DESIGN OF ENGINEERING

MATERIALS

Design for Fatigue

Lecture Four

Asst. Prof. Dr. Jamal J. Al –Khazraji + Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi

2020-2021
 FATIGUE LOADING:

• Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in the applied stress
or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is basically a fatigue loading.
• Types of loading
• Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching or shearing operations
• Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting rod
• Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 ENDURANCE LIMIT
• Whenever a cyclic (repetitive) load is applied on the material, If the material shows
no evidence of fracture then this property of the material is called, “Endurance
Limit”.
h i
c during the loading this property
t r q
• While if the material shows any evidence of afracture
is called,“Fatigue Limit” l -At
B .A
i n d has been concerned primarily with the testing of
r. H
• The conventional fatigue testing
specimens with D smooth surfaces under the conditions of rotating-bending or uniaxial
tension- compression cycling.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 ENDURANCE LIMIT
• The results of these tests are presented in the form of plots of stress verses the
number N of stress cycles required to cause the fracture.

• These plots are called δ-N diagrams,. These diagrams are also called, “S-N diagrams”
h i
aqc
in some literatures.
t t r
A A
• Usually in mild steel or certain otherl-steels, an endurance limit is observed.
B .
i n d is applied on the material stress decreases and once a
r . H
• Actually when the cyclic load
D
point is arrived where the stress becomes constant, means there is no further
decrease in stress with the increase of N.

• However many materials do not exhibit a clear cut endurance limit, but δ-N curves
Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
continues downward as N increases.
 ENDURANCE LIMIT

• Engineering parts, which fail under fatigue loading,

experience extreme stresses, σmax and σmin.
Such parts are more likely to fail than those parts

h i
aqc
that experience only maximum stress, σmax.
t t r
l
• The stress amplitude, at which the machine
A -A
B.
i n d
member will fail after a given number of stress-
cycle is known as r . Hfatigue strength,
D the
designated as Sn.

• As n approaches ∞ the fatigue strength approaches

the endurance limit, designated as S’n, .
Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
• However, surface imperfections due to manufacturing processes and environmental
affects negatively impacts the endurance limit.

• Therefore a modified endurance limit is given as

Se =ksf kr ks kt km S´n
h i
• where ks f= surface finish factor
t t r aqc
k = reliability factor
Al -A
.
r

d B
k = size factor
s
i n
Hfactor
D r .
k = temperature
t

km = stress concentration modifying factor

= inverse of fatigue stress concentration factor (km = 1/kf)
S´n = half of the ultimate strength of the material (Su/2)
Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED

(a) Surface Condition (ksf): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc. Surface is perhaps
the most important influence on fatigue life
(b) Size (ks ):This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part or the cross-
section differs from that of the test specimens
(c) Load (Kc):This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional) between the actual
part and the test specimens
(d) Temperature (kt ): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when the operating
temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing temperature)
(e) Reliability (kr):This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8% standard deviation in
the test data requires a kr value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753 for 99.9% reliability.
(f) Miscellaneous (Kf):This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including residual stresses,
corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and others.

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• and q is the notch sensitivity usually given graphically and is a function of
the material’s ultimate strength and notch radius of the part.
• The stress concentration factor, kst, is also a function of the part’s
geometry.When q and kst have been established, kf can then be obtained.
• For no notch round shaft, kt = 1, which implies kf = 1, and hence km = 1.
By using these modified factors in equation, the modified endurance limit
can then be obtained.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 FATIGUE STRENGTH

• When the mean stress and the stress

range are varied, the fatigue resistance
of parts subjected to these fluctuating
stresses can be studied using Goodman
diagram shown in Figure.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 FATIGUE STRENGTH

• The diagram is drawn by marking out the yield strength of a material in both the x- and y-axes, Sy.
• The ultimate strength of the material is marked out in the x-axis, Sult, and this is usually greater
than the yield strength .
• The endurance limit is marked out in the y-axis, Se.
• The points corresponding to the yield points on the x-axis and y-axis are connected by a straight
line, so are the points corresponding to the ultimate strength along the x-axis and the endurance
limit along the y-axis.
• A region is defined by the intersection of the endurance limit-ultimate strength line and the yield
strength-yield strength lines, within which design is feasible (shaded area).
• The stress range is associated with the y-axis and the mean stress is associated with the x-axis. By
plotting a line defined by the gradient obtained from the loads related to the stress range and
mean stress respectively, it is possible to locate the stress range and mean stress values.
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 h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

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 h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

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 h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

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 DESIGN AGAINST FATIGUE

• In general, loosening, posterior menus are in fatigue design

v infinite life design
v safe life design
h i
v damage tolerant design
t t r aqc
v fail safe design l -A
B.A
i nd
D r. H

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 DESIGN AGAINST FATIGUE

1. infinite life design :This is oldest method of design wherein importance is given to unlimited safety and life of

product. To achieve infinite life it requires local stresses or strains to be essentially elastic and safely below the
fatigue limit. This approach is not economical cost and competitiveness in market. (i.e to reduce stress you are

h i
aqc
ending up to adding more weight to components)

t t r
2.
l -A
Safe-Life Design: In this approach component are designed for a finite life. Generally this approach is used in

B . Alife of product it is easy to decide allowable stress or strain. A design

i n d
automotive industry. As we are pre-defining

. H
Dr
criterion is based on stress-life, strain-life, or crack growth relations.

3. Fail-Safe Design: Fail-safe design requires that if one part fails, the system does not fail. Fail- safe design
recognizes that fatigue cracks may occur and structures are arranged so that cracks will not lead to failure of the
structure before they are detected and repaired.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

• To design component on Safe- Life Design approach we must know life expectancy
of component in terms of hours or cycles of usage. With physical testing we can
easily plot S-N curve and predict stress at particular cycle and accordingly decide
fatigue strength. But it is always not possible to do testing each and every case.
h i
c vehicle frame at 10 cycles.
t r q
• Example: Calculate the approximate fatigue astrength 3

A
Assume that ultimate tensile strengthl-of
t
B . A the steel (SUT)= 80,000 psi and yield
strength (Sy ) = 60 ksi ind
r . H
D

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

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• if we have designed frame considering static loading with F.O.S of 1.5
then our

allowable stress = 60 ksi h i = 40 ksi

/ 1.5
c
t r a q
-A t
• if we design frame for safe lifelconsidering fatigue then
B .A
i n d stress = 50.12 ksi / 1.5 = 33.4 ksi
r . H
allowable
D

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 THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM FOR INFINITE LIFE

• Infinite life is often used in designing critical components of products with demanding use. Examples
h i
aqc
include crankshafts of an engines, vehicles for public transportation, spacecraft, etc.
t t r
l -
• What is meant by infinite life? Ferrous materialsA have an "infinite life" region defined by an ‘endurance
B . Astress level for a material, where stress cycles below a certain
i n d
limit’. The endurance limit is a specific

r
amplitude and mean will . H
not accumulate fatigue damage.
D
• The Goodman-Haigh diagram is used to check if a cyclic stress time history is within the infinite life
region for a product made of a given material (Figure 1).

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THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM FOR INFINITE LIFE

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM FOR INFINITE LIFE

• It is important that none of the stress cycles in a load history exceed the infinite life
endurance limit. If they do, the material will behave as if the infinite life region does not
exist, and failure will occur given enough additional cycles, even if they are below the
endurance limit.
• Goodman published his original diagram in 1899. Haigh added alternating and mean
stress in 1917. The combination of these two is referred to as the ‘Goodman-Haigh
Diagram’.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM

Two major pieces of information are needed to use a Goodman-Haigh diagram:

h i
aqc
• Stress cycles: A stress cycle time history of the expected loading that includes both
t t r
alternating and mean stress information
A l -A
• Material Information: Thed B .
H i n yield strength, ultimate strength, and endurance limit of the
part material Dr.

• The material information is used to define an infinite life region. The stress cycles are
plotted against this region to see if they are contained within it.
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 STRESS CYCLES

• A stress time history can be broken down into individual cycles. A cycle has an alternating component
as shown in Figure 2.

Cyclic Stress Time History

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 STRESS CYCLES
• A stress cycle can also have a mean stress. This mean stress puts the part in either
net compression or tension as shown in Figure 3.

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 STRESS CYCLES
• The mean stress is very important factor in governing the fatigue life. Net tension on a part tries to pull it apart, which
significantly reduces its life. Net compression pushes a part together, which is not as damaging.

• In the Haigh diagram, the alternating and mean stress of the cycles will be plotted against each other as shown in Figure 4.

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H

Figure 4: Alternating versus mean stress

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture
 MATERIAL INFORMATION

• Using a static stress-strain test on a material, the following material properties can
be determined:
h i
aqc
• Yield Strength – Stress level at which there is a transition between the elastic region
t t r
and plastic region of the material, where the relationship between stress and strain
l -A
ceases to be linear
B .A
i n
• Ultimate Strength – Stress dlevel where the material starts to fail
• These material D r. H
properties are determined via applying static loads to the material
and plotting the relationship of stress and strain as shown in Figure 5.

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 MATERIAL INFORMATION

Figure 5: Yield and Ultimate strength are determined from static stress-strain test
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 MATERIAL INFORMATION

• The Yield strength and Ultimate strength are plotted on the Goodman-Haigh diagram as shown
in Figure 6.

A yield envelope is created by

connecting the yield strength points.
However, this yield envelope is
symmetric around the Y-axis, and does
not distinguish between compression
and tension.

Figure 6: Ultimate strength and yield strength are plotted on diagram

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
 MATERIAL INFORMATION

• Additional material information is needed from a dynamic/cyclic stress test. The result of a dynamic stress test
can be found in a SN-curve as shown as shown in Figure 7.

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H

Figure 7: SN-Curve with Infinite Life Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 MATERIAL INFORMATION

• The endurance limit is determined from the SN-Curve. The endurance limit is then plotted on the
Goodman-Haigh diagram as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Goodman-Haigh diagram with Endurance limit Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
 MATERIAL INFORMATION

• An infinite life region can then be created by:

• Connecting the endurance limit to the ultimate

strength on the tension side (called the Modified
h i
aqc
Goodman line)

t t r
• Project the endurance limit on the compression side
l -A
B .A
d
• This infinite life region defined by these connections
and projections are shown in Figure 9. in
r. H
D
• This infinite life region has a smaller region for tension
versus compression, as would be expected. A stress time
history can then be evaluated against the infinite life Figure 9: Infinite life region defined by Modified Goodman line
region.

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

 USING THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM

• The mean and alternating stress of a stress time history is plotted on the Goodman-Haigh diagram as
shown in Figure 10.

• This is done for each cycle in the time

h i
history. Each cycle is evaluated as to
t t r aqc
whether it falls in the infinite life region. In
l -A
Figure 10, the stress cycles are contained
B.A
entirely in the infinite life region.
i n d
. H how
Any stress time history, normatter
•
D
complicated, can be broken into individual
cycles via the rainflow counting process.
These cycles produced by the rainflow
counting process include a mean and
alternating stress.
Figure 10: Mean and alternating stress Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
plotted against Infinite life region
• Projecting from the origin to the cycle
versus the region, a factor of safety can be
calculated (Figure 11).

• in this case, the factor of safety is

approximately two: the ratio of the magenta
h i
aqc
and green lines.

• In many engineering applications, a factor of A t t r

. Al -
B
safety of three or higher is often desired.
d
H i n
• This would ensure that
D r . the part would
survive with three times higher than
expected loads. Figure 11: Factor of Safety

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