How to begin Qualitative research project 2) Empirical phenomena (exposure to specific
contexts/fields or types of behavior).
[1] Introduction
Qual researchers at earlier stages make interrelated choices
about the following:
o What research questions and Empirical Phenomena
o What Qual research traditions will underpin the work
o What kinds of data to collect
• inter-related = a choice about one of them will have
implications for all the others
[1] Choosing Research Questions and Empirical
Phenomena
• Research Questions should be original, important,
and interesting.
• Questions (not the context) are more important in
determining the academic worth of a project.
• The two Sources of good Research Questions:
• 1) Critical Prior research Review (theoretical
writing & empirical studies).
o NOTE: it is challenging to draw the boundaries of prior
literature or figure out what books and articles comprise
a 'prior literature' as relevant articles will use different
terminologies.
• It’s recommended to look for concepts & constructs
that are 'taken for granted', for assumptions that are
routinely made but not universal, for processes that have
been ignored or incompletely understood.
• NOTE: because a context or type of behavior has
not previously been studied, it not necessarily be
worth investigation, and vice versa.
• It is recommended to look for salient
characteristic or dynamics in the context.
[2] Different Research Traditions in Qual research
2.1) Phenomenology (existential phenomenology
tradition) focus research on the lifeworld of
individuals and the nature of their lived experience
• It does not initially seek a universal understanding of a
phenomenon but instead a deep understanding of it
through the experience of a specific focal respondent.
• NOTE: it leads to descriptive research (Questions and
findings).
• It is problem: less commonly to use it alone as it will
not be published in journals with higher impact.
2.2) Hermeneutics tradition assumes that all understanding
is based on language and cultural world of beliefs,
theories, codes, metaphors, myths, practices,
institutions, and ideologies that shapes our
understandings.
NOTE: It ask how cultural notions are shaping our
experiences and actions.
2.3) Postmodern tradition challenges widely shared cultural
accounts, unwarranted universalisms, or taken-for-
granted understandings that offer explanations for
phenomena or how things work.
NOTE: It may offer alternative and dialectical
perspective or accounts for the phenomena of interest.
It also suggests that people have contradictory
viewpoints, and it is better for the person to be open and
encourage expressive ideas.
2.4) Critical Traditions examines taken-for-granted
assumptions and practices that sustain the oppression
of marginalized groups and possibilities for change
NOTE: It ask what factors contribute to the oppression
or marginalization and how this could be alleviated?
2.5) Semiotics analyses focus on the structures of meaning-
producing events and investigate the sign systems that
facilitate the production and interpretation of signs/symbols.
NOTE: It assumes an intimate connection between human
sense making and language; thus, asks how things acquire
meanings.
2.6) The neopositivist qualitative work (often taking the
form of comparative case studies). Its goal will often
be to identify both:
• The likely relationships among constructs.
• The contingent conditions under which those
relationships might occur.
NOTE: It ask questions regarding the factors that help to
explain a particular phenomenon, or the consequences that may
arise when a particular phenomenon occurs.
Contingent conditions ‫ شروط عرضية أو راهنة‬can be found in research
projects trying to find patterned regularities in research phenomenon
‫انتظامات نمطية في ظاهرة البحث‬
Conclusions about research traditions
• It is common to span 2 or more research traditions,
• Research traditions evolve over time and may overlap
• Historically, most of these traditions focused
primarily on what people say rather than what they
do.
• NOTE: observational methods begin with the
assumption that what people say is very often
discrepant with what they do. And we believe that
much of the best qualitative research incorporates
observation when possible.
[3] Matching data collection plans with research
traditions
• Qual data can be collected via:
o Interviews Research questions &
o projective techniques traditions doesn’t
o Archival sources strictly prescribe the use
o Textual data of particular types of data
o Ethnography and Netnography
o Observations and Introspection
The research traditions may suggest collecting certain kinds of Test Questions
data. Let us consider this for each tradition of the above: 1. Which of the following is a qualitative research design where
lived experiences of individuals are examined in their "life-
• Phenomenology Data Collection: Mainly done by: world"?
o Unstructured psychologically oriented interviews. A. Ethnography B. Ethology
o Self-observation (introspection) C. Phenomenology D. Grounded theory
o Observations can complement these main methods.
2. Deductive Reasoning is applied in:
• Hermeneutic Data Collection: Mainly done by: A. Qualitative research B. Quantitative research
o Culturally and psychologically oriented interviews C. Action research D. Applied research
o Textual data
o Ethnography or Netnography 3. Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative
o Archival materials research?
o Observations can complement these main methods. A. Grounded Theory Research B. Correlational Research
C. Quasi-Experimental Research D. Experimental Research
• Post-modern Data Collection: Mainly done by:
o Textual data (meta-narratives; from advertisements 4. Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative
to the writings of other scholars). research?
o Interviews can complement the previous main A. Deductive process B. Control over the context
methods. C. Fixed research design D. Inductive process

• Critical Tradition Data Collection: Mainly done by: 5. Qualitative research design involves
o Interviews A. Emergent design B. Correlative design
o Ethnography C. Experimental design D. Cohort design

• Semiotic tradition Data collection: Mainly done by: 6. Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on
o Archival communicative texts description and interpretation of cultural behavior?
o Interview textual data A. Phenomenology B. Grounded theory
o NOTE: observational and ethnography is not C. Ethnography D. Symbolic interactionism
suitable here.
7. The term refers to the use of multiple referents to draw
• Neo-positivist traditions Data Collection: conclusions about what constitutes the truth:
o Can use any and every type of data. A. Item analysis B. Factor analysis
o Seeks triangulation across data sources and C. Error measurement D. Triangulation
compares insights among them and check
convergence.
8. Characteristics of qualitative research design are 13.
A. Flexible and elastic design
B. Use of mixed methodologies
C. Ongoing analysis to formulate subsequent strategies
D. Researcher becomes the instrument
E. All of the above

9. Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in

qualitative research?
a) Self-completion questionnaires
b) Surveys
c) Ethnography
d) Structured observation
14. How do phenomenological researchers attempt to
10. Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative understand the universal nature of an experience?
research? a) By carrying out interviews and examining the views of people
a) The studies are difficult to replicate. who have experienced the phenomenon
b) There is a lack of transparency. b) By immersing themselves into the real world in order to
c) The approach is too rigid and inflexible. experience the phenomenon for themselves
d) The accounts are too subjective and impressionistic. c) By carrying out statistical analysis of the numerical data
gathered in the research
11. Which is the weakest reason for interpretivist/qualitative d) By reviewing the data gathered through a quick survey
research findings to be not-generalisable? handed out to the research subjects
a) sample size is too small
b) research is concerned with understanding uniqueness
c) social phenomena is a subjective matter
d) data is from interview alone

12. Which is the key instrument of qualitative research?

a) Psychological tests
b) Surveys
c) Unstructured interview
d) The researcher
e) observation checklists