Trefftz Plane Analysis of Induced Drag

Consider an inviscid, incompressible potential flow around a body (say a wing).

We define a control volume surrounding the body as follows

Trefftz plane
ST (part of S )

body
Sbody
z
y
S

8
x, V
8

Upstream flow is V∞ and is in x − direction. Thus, drag is the force in

x − direction. Apply integral momentum in x to find induced drag.
KK K K
∫∫ ρuu ⋅ ndS = − ∫∫ pndS
S body + S ∞ S body + S ∞

K K
First, on the body u ⋅ n = 0 , so:
KK K K
∫∫ ρuu ⋅ ndS = − ∫∫ pndS
S∞ S body + S ∞

Next, also on the body,

K
− ∫∫ pndS =
S body
force of body acting on fluid

We are interested in the exact opposite, i.e. the force acting on the body. In x ,
this is the drag, in z this is the lift, and in y this is a yaw or side force:
 Trefftz Plane Analysis of Induced Drag

K K K K
⇒ − ∫∫ pn
S body
dS = − D i − Yj − L k

K K K K KK K
⇒ Di + Yj + Lk = − ∫∫ pndS − ∫∫ ρ u u ⋅ ndS
S∞ S∞

Now, let’s pull out the drag:

K K KK K
D = − ∫∫ pn ⋅ i dS − ∫∫ ρu u ⋅ n dS
S∞ S∞

The next piece is to apply Bernoulli to eliminate the pressure:

1 1
p = p∞ + ρV∞2 − ρ (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 )
2 2

 1 1 K K K K
⇒ D = − ∫∫  p ∞ + ρV∞2 − ρ (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 )n ⋅ i dS − ∫∫ ρu u ⋅ n dS
S∞ 
2 2  S∞

1 K K 1 K K
But, ∫∫ ( p∞ +
S∞
2
ρV∞2 )n ⋅ idS = ( p∞ + ρV∞2 )
2 ∫∫ ⋅ idS
S∞
n
 

= 0 for a closed
surface

1 K K K K
D = ∫∫ ρ (u 2 + v 2 + w 2 )n ⋅ i dS − ∫∫ ρu u ⋅ n dS
S∞
2 S∞

Next, we divide the velocity into a freestream and a perturbation:

u = V∞ + uˆ
v= vˆ
w= wˆ

where uˆ, vˆ, wˆ are perturbation velocities (not necessarily small).

Substitution gives:

1 K K K K
D= ρ ∫∫ (V∞2 + 2V∞uˆ + uˆ 2 + vˆ 2 + wˆ 2 )n ⋅ idS − ρ ∫∫ (V∞ + uˆ )u ⋅ ndS
2 S∞ S ∞

But, we note that

K K K K
ρ ∫∫V∞ u ⋅ n dS = ρV∞ ∫∫ u ⋅ n dS = 0 from conservation of mass
S∞ S∞

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 Trefftz Plane Analysis of Induced Drag

K K 1 K K K K
⇒ D = ρV∞ ∫∫ uˆ n ⋅ i dS + ρ ∫∫ (uˆ 2 + vˆ 2 + wˆ 2 )n ⋅ i dS − ρ ∫∫ uˆ u ⋅ n dS
S∞
2 S∞ S∞

If we take the control volume boundary far away from the wing, then the velocity
perturbations go to zero except downstream. Downstream the presence of
trailing vortices will create non-zero perturbations (more on this in a bit).

So, uˆ, vˆ, wˆ → 0 except on S T .

1
⇒ D = ρV∞ ∫∫ udS
ˆ + ρ ∫∫ (uˆ + vˆ 2 + wˆ 2 )dS − ρ ∫∫ uˆ ( V∞ + uˆ)dS
2

ST
2 ST ST

1
⇒ D= ρ ∫∫ (vˆ 2 + wˆ 2 − uˆ 2 )dS
2 ST

The final step is to note that far downstream the x − velocity perturbation must die
away (in inviscid flow). The reason is that the trailing vortices, which far
downstream must be in the x − direction, cannot induce an x − component of
velocity.

So, this brings us to the final answer

1
D= ρ ∫∫ (vˆ 2 + wˆ 2 )dS
2 ST

In other words, the induced drag is the kinetic energy which is transferred into the
crossflow (i.e. the trailing vortices)!

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