dp (µm) τ (sec) vt (m sec-1)
Settling Velocity
• terminal velocity of the
particle in this fluid, vt,
where the particle has
reached steady state
Summary of Corrections to
Characteristic Length Scales
Stokes' Drag Force
• Knudsen number - ratio of the length scale of
Factor CD (non-creeping) [part. vel.] Cc or f (non-continuum) [size] molecular motion in the fluid phase to the length
Name Drag coefficient Cunningham correction factor or scale of the particle; this ratio describes how the
friction factor
Relative Factual > FStokes Factual < FStokes fluid "views" the particle, i.e. is the motion
Magnitude governed by the rules of molecules or of
Range Re=ρuDp/µ>0.1 Kn=2λ/Dp≥1
macroscopic objects
Applicable Dp large, u large, ρ large, or µ small Dp small or λ large
Values – Kn = 2λ/Dp= (fluid "graininess")/(particle radius)
Definition CD=Fdrag/(Apρ(u2/2)) Cc=3πµuDp/Fdrag
• Mean speed of gas molecules
Correction CD=(24/Re), Re<0.1 Cc=1+Kn[1.257+0.4exp(-1.1/Kn)],
CD=(24/Re)[1+3Re/16+9Re2ln(2Re)/160], or for air at STP c c
0.1<Re<2 Cc=1+(1.257)2λ/Dp, Dp>>λ
CD=(24/Re)[1+0.15Re0.1687]. 2<Re<500 Cc=1+(1.657)2λ/Dp, Dp<<λ
CD=0.44, 500<Re<2x105 c
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Mean Free Path Regimes of Particle Motion
• Mean free path of gases
– mean free path - λair, the average distance traveled between collisions with other • continuum regime
gas molecules; λAB is the average distance traveled by a molecule of A before it – Kn << 1
encounters a molecule of B (for Z collisions) Dp exceeds λair , so air appears to the ½Dp Dp
λ = c/Z; c = (8kT/πm)0.5 Eq. 9.3, 9.87 particle as a continuum, and the laws of
continuum mechanics apply λair
• Mean free path in particle evolution processes
• transition regime λair
coagulation, deposition: diffusion of particles in air, use λair
– Kn ≈ 1
condensation: diffusion of another gas (B) to a particle in air, use λAB λair and Dp are of the same order of Dp
magnitude, so transport is controlled by ½Dp
both continuum mechanics and kinetic
theory λair
• free molecule regime λair
– Kn >> 1
λair exceeds Dp, so transport controlled by
the kinetic theory of gases Dp
½Dp
λ
λ
λair
λair
• continuum regime Dp Cc
– Kn << 1 (Kn<0.1) ½Dp ½Dp • continuum regime (µm)
No slip condition holds λair – Kn << 1 (Kn<0.1) 10.0 1.016
• transition regime λair
No slip condition holds
– Kn ≈ 1 (0.1<Kn<10) • transition regime
½Dp
½Dp
1.0 1.164
Slip correction is required
– Kn ≈ 1 (0.1<Kn<10)
• free molecule regime λair
Slip correction is required 0.1 2.867
λair
– Kn >> 1 (10<Kn) • free molecule regime
Drag force is smaller than 0.01 22.218
½Dp ½Dp – Kn >> 1 (10<Kn)
predicted by Stokes
Drag force is smaller than
λair predicted by Stokes
λair
How
spherical
are real
particles?
3
Particle Size and Deposition Aerosol Composition
• Chemical composition gives an indication
• Sizes of particle sources
– Particle Size Distributions (defining “size”) • C, N, S contributions to composition
– How to Calculate Mean Particle Size illustrate role of aerosols in
biogeochemical cycles
• Microphysics
– Deposition Velocity (depends on size)
– How to Calculate Particle Lifetime
– Bonus: How to Calculate Particle Loss in a Tube
Particle Types
and their Removal