GENERAL BIOLOGY FINAL EXAMS
Seed color – yellow (D) green (d)
CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
 Genetics – science of studying
hereditary information; focus of studies
since mid-1900s; deals with the
mechanisms and processes involved in
heredity.
 Heredity – passing of traits from parent
to their offspring; ex: eye color, height,
shape of earlobes, etc.
 Hereditary Characteristics – passed
from one generation to another
 Gregor Johann Mendel – Austrian
monk; studied the science of modern
genetics; developed the laws of
genetics or the Mendelian principles
 Alleles – alternative form of genes;
contrasting expressions
Mendel’s First Investigation
- Pea plants (pisum sativum)
Characteristics:
1. Flower color – purple (D) white (d)
2. Flower position – along stem (D) top (d)
3. Pod color – green (D) yellow (d)
4. Pod shape – inflated (D) constricted (d)
5.
6. Seed texture – round (D) wrinkled (d)
7. Stem height – tall (D) short (d)
*There is always a 3:1 ratio between the
dominant allele and recessive allele.
Heterozygous – having a combination of both a
dominant and recessive allele
Homozygous – purely dominant (homozygous
dominant) or purely recessive (homozygous
recessive)
Monohybrid Cross
 X – represents the crossing of traits
 Monohybrid cross – cross breading
involving a single trait or character
factor
 Parental generation – first two
individuals that are crossed in a
breeding experiment
 Alleles:
o Phenotype – observable
expressions of the trait; physical
characteristics
o Genotype – factors of the genes
located inside the nucleus; genetic
information or composition;
responsible for the phenotype
 Hybrid – offspring produced from a
cross of two pure breeding plants
 Gene – factor that controls the
appearance of the trait
o Dominant – represented by a
capital letter; masks the recessive
allele; the trait that is shown
o Recessive – represented by a mall
letter; masked by the dominant
allele; hidden and prevented to
appear
Example: Monohybrid cross of heterozygous during gamete segregation and unite randomly
dominant parental generations during fertilization (Law of Recombination

2. Law of Dominance – the principle of

dominance and recessiveness; one factor in a
pair may mask the expression of the other

3. Law of Independent Assortment – the gene

pair assorts independently; the inheritance of
one trait is not affected by the other traits

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

 Sutton & Boveri – Chromosome Theory

of Inheritance: chromosomes are
Punnett Square – tool that helps in the structures that are found inside the
prediction of the possible outcome coming from nucleus of a cell that carry genetic
the cross; Reginald C. Punnett information
a. Incomplete Dominance - the traits are
Dihybrid Cross
mixed; the dominant allele failed to
 Dihybrid cross – crossing of two traits hide the recessive allele
using two pair of alleles

b. Codominance – both alleles are

expressed resulting in the formation of
Genotypic ratio - 4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1
the third phenotype
Phenotypic ratio – 9:3:3:1

*When nothing is mentioned, it is always

homozygous.

Mendelian Principles

- Studies of Mendel regarding genetics

- Laws of heredity

1. Law of Segregation – a gene pair carries two

c. Multiple Alleles – three or more alleles
separate characteristics; allele pairs separate
that may exist in the genre of a given
population

*Heterozygous blood type A and B can produce
blood type O but not vice versa
d. Polygenic Traits – combination of alleles that
give a certain characteristic or trait, many genes
coding for one trait
e. Epistasis – when one gene depends on
another gene for it to be expressed; a third
gene that controls the two alleles
The Genetic Material: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid)
 Gene – important segment of DNA;
unique protein that controls a specific
function in the cell; capable of storing
genetic information and can undergo
mutation
 DNA – 3 billion bases – 99% are the
same in all people (Venter et al. 2001);
contains all the genetic information;
controls all cellular activities within
living organisms; can be mtDNA (found
in the mitochondria and nuclear DNA
(found in the nucleus)
 4 bases – adenine, guanine (purines,
double), cytosine and thymine
(pyrimidines, sintering)
COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRS:
G-C and A-T
 Nucleotide – building block of DNA: 4
nitrogenous bases, five carbon
deoxyribose, phosphate group
 Watson and Crick Model – James
Watson and Francis Crick
 Rosalind Franklin – 1953
 Phoebus Levene – structure of DNA as a
double helix
 Erwin Chargauff – contains two sugar
phosphates and a DNA base pair linked
by hydrogen bonds
DNA Replication:
1. 2 strands separated by breaking the
hydrogen bond with and enzyme called
DNA Helicase
2. RNA Primer binds to the leading strand
3. DNA Polymerase replicates the bases (5’
to 3’)
4. The lagging strand has several RNA
Primers or discontinuous segments
called the okazaki fragments
5. DNA Ligase joins the segments
- Semi conservative- one original and one
daughter strand.
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
- Long strand made up of nucleotides
- Single chain, not a double helix
- Uracil instead of thymine
- Helps activate the DNA/ reads the DNA
- Carries out protein synthesis
Types:
1. Messenger RNA – transcribes and
copies genetic information in the
nucleus; brings DNA info from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm
2. Ribosomal RNA – molecule used to
make ribosome which synthesizes
proteins; reads the copied information
as codon code (3 consecutive
nitrogenous bases)
3. Transfer RNA – translation; brings
anticodon to the ribosomes
Protein Synthesis
  Protein – responsible for controlling all
activities of the cell
1. mRNA transcribes and exits the
nucleus via the nuclear membrane
2. rRNA reads codon codes
3. tRNA translates and brings the
anticodon
 Amino Acids – building blocks of
protein
 Protein synthesis – production of
protein; gene expression
Classifications:
o Replication – DNA making a
copy of itself
o Transcription – copies the info
from DNA to RNA
o Translation – produces amino
acid chain (polypeptide) from
info from the mRNA
Genetic Engineering
- Process in which genes are being
altered and DNA is transferred from one
organism to another
 Transgenic organism – when an
organism’s genes are altered for a
specific purpose
 Recombinant DNA Technology – allows
scientists to find individual genes, cut,
purify and insert genome; DNA-based
tool
 Restriction Enzymes – molecular
scissors used to cut DNA at specific
sequences
 Plasmid – circular bacterial DNA where
the cut out is inserted
Uses:
a. Genetic defect will be repaired
b. Enhancing and effect already natural to
that organism
c. Resistance against diseases or any other
external damages
d. Extraction of microorganisms
e. Improvement in the ripening of fruits
Process:
 gel electro pharesis – fragments are
separated by length
 gene cloning – isolated fragments are
isolated
 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) – used
to replicate and amplify the gene
segment
 gene constructs – promoter,
terminator, and marker gene
 vector – needs to be used to insert the
gene of interest to the recipient
organism
 gene gun method – shoots microscopic
gold particles coated with copies of the
transgene into cells
 Cloning – method that scientists used to
produce a genetic copy
 Dolly – 1997; fist cloned animal; three
mothers (DNA, egg, gave birth); died
after more or less than 7 years
CHAPTER 5: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE:
BIOMOLECULES OUTLOOK
 Element – substance that cannot be
broken down to other substances by
ordinary chemical reaction
 Trace elements – iron and iodine
 Compounds – substance composed of
two or more elements that are
chemically combined
 Inorganic compounds – does not
contain carbon (except carbon dioxide)
 Organic compounds – contain carbon
Seven Major Elements and their Functions
1. Carbon – main components of organic
compounds
2. Hydrogen – essential in energy
production
3. Oxygen – used for cellular respiration;
most abundant element in the body
 4. Nitrogen – key element for proteins,
nucleic acids, and other organic
molecules
5. Phosphorus – important for bone
structure
6. Sulfur – allow cells to use oxygen
7. Calcium – important for muscle
functions
Inorganic Compounds
SOLUTION: solute and solvent
 Solute – substance that is dissolved
 Solvent – dissolving agent
 Water – universal solvent
Characteristics and Function of Water
1. Biological Solvent – ability to dissolve
many substances including essential
molecules in the body
2. High heat capacity – large amount of
heat is needed to increase in
temperature; helps maintain a constant
body temperature
3. High heat of vaporization – helps in
preventing dehydration in an organism
4. High heat of fusion – helps organism
from freezing at low temperature
5. Medium for chemical and physical
processes – can serve as a place for
exchanging gases and nutrients and
elimination of wastes
6. Means of transport – can serve as a
transporter/ vehicle in the distribution
of nutrients, gases, and collection of
waste products all over the body
Acids
- Tastes sour
- Change color of certain indicators (turns
litmus paper into red)
- React with some metals and bases
- Promote chemical reactions (acid
catalysis) in a water solution
- pH level is between 2 and 4
a. Acetic acid – vinegar
b. Ascorbic acid – vitamin c
c. Citric acid – citrus fruits
d. Carbonic acid – soft drinks
e. Hydrochloric acid – found in the
stomach
Bases
- Accepts hydrogen ions
- Bitter taste and slippery
- Turns red litmus paper to blue
- Sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide,
antacids
- pH level is greater than 7
 pH scale – to describe acidity or basicity
of a solution
 buffer – biological fluid that can resist
changes in pH by having a mixture of
weak acid and its corresponding base
Electrolytes
- can conduct electricity within the body
- also known as salts or ions
- important in maintaining voltages
across the cell membranes
- sends electrical impulses in nerve cells
and muscle cells during muscle
contraction
cation- positive anion- negative
Carbon Dioxide
- essential for plants to perform
photosynthesis
- raw material in manufacturing glucose
- by-product in the production of ethanol
through fermentation and combustion
of fossil fuels
Organic Compounds
- also known as macromolecules
Monomers – individual units of macromolecules
Proteins
- most abundant organic compounds
found in any living organism
- important in the structure of cells
- gene activators
- membrane receptors, transporters,
clotting factors
1. Structural – tendons and ligaments
2. Contractile – muscular movement
3. Storage – ovalbumin in egg white
4. Defensive – antibodies
5. Transport – haemoglobin
6. Signal – hormones
7. Enzyme – chemical catalyst
*There are 20 amino acids essential in the body,
we are capable of making 12, 9 must be
consumed
- histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan, valine
- linked by a peptide bond or amide bond
Structures
1. Primary – forming polypeptide chains
Lipids
2. Secondary – form of an alpha helix or
beta strand
3. Tertiary – overall 3D shape of
polypeptide
4. Quaternary – arrangement of multiple
folded protein
Carbohydrates
- Small sugar subunits to large
polypeptides
- Main source of energy in all organisms
- Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
 Monosaccharides – one sugar unit;
building blocks for more complex forms
of sugarcomplex
 Glucose – dextrose or blood sugar;
most important fuel sugar
 Galactose – same atomic composition
with glucose but different structures
 Fructose – corn sugar; sweetest sugar
found in fruits
 Disaccharides – complex sugars made
up of two molecules chemically joined
together
 Maltose – malted cereals and sprouting
grains made up of two glucoses: sucrose
(table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)
 Polysaccharides – complex sugars made
up of chains and/or branches of
monosaccharides
 Starch – plant carbohydrate storage
that is composed entirely of glucose
molecules
 Glycogen – animal carbohydrate
storage and can be easily broken down
into glucose molecules when needed;
insoluble in water and forms a highly
compact shape
 Cellulose – cell wall of plants
 Cellulose – to digest cellulose
 Chitin – structural polysaccharide found
in the outer coverings of crustaceans
- Substances that include fats and fat-like
substances such as phospholipids,
waxes, steroids and others
- To store and produce energy
- Prevent heat loss and protection to
extreme cold
 Saturated fatty acids – solid at room
temp and found in animals
 Unsaturated fatty acids – liquid state at
room temp and found in plants
 Waxes – solid at room temperature
because they have high melting point;
hydrophobic
 Triglycerides – function for long-term
energy storage
  Phospholipids – major component of all - proteins that catalyse chemical
cell membranes as they can form lipid reactions
bilayers - active site – binding site in the substrate
 Sphingolipids – found in the brain, lung
2 models:
and nerve tissues
 Steroids – lipids with a carbon skeleton 1. Lock and Key Model – Emil Fischer
of four fused rings 2894; highlights the specificity of the
enzyme to the substrate by having a
Nucleic Acids
complementary shape that forms the
- Serve as genetic information storage enzyme-substrate complex perfectly
molecules
 nucleotides – monomer of nucleic acid;
five carbon sugar, phosphate group,
nitrogenous bases
 Double helix – two long strands that
form a spiral
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – double-
stranded helix molecule; pattern for
duplicating the sequence of bases
 RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) – essential for
protein synthesis; single polynucleotide 2. Induced Fit Model – Daniel Koshland
strands 1958; the active site is continuously
reshaped by interactions with the
Roles of Biological Molecules
substrate as the substrate interacts with
Carbohydrates the enzyme

- essential part of our diet

Proteins

- the nitrogen it contains (major source

of nitrogen in our body) and because of
the particular building blocks that make
up protein

Nucleic Acids

- most prominent nucleic acids are the

DNA and RNA

Enzyme

- there are 22 different digestive

Six Classes of enzymes:
enzymes that our human body
produces 1. Oxdideroductase – catalyzes redox
reactions
 2. Transferase – catalyzes transfer of
functional groups
3. Hydrolase – splits chemical bonds by
addition of water
4. Lyase – splits chemical bonds without
using water
5. Isomerase – rearranges atoms within
the molecule
6. Ligase – forms a chemical bond
between two atoms

 Enzyme’s optimum temperature –

temperature at which the maximum
rate of reaction occurs
 Redox reaction – influences enzymatic
activity
 Oxidation – removal of one or more
electrons from a substance
 Reduction of a substrate – gain of one
or more electrons

Generation of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Mechanisms of ATP Generation

 Substrate-level phosphorylation – an
enzyme transfers a phosphate group
from a donor molecule to ADP to form
ATP
 Oxidative phosphorylation – high
energy electrons are obtained by
oxidation of organic compounds
 Photophosphorylation – low energy
electrons are raised to a higher energy
level by light