Unit 3: Methods of design discharge

The IRC has recommended that the maximum discharge determined by a

consideration of at least two of the following methods
• From the rainfall and other characteristics of the catchment
1. By use of an empirical formula applied to that region
2. By a rational method.
• From the hydraulic characteristics of the stream.
• From the records available.
 From the rainfall and other characteristics of the catchment

Empirical methods: some of the most commonly used methods for flood
estimation in India.
1. Dicken’s formula
2. Ryve’s formula
3. Inglis formula
4. Nawab jang bahudur’s formula
5. Creager’s formula
6. Khosla’s formula
7. Besson’s formula

A general equation may be written in the form

Q = C Mn
Dicken’ formula: It was formerly adopted only in Northern India.
Q = C M3/4
C varies from 11.02 to 22.04,
for Northern India – 11.37, central India – 13.77-19.28, Western India – 22.04
Ryve’s formula: It is used only in Southern India.
Q = C M2/3
C = 6.74 for areas within 24 km from coast
= 8.45 for areas within 24 – 161 km from coast
= 10.1 for hilly areas.
Inglis formula: This formula is used only in the state of Maharashtra.
for small areas: Q = 123.2√M
for areas b/w 160 to 1000 km2: Q = 123.2√M – 2.62 (M -259)
for all types of catchments: Q = 123.2 M/ √M+10.36
Nawab Jang Bahadur’s formula:
Q = C (M/259) (a – b log A)
a = 0.993, b = ¼
C = 59.5 for North India
= 48.1 for south India
Creager’s formula: Equation given by Creager, Justin and Hinds is,
Q = 46 CM(0.894M-0.048)
M = catchment area
C = numerical constant
n = some index

Khosla’s formula: It is rational formula. It is based on the equation

R = P-L
R = runoff
P = rainfall
L = losses

Besson’s formula: Qm = (Pm X Qr) / Pm

 Rational Method

This method is applicable for determination of flood discharge for small

culverts only. The size of the flood depends on the following factors,
1. Climate or rainfall factors.
2. Catchment area factors.
3. The rainfall intensity of the region, Io = (F/2)x(1+(1/T))
4. Critical intensity of rainfall corresponding to concentration time. Ic = Io(2/
Tc+1)
5. Concentration time is given by Tc=(0.89XL3/H)0.385
6. Design peak run off is given by Q=100PAIc
7. For non- uniform distribution of rainfall in space another factor f is
introduced. The final runoff equation becomes. Q = 100 PfAIc
 Hydraulic characteristics of the stream

Measurement of area: Following procedure is adopted to measure the area

of cross section up to the highest flood level at bridge site.
 Measurement of velocity of flow: The velocity of flow is measured by one of
the following methods:
1. Application of chezy’s formula
2. Direct observation
According to Chezy’s formula, V = C√mi
m= m1+m2+m3/3 Where m1 = A1/P1
C can be obtained by Kutter’s formula
C = 23 + 0.00155/i + 1/N/(1 + N/√m(23 +0.00155/i))
Bazin’s formula = 157.6/1.81+k/√m
By direct observation:
Average time = t1+t2+t3/3 seconds
Velocity = distance travelled in cm/time in seconds
Determination of flood discharge from flood marks on an
existing structure.

Broad crested weir formula : Q = 1.70CwL(h1+v2/2g)3/2

Drowned Orifice formula: Q = Co√2gLh2[h+(1+e)v2/2g]1/3
 Water way
The area through which water flows under a bridge super structure is
known as waterway.
The Unobstructed area of the river or stream through which the water flows
at the bridge site is called natural waterway.
The length of the bridge available between the extreme edge of a water
surface at the highest flood level, measured at right angles to the abutment
faces is called as linear waterway.
The linear waterway is equal to the sum of all the clear spans is called
artificial linear waterway.
 Afflux

The abutments and piers of a bridge cause obstruction to the natural flow of
river or stream.
Rise of water level on the upstream side is known as afflux.
 Importance of afflux

It is necessary to calculate the afflux while designing a bridge for the

following reasons:
1. Increased velocity
2. Protective works
3. Submersion of bridge
4. Height of afflux: The increase in velocity due to afflux is governed by the
following relation:
Va= √2gha
To find out the value of ha, the following two empirical formulas are used.
1. Merriman’s formula: ha = V2/2g {(A/Ca)2 – (A/A1)}.
C = 0.75 + 0.35 (a/A) – 0.10 (a/A)2
1. Molesworth’s formula: ha = (V2/17.87 + 1/65.60) [(a/A)2 – 1]
 Economic span of bridge

Economic span of a bridge is the one which reduces the overall cost of the
bridge to be a minimum.
Assumptions: It is possible to find out a mathematical expression for the
economic span of a bridge with the help of the following assumptions:
1. The bridge consists of equal spans.
2. The bridge is an arch bridge or a girder bridge.
3. The cost of abutment with their foundations is nearly constant.
4. The cost of one pier with its foundation is nearly constant.
5. The cost of superstructure per span varies directly as the square of span.
L = Total length of bridge
l = length of one span
n = Number of span = L/l
P = cost of one pier with its foundation
C = cost of bridge excluding cost of abutments.
Cost of bridge = Cist of superstructure + Cost of piers + Cost of abutments
C = Cost of superstructure + Cost of piers……1
According to the assumption no. 5,
Cost of superstructure per span l2
= a l2
Cost of superstructure for n spans = n a l2…..2
As n indicates number of spans, the number of piers would be (n-1) and hence,
Cost of piers = (n-1) P…….3
Substituting 2 & 3 in equation 1
C = n a l2 + (n-1) P
= n a (L/n)2 + (n-1) P
= aL2/n + (n-1) P
For C to be minimum, dC/dn = 0
- a L2/n2 + P = 0
- a l2 + P = 0 ( L/n = l)
P = a l2
 Following are the cases in which it is not possible to adopt the economic
span as worked out from the above considerations:
1. Dead load of superstructure
2. Foundations of piers
3. Height of piers
4. Increase in span
5. Miscellaneous reasons
 Forces to be considered For design

Following are the various forces acting on bridge.

1. Centrifugal forces

2. Longitudinal forces

3. Temperature variation forces

4. Seismic force

5. Forces due to water currents.

 Centrifugal forces: when a road or a railway bridge is situated on a curve, the
effect due to centrifugal force is to he considered in the bridge design.
Following formulas are adopted for the road and railway bridges:
1. Road bridges: C = WV2/12.95 R
2. Railway bridges: C = WV2/12.95 R
Longitudinal forces: This forces which develop from any one or more of the
following causes:
1. The braking effect resulting from the application of brakes on the vehicles
2. The frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearings due to
variation in temperature or any other causes
3. The tractive effort caused through the acceleration of the driving wheels of
the vehicles.
For road bridges
For railway bridges
 Temperature variation forces: Due to variation in temperature, the length of
a structure is affected.
The stress due to change in temperature is given by the following
expression:
S=eαt
1. Concrete structures
2. Metal structures
3. Temperature variation
Seismic force: If a bridge is situated in a region subject to earthquakes,
allowance should be made in the design for the seismic force.
Force due to water currents: Any part of a bridge which may be submerged
in running water should be designed to sustain safely the horizontal
pressure due to the force of the current.
In case of piers parallel to the direction of water current, the intensity of
pressure should be calculated from the following formula: P =52 KV2