IN THE NAME OF ALLAH

THE MERCIFUL

(Chemical Engineering Design)

Pressure Vessels of Chemical

Engineering Design

Supervised By:- Dr.Nasser Al-Maghrabi

Submitted by: - Reyad Al Saddeeq Ali Souysi

I.D:-3209119
(2015-2016)
A horizontal storage drum feeding tower is to be design the drum
holds liquid methane at -110 C° and methane flow rate 1500 kg/hr
pressure 0.45 gf/Cm3 the drums is assumed as to be fully in
instrumented and operator of in experience . design this storage
drums.

I
CHAPTERS Contents Page
Number

1.Introdaction: 2
1.1:- Objective: 2
1.2:- The Pressure vessel: 3
1.2.1:- Classification of Pressure Vessels 4
1.2.1.1:-According to the dimensions 4
1.2.1.2:-According to the end construction. 4
1.2.2:-Types of The Pressure Vessels . 4
1.2.2.1:-Horizontal Pressure Vessel. 4
1.2.2.2:- Vertical Pressure Vessel. 5
1.3:- The Carbon Stee. 6
Chapter 1.3.1:- The Difference Between Carbon Steels. 6
One 1.3.2:- Types of Carbon-Steel. 7
1.3.2.1:- Low carbon steel. 7
1.3.2.2:- Medium carbon steel. 7
1.3.2.3:- High carbon steel. 8
1.4:- The Methane. 8
1.4.1:- Chemical properties of methane. 8
1.4.2:- Sources of methane. 9
1.4.3:- Uses of methane. 9
1.5:- Insulation by glass wool fibers. 10
1.5.1:- Glass wool fibers. 10
1.5.2:- Thermal insulation. 10
2.1:- Calculation of vessel inside dimeters Di 12
Chapter 2.2:- Calculation of vessel long L 12
Two 2.3:- Calculation of vessel thickness tv 12
2.4:- Calculation of vessel Meam dimeters Dm. 12
2.5:- Calculation of vessel weight Wv. 12
Chapter 3.1:- physical properietes of carbon steel. 18
3.2:- physical properietes of glass wool fibers. 18
Three 3.3:- physical properietes of air. 19
3.4:-physical properietes of methane. 19

II
CHAPTERS Contents Page
Number

4. Mechanical Design. 21
4.1. Head thickness. 21
4.2. Thickness of Insulation. 23
4.3. Weight of ladders. 27
4.4. Weight of insulation. 27
4.5. Dead Weight. 27
4.6. Life Weight. 28
4.7. Total Weight. 28
4.8. Wind Loads. 28
4.9. Bending Moment. 29
4.10. Analysis of stress. 29
4.11. Dead weight stress. 30
Chapter 4.12. Bending stress. 30
Four 4.13. The Resultant of longitudinal stresses. 31
4.14. The Maximum Operating stresses. 31
4.15. Elastic Stability. 32
4.16. Vessel Support(Skirt Support). 32
4.16.1. Skirt Thickness. 34
4.16.2. Skirt Diameter. 34
4.16.3. Skirt Lenght 34
4.16.4. Bending Moment at Base of the Skirt. 34
4.16.5. Bending Stress in the Skirt. 34
4.16.6. Dead Weight Stress in the Skirt. 34
4.16.7. The Resultant Stress on the Skirt. 35
4.17. The Optimum Pipes Diameter and Flange Design for
36
Carbon steel.

Chapter 5.Cost Calculation 39

Five 5.1. Storag Tank Cost Estimation. 39
5.2. Insulation Cost Estimation. 40
5.3. Total cost. 40
Refrance. 42

III
 Page
CHAPTERS Table of Figure Number
Chapter 1.2.2.1 Horizontal circular cylindrical tank.
One 5

Chapter
Two
Chapter
Three
4.1. Domed heads (a) Hemispherical (b) Ellipsoidal (c)
21
Torispherical
4.2. Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports. 32
4.3. Typical skirt-support designs. (a) Straight skirt.
33
Chapter (b) Conical skirt.
4.4. Bracket supports. (a) Supported on legs.
Four 33
(b) Supported from steelwork.
4.5. Flange types. (a) Welding-neck. (b) Slip-on. (c) Lap-joint.
36
(d) Screwed.
4.6 Typical standard flange design (All dimensions mm)
37

Chapter 5.1.Horizontal pressure vessel,Time base mid-2004

39
Five

IV
 Page
CHAPTERS List of Equation Number

2.1:- Calculation of vessel inside dimeters Di 12

2.2:- Calculation of vessel long L 12

Chapter
2.3:- Calculation of vessel thickness tv 12
Two
2.4:- Calculation of vessel Meam dimeters Dm 12

2.5:- Calculation of vessel weight Wv 12

4.1.1.Head thickness tn 22

4. 2. stress concentration factor for torispherical C s 22

4.3. weight of head. 22
4.4. The general eqution of heat flow. 23

4.5. The thermal resistance 23

4.6. heat flow. 23

4.7. Averge temperatuer. 23

Chapter 4.8. heat transfer coefficient of Air. 24

Four 4.9. Nusselt number. for horizontal vessel. 24
4.10. Ra Reynolds number. 24

4.11. Grashof number. 24

4.12. heat transfer coefficient of Methane. 25

4.13. Prandtl number. 25

4.14. heat transfer coefficient. 26

4.15. Weight of ladders. 27

4.16. Weight of insulation. 27

V
 Page
CHAPTERS List of Equation Number

4.17. Dead Weight. 27

4.18. Life Weight. 28

4.19. Total Loads. 28
4.20. Wind Loads. 28

4.21. Mean diameter. 28

4.22. Wind pressure. 28

4.23. Bending Moment. 29

4.24. Longithudinal stress . 29

4.25. Circumferential stress 29

Chapter
Four 4.26. Dead weight stress. 30

4.27. Bending stress. 30

4.28. Second moment of area. 30

4.29. The Resultant of longitudinal stresses. 31

4.30. The Maximum Operating stresses. 31

4.26. Dead weight stress. 30

4.31. Elastic Stability. 32

4.32. Bending Moment at Base of the Skirt 34

4.33. Bending Stress in the Skirt 34

VI
 Page
CHAPTERS List of Equation
Number

4.34. Dead Weight Stress in the Skirt(test) 34

4.35. Dead Weight Stress in the Skirt(operation) 35

Chapter 4.36. The Resultant Stress on the Skirt.(tensile) 35
Four 4.37. The Resultant Stress on the Skirt.(Compressive) 35
4.38. The Optimum Pipes Diameter and Flange Design 36
for Carbon steel.

5.1. Purchase cost. 40

Chapter
5.2. cost of insulation. 40
Five 5.3. Total cost. 40

VII
1.INTRODUCTION:-
1.1. Objective:-
High pressure rise is developed in the pressure vessel and pressure vessel has to
withstand severe forces. So the selection of pressure vessel is most critical.

That’s why we can say that pressure vessel is the heart for storage of fluid.
Pressure vessel must pass series of Hydrostatic tests.

These tests examine the ability of the structure to withstand various pressures to
see if protective zone around the operator station remains intact in an overturn.

The structure is to be designed, fabricated, fitted and checked as per ASME1

standard.

Plant safety and integrity are of fundamental concern in pressure vessel design
and these of course depend on the adequacy of design codes.

The performance of a pressure vessel under pressure can be determined by

conducting a series of tests to the relevant ASME1 standard. Efforts are made in
this paper to design the pressure vessel using ASME1 codes and standards to
legalize the design.

Vessels, tanks, and pipelines that carry, store, or receive fluids are called
pressure vessels.

A pressure vessel is defined as a container with a pressure differential

between inside and outside. The inside pressure is usually higher than the
outside, except for some isolated situations. The fluid inside the vessel may
undergo a change in state as in the case of steam boilers, or may combine with
other reagents as in the case of a chemical reactor. Pressure vessels often
have a combination of high pressures together with high temperatures, and
in some cases flammable fluids or highly radioactive materials. Because of
such hazards it is imperative that the design be such that no leakage can
occur. In addition these vessels have to be designed carefully to cope with
the operating temperature and pressure. It should be borne in mind that the
rupture of a pressure vessel has a potential to cause extensive physical injury

1
ASME : The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

2
and property damage. Plant safety and integrity are of fundamental concern
in pressure vessel design and these of course depend on the adequacy of
design codes. When discussing pressure vessels we must also consider
tanks. Pressure vessels and tanks are significantly different in both
design and construction: tanks, unlike pressure vessels, are limited to
atmospheric pressure; and pressure vessels often have internals while most
tanks do not (and those that do are limited to heating coils or mixers).

Pressure vessels are used in a number of industries; for example, the power
generation industry for fossil and nuclear power, the petrochemical industry
for storing and processing crude petroleum oil in tank farms as well as
storing gasoline in service stations, and the chemical industry (in chemical
reactors) to name but a few. Their use has expanded throughout the world.
Pressure vessels and tanks are, in fact,essential to the chemical, petroleum,
petrochemical and nuclear industries. It is in this class of equipment that the
reactions, separations, and storage of raw materials occur. Generally
speaking, pressurized equipment is required for a wide range of industria l
plant for storage and manufacturing purposes. The size and geometric form
of pressure vessels vary greatly from the large cylindrical vessels used for
high-pressure gas storage to the small size used as hydraulic units for
aircraft. Some are buried in the ground or deep in the ocean, but most are
positioned on ground or supported in platforms.

1.2. The Pressure vessel:-

A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially different from the ambient pressure.

The pressure vessels (cylinders or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure.
The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel
as in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a
chemical plant. The pressure vessels are designed with great care because
rupture of a pressure vessel means an explosion which may cause loss of life and
property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such as cast iron, or
ductile such as mild steel.

3
 1.2.1. Classification of Pressure Vessels.
The pressure vessels may be classified as follows:

1.2.1.1. According to the dimensions .

The pressure vessels, according to their dimensions, may be classified as thin
shell or thick shell If the wall thickness of the shell (t) is less than 1/10 of the
diameter of the shell (D), then it is called a thin shell .

On the other hand, if the wall thickness of the shell is greater than 1/10 of the

diameter of the shell, then it is said to be a thick shell.

Thin shells are used in boilers, tanks and pipes, whereas thick shells are used in
high pressure cylinders, tanks, gun barrels

1.2.1.2. According to the end construction.

The pressure vessels,according to the end construction, may be classified as

open end or closed end.

A simple cylinder with a piston, such as cylinder of a press is an example of an

open end vessel, whereas a tank is an example of a closed end vessel. In case of
vessels having open ends, the circumferential or hoop stresses are induced by
the fluid pressure, whereas in case of closed ends, longitudinal stresses in
addition to circumferential stresses are induced.

1.2.2. Types of The Pressure Vessels.

1.2.2.1. Horizontal Pressure Vessel.
The design of horizontal cylindrical vessels with dished heads to resist
internal pressure is covered by existing codes. However, the method of
support is left pretty much up to the designer. In general the cylindrical shell is
made a uniform thickness which is determined by the maximum
circumferential stress due to the internal pressure. Since the longitudinal
stress is only one-half of this circumferential stress, these vessels have available
a beam strength which makes the two-saddle support system ideal for a
wide range of proportions. However,certain limitations are necessary to
make designs consistent with the intent of the code.

The purpose of this paper is to indicate the approximate stresses that exist in
cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various locations. Knowing

4
these stresses, it is possible to determine which vessels may be designed
for internal pressure alone, and to design structurally adequate and economical
stiffening for the vessels which require it.

Information about the seismic design of horizontal circular cylindrical tanks are
contained in the Eurocode 82 , but they are not actually exhaustive. In particular,
EC8 suggests that horizontal tanks need to be analyzed both along the
longitudinal and the transverse axis and that an approximate values for
hydrodynamic pressures induced by horizontal excitation in either the
longitudinal and transversal direction can be obtained from solutions for the
rectangular tank of equal dimension at the liquid level and in the direction of
motion, and ofdepth required to give equal liquid volume.

This approximation is sufficiently accurate for design purposes over the range of
H/R

(see Fig. 1) between 0.5 and 1.6. When H/R exceeds, 1.6, the tank should be
assumed to behave as if it were full with the total fluid mass rigidly connected to
the tank.

Figure.1.2.2.1:- Horizontal circular cylindrical tank.

1.2.2.2. Vertical Pressure Vessel.

Vertical process vessels are typically used as either surge drums or knock out
drums. When used as surge drums, they act ike shock absorbers, maintaining a
constant flow rate of liquid out of the vessel regardless of the flow rate into it. If
liquid flows in faster than the constant rate it flows out, the vessel fills with
liquid. If liquid flows in slower than the constant rate it is removed, then the
liquid level drops. The liquid level is constantly fluctuating in order to absorb

2
Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance

5
these variations in flow and maintain a constant flow rate out. When a vertical
process vessel is used as a knock out drum, a mixture of gas and liquid flows
into the vessel and this mixture is separated into its gas and liquid components
within the vessel. The gas then flows out the top of the vessel and the liquid
flows out the bottom .

Vertical process vessels, as their name indicates, are erected in the vertical
position. They are cylindrical in shape with each end capped by a domed cover
called a head. The length to diameter ratio of a vertical vessel is typically 3:1

1.3. The Carbon Steel:-

It is important to clarify the meaning of carbon steel in the generic sense

The term steel is usually taken to mean an iron-based alloy containing carbon in
amounts less than about 2%. Carbon steels (sometimes also termed plain carbon
steels, ordinary steels, or straight carbon steels) can be defined as steels that
contain only residual amounts of elements other than carbon, except those (such
as silicon and aluminum) added for deoxidation and those (such as manganese
and cerium) added to counteract certain deleterious effects of residual sulfur.
However, silicon and manganese can be added in amounts greater than those
required strictly to meet these criteria so that arbitrary upper limits for these
elements have to be set; usually, 0.60% for silicon and 1.65% for manganese are
accepted as the limits for carbon steel.

In some cases, requirements established by codes and standards must be

implemented to achieve adequate results when working with carbon steels. It is
important for the utility engineer to have access to metallurgical and properties
information to aid in making decisions for projects involving carbon steels.

1.3.1. The Difference Between Carbon Steels.

The world of carbon steels can be challenging to wrap your head around. There
are many different options to choose from, and each type of steel has different
benefits. The main differentiating factor is the amount of carbon that is The
world of carbon steels can be challenging to wrap your head around. There are
many different options to choose from, and each type of steel has different
benefits. The main differentiating factor is the amount of carbon that is mixed
with iron during production. Other materials, mainly metals, can be added to
change the physical properties. Notably, chromium is added to form stainless
steel, while other additives can change tensile strength, ductility, and toughness.

6
When looking at the big picture, there are three distinctions between carbon
steels: low, medium, and high.

Table.1:- Distinctions between carbon steels: low, medium, and high.

1.3.2. Types of Carbon Steel.

1.3.2.1. Low carbon steel.
Low carbon steels grades of stainless are typically used in applications which
require high degrees of corrosion resistance but do not require a hardened
surface. The carbon content of these steels typically range between 0.03-0.08%,
and consumers typically use these grades of stainless (often without thinking
about it) in kitchen equipment, silverware or almost any grade of un-plated steel
used in food preparation. It’s great because it can survive the dishwasher
without rusting, but it cannot be case hardened due to the very low carbon
content.

1.3.2.2. Medium carbon steel.

Medium carbon steels include grades with carbon contents ranging from 0.25%
to 0.60% of the steel mass. Medium carbon grades are typically employed in
conjunction with alloys such as chromium, nickel and molybdenum to produce
high strength, wear resistance and toughness. Products using medium grades of
carbon steel include gears, axles, studs and other machine components that
require optimal combinations of strength and toughness.

Medium carbon steels have good machining characteristics, and one of the more
popular grades used in machined steel product is AISI 1045.

7
 AISI 1045 can also be hardened by heating the material too approximately 820-
850C (1508 -1562 F) and held until the material reaches a uniform temperature.
It should be soaked for one hour per 25 mm section of material and subsequently
cooled in still air.

1.3.2.3. High carbon steel.

High carbon steels are those with carbon contents between 0.60% and 1.4% of
the overall weight. The alloys in this particular category constitute the strongest
and hardest within the three groups, but they are also the least ductile. These
steels are used in a range of different mechanical, cutting and bearing
applications as it can be hardened through heat treating and tempering.
Additional alloys can be added to this steel category in order to generate
different characteristics. Chromium and Manganese, for example, are used in the
composition of 52100 steel and aid in the hardening process while enhancing the
steel’s resistance to corrosion. Science 52100 is one of the steel grades
frequently used to manufacture linear shafting, precise control of the case depth
can be critical to generate a shaft with both a hardened surface (for loaded ball
contact) and an un-hardened inner core which prevents the shaft from becoming
brittle.

1.4. The Methane:-

Methane (CH4) is a colourless, odourless, non-toxic and flammable gas, and is
the most simple of the hydrocarbons. Mixed with certain proportions of air, it
can be dangerously explosive. Methane is a greenhouse gas that occurs naturally
and its production has kept pace with the world's population growth.

Methane is produced by the breakdown of plant materials in landfills, swamps

and marshes. Digestion, rotting and incomplete burning all produce methane.
Methane is found in oil, gas and coal deposits. Methane gas is also produced by
livestock, other animals and humans. Natural processes contribute about one-
half of the methane in the atmosphere; the rest comes from agriculture and the
production of fossil fuels.

1.4.1. Chemical properties of methane.

Methane is lighter than air, having a specific gravity of 0.554. It is only slightly
soluble in water. It burns readily in air, forming carbon dioxide and water
vapour; the flame is pale, slightly luminous, and very hot. The boiling point of
methane is −162 °C (−259.6 °F) and the melting point is −182.5 °C (−296.5 °F).
Methane in general is very stable, but mixtures of methane and air, with the

8
methane content between 5 and 14 percent by volume, are explosive. Explosions
of such mixtures have been frequent in coal mines and collieries and have been
the cause of many mine.

1.4.2. Sources of methane.

In nature, methane is produced by the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of
vegetable matter under water (where it is sometimes called marsh gas or swamp
gas). Wetlands are the major natural source of methane produced in this way.
Other important natural sources of methane include termites (as a result of
digestive processes), volcanoes, vents in the ocean floor, and methane hydrate
deposits that occur along continental margins and beneath Antarctic ice and
Arctic permafrost. Methane also is the chief constituent of natural gas, which
contains from 50 to 90 percent methane (depending on the source), and occurs
as a component of fire damp (flammable gas) along coal seams.

The production and combustion of natural gas and coal are the major
anthropogenic (human-associated) sources of methane. Activities such as the
extraction and processing of natural gas and the destructive distillation of
bituminous coal in the manufacture of coal gas and coke-oven gas result in the
release of significant amounts of methane into the atmosphere. Other human
activities that are associated with methane production include biomass burning,
livestock farming, and waste management (where bacteria produce methane as
they decompose sludge in waste-treatment facilities and decaying matter in
landfills).

1.4.3. Uses of methane.

Methane is an important source of hydrogen and some organic chemicals.
Methane reacts with steam at high temperatures to yield carbon monoxide and
hydrogen; the latter is used in the manufacture of ammonia for fertilizers and
explosives. Other valuable chemicals derived from methane include methanol,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and nitromethane. The incomplete combustion
of methane yields carbon black, which is widely used as a reinforcing agent in
rubber used for automobile tires.

9
 1.5. Insulation by glass wool fibers:-
1.5.1. Glass wool fibers.
Glass wool fibers are synthetic or man-made, very small finely spun fibers of
glass that form a mass resembling wool. There is considerable variation in the
properties of individual fibers within this class, depending on the manufacturing
process and end use. They are commonly used for insulation or filtration.

There are generally two categories of glass wool fibers that consumers might
use:

low-cost general-purpose fibers and premium special-purpose fibers. Most home

and building insulation projects use general-purpose glass wool. Special-purpose
glass fibers are used for applications, such as separating the negative and
positive plates in a battery, and in high-efficiency air filters and aircraft, pace
craft, and acoustical insulation. In general, insulation fibers are less durable and
less bio persistent than special-purpose fibers, and may be less likely to cause
cancer than the more durable, more persistent special-purpose fibers.

1.5.2. Thermal insulation.

Glass wool is an insulating material made from fibres of glass arranged using a
binder into a texture similar to wool. The process traps many small pockets of
air between the glass, and these small air pockets result in high thermal
insulation properties.

Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass
fibers, which causes it to "package" air, resulting in a low density that can be
varied through compression and binder content ( these air cells are the actual
insulator). Glass wool can be a loose fill material, blown into attics, or, together
with an active binder sprayed on the underside of structures, sheets and panels
that can be used to insulate flat surfaces such as cavity wall insulation, ceiling
tiles, curtain walls as well as ducting. It is also used to insulate piping and for
soundproofing.

10
11
2.Chemical Design :-
2.1. Calculation of vessel dimensions:-
2.1. Calculation of vessel inside dimeters Di.

4∗𝑉
𝐷𝑖 = 3√𝐿 ( Eq:2.1 )
⁄ 𝐷∗𝜋
2.2. Calculation of vessel long L.

𝐿 = 𝐿⁄𝐷 ∗ 𝐷 (Eq:2.2)
2.3. Calculation of vessel thickness t v.

𝑃0 ∗𝐷𝑖∗103
𝑡𝑣 = 2∗𝐽∗𝑓−𝑃0
+C (Eq:2.3)
2.4. Calculation of vessel Meam dimeters Dm.

𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + (𝑡𝑣 ∗ 10−3 ) (Eq:2.4)

2.5. Calculation of vessel weight Wv.

𝑊𝑣 = 𝐶𝑤 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝜌𝑚 ∗ 𝐷𝑚 ∗ g ∗ (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8 ∗ 𝐷𝑚 ) ∗ 𝑡𝑣 ∗ 10−3 (Eq: 2.5)

Where:- Di:-inside dimeter.=m

L:-Longht of vessel.=m
tv:- thickness of vessel.=mm
Po:-Design pressure =P*1.1=N/mm²
f:-Design stress.=(N/mm²) from (Table 2.2)
J:-Welding joint efficiency.=(0.85) from (Table 2.3)
C:-corrosion allowance =(2mm).
Do:-Meam dimeter.=m
Wv:-Total weight of the vessel.=N
L/D=(2.5-5).
Cw:-Factor to accoumt for the nozzles(1.08)
ρm:-density of carbon steel=7833kg/m³

12
Design stress (nominal design strength)

Table 2.1. Design stress factors

Table 2.2. Typical design stresses for plate

13
Welded joint efficiency, and construction categories

Table 2.3. Maximum allowable joint efficiency

Minimum practical wall thickness

There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure

that any vessel is sufficiently

rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads.

As a general guide the wall

thickness of any vessel should not be less than the values

given below; the values include a corrosion allowance of 2
mm:

Table 2.4. Minimum practical wall thickness

14
 The calculation:-
Timprature -110°C
Time =8min
P= 34kgf/Cm2 = 3.334 N/mm²
Po=P*1.1=3.6674 N/mm²
flow rate m’=1500 kg/hr
density ρ =0.45 g/Cm3
m’ 1500
Q= = = 3.333𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
ρ 450
8
𝑉 = 𝑄 ∗ 𝑡 = 3.333 ∗ = 0.445𝑚3
60

3
4∗𝑉 3 4 ∗ 0.445
𝐷𝑖 = =√ = 0.61𝑚
√ 𝐿⁄ ∗ 𝜋 2.5 ∗ 𝜋
𝐷

𝐿 = 𝐿⁄𝐷 ∗ 𝐷 = 2.5 ∗ 0.61 = 1.524

𝑃0 ∗ 𝐷𝑖 ∗ 103 3.6674 ∗ 0.61 ∗ 103

𝑡𝑣 = +C= +2
2 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ 𝑓 − 𝑃0 2 ∗ 0.85 ∗ 135 − 3.6674
= 11.898mm
𝐷𝑜 = 𝐷𝑖 + (𝑡𝑣 ∗ 10−3 ) = 0.61 + (11.898 ∗ 10−3 ) = 0.621𝑚
𝑊𝑣 = 𝐶𝑤 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝜌𝑚 ∗ 𝐷𝑜 ∗ g ∗ (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8 ∗ 𝐷𝑜 ) ∗ 𝑡𝑣 ∗ 10−3
= 1.08 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 7833 ∗ 0.621 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (1.524 + 0.8 ∗ 0.621 ) ∗ 11.898 ∗ 10−3

=397.274N

15
L/D Di (m) L tv (mm) Do (m) Wv (N)
(m)=Hv
2.5 0.610 1.524 11.898 0.621 397.274
3 0.574 1.721 11.315 0.585 385.093
3.5 0.545 1.907 10.848 0.556 376.892
4 0.521 2.085 10.463 0.532 371.144
4.5 0.501 2.255 10.137 0.511 367.008
5 0.484 2.419 9.856 0.494 363.980
Table 2.5 Calculation of vessel dimensions

From the table , the less wight when the ratio L/D=5
Then:- Diameter of vessel is 0.484m
Lenght of vessel is 2.419m

16
17
3.physical properietes:-
3.1. physical properietes of carbon steel:-

physical properietes of carbon steel atT=30°C

physical properietes of carbon steel

density ρ(kg/m³) 7833
heat campacity(KJ/Kg.C°) 0.465
Thermal conductivity K(W/m.C°) 54
Thermal Diffusivity(m²/sec) 1.474*10-05
Table.3.1. physical properietes of carbon steel

3.2. physical properietes of Insulation:-

physical properietes of glass wool fibers

physical properietes of glass wool fibers

density ρ(kg/m³) 24

Thermal conductivity K(W/m.C°) 0.038

Table.3.2. physical properietes of glass wool fibers

18
 3.3. physical properietes of air:-

physical properietes of air at T=303°K

kinematic viscosity ʋ (m2/sec) 16.009*10-6

Thermal conductivity ka (W/m.K°) 0.0264

Prandtl's Number- Pr 0.7282

Table.3.3. physical properietes of air

3.4. physical properietes of methane:-

physical properietes of methane at T=-110°C

density ρ(kg/m³) 334.545

heat campacity(KJ/Kg.C°) 0.465

Thermal conductivity K(W/m.C°) 0.1115

Dynamic viscosity μ (Pa.sec) 45.066664* 10-6

Kinematic viscosity m2 / s 0.13471*10-6

Specific isobar heat capacity : cp ( kJ / kg K ) 4.370647704
Table.3.4. physical properietes of methane

19
20
4.Mechanical Design:-
4.1. Head thickness:-
Heads are formed steel plates for pressure vessels and heat
exchangers. The heads are usually found at the ends of an
equipment, top or bottom for vertical vessels and left right for
horizontal vessels. There are only a few shapes used for the heads
that have proven to be useful. If the head is cut in half over the
diameter of the head, the shapes follow more or less an ellipse, see
also the figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1. Domed heads (a) Hemispherical (b) Ellipsoidal (c)

Torispherical

21
4.1.1.Head thickness tn:-
𝑃𝑜 ∗𝑅𝑐∗10 3 ∗𝐶𝑠
𝑡ℎ = +C (Eq.4.1)
2∗𝑓∗𝐽+𝑃0 (𝐶𝑠−0.2)
.Cs:stress concentration factor for torispherical:-

1
𝐶𝑠 *(3+ 2√𝑅𝑐⁄𝑅𝑘 (Eq.4. 2)
4

Rc=Di=0.484m
Rk=6%Rc=0.029m
1
𝐶𝑠 = *(3+ 2√0.484⁄0.029 = 1.7706
4

3.6674∗0.484∗10 3∗1.7706
𝑡ℎ = + 2 =15.35mm
2∗135∗0.85+3.6674(1.7706−0.2)

𝐷𝑖
4.1.2:-depth of heat= = 0.484
4
= 0.121𝑚
4

4.1.3:-weight of head:-
𝐷
𝜋∗(𝐷0 + 0+𝑎+𝑡ℎ )2 ∗𝑡ℎ
𝑊𝐻 = 𝜌𝑚 [ 24
] (Eq.4.3)
4

a=2at thickness <1in

0.494
𝜋 ∗ (0.494 + + 2 + 15.35 ∗ 10−3 )2 ∗ 15.35 ∗ 10−3
𝑊𝐻 = 7833 [ 24 ]
4

𝑊𝐻 =604.427N

22
 4.2. Thickness of Insulation:-
4.2.1. Heat without Insulation .
The general eqution of heat flow is:-
∆𝑇
𝑞= ∑𝑅
(Eq.4.4)

Where:
q:amount of heat transfer
∑ 𝑅 total resistance of heat transfer

∆𝑇 temperature difference between the fluid and surrounding .K°

The thermal resistance is.
:-∑ 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑎 (Eq.4.5)

Where:- 𝑅𝑓 thermal resistance of the fluid assumed K/w

𝑅𝑚 thermal resistance of the vessel material .K/w

𝑅𝑖 thermal resistance of the insulatiom .K/w
𝑅𝑎 thermal resistance of the air .K/w
∆𝑇
𝑞𝑤 = 1 ln(𝑟2⁄𝑟1)
(Eq.4.6)
+
ℎ𝑜𝐴𝑜 2.𝜋.𝑘𝑚.𝐿

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑓 = (Eq.4.7)
2

Assume:-

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 above stage temperature 60°C

𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 below stage temperature 0°C

23
 60+0
𝑇𝑓 = = 30°C =303.15°K
2

1 1
𝛽= = = 3.29 ∗ 10−3 °K −1
𝑇𝑓 303.15

Calculate of h0 heat transfer coefficient of Air:

𝑁𝑢∗𝑘𝑎
ℎ0 = (Eq.4.8)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝑘𝑎 is the thermal conductivity of the Air from (Table:3.3).

Pag-19
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 effctive of longht =Di of horizontal vessel=0.484m.

𝑁𝑢 Nusselt number. for horizontal vessel.

1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.54𝑅𝑎 4 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎 ≤ 107 (Eq.4.9a)

1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.15𝑅𝑎 3 107 ≤ 𝑅𝑎 ≤ 1011 (Eq.4.9b)

𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟 ∗ 𝑃𝑟 (Eq.4.10)

Ra Reynolds number
Pr Prandtl number from (Table:3.3). Pag-19
Gr Grashof number.
𝑔∗𝐷𝑖 3 𝛽(𝑇𝑠−𝑇)
𝐺𝑟 = (Eq.4.11)
𝑣

Where:
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81, m/s²

24
Di = longer side of the vessel

β = air thermal expansion coefficient=3.29 ∗ 10−3 °K −1

T= Plate temperature, °C.
Ts = Air temperature, °C.
𝑣 = air kinematic viscosity. from (Table:3.3). Pag-19
9.81∗0.4843 ∗(3.29∗10−3)∗(30−(−110))
𝐺𝑟 = =32.001 ∗ 103
16.009∗10−6

Ra=(32.001 ∗ 103)*0.7282=∗ 2.3303 ∗ 104

Than
1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.54𝑅𝑎 4 104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎 ≤ 107
1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.54 ∗ (2.3303 ∗ 104 )4 = 6.6718
6.6718 ∗ 0.0264
ℎ0 = = 0.3639 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝑆𝑒𝑐
0.484
Calculate of hi heat transfer coefficient of Methane:
𝑁𝑢∗𝑘𝑖
ℎ𝑖 = (Eq.4.12)
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝑘𝑖 is the thermal conductivity of the Methane (Table:3.4).

Pag-19
𝐶𝑝∗𝜇𝑖
𝑃𝑟 = (Eq.4.13)
𝐾𝑖

From (Table:3.4). Pag-19

4.370647704 ∗ 45.066664 ∗ 10−6
𝑃𝑟 = = 1.766 ∗ 10−3
0.1115

25
 9.81∗(0.484)3 (3.29∗10−3)∗(30−(−110))
𝐺𝑟 = = 3.803 ∗ 106
0.13471∗10−6

Ra=3.803 ∗ 106 ∗ 1.766 ∗ 10−3 = 6.716 ∗ 103

1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.54 ∗ (6.716 ∗ 103 )4 = 4.888
4.888 ∗ 0.1115
ℎ𝑖 = = 1.1261 𝑊⁄𝑚2 . 𝑆𝑒𝑐
0.484
𝐷𝑖 0.484
𝑟1 = = = 0.242𝑚
2 2
𝑟2 = 𝑟1 + 𝑡𝑣 = 0.242 + 9.856 ∗ 10−3 = 0.252𝑚
𝐴𝑖 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑟1 ∗ 𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∗ 0.242 ∗ 2.419 = 3.678𝑚2

𝐴0 = 2𝜋 ∗ 𝑟1 ∗ 𝐿 = 2𝜋 ∗ 0.242 ∗ 2.419 = 3.678𝑚2

(−110 − 30)
𝑞𝑤 = = −186.971𝑊
ln( 0.252⁄
1 0.242)
+
0.3639 ∗ 3.67 2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 54.2 ∗ 419
∆𝑇
𝑞𝑤 = 1 ln(𝑟2⁄𝑟1) ln(𝑟3⁄𝑟2) 1
(Eq.4.14)
+ + +
ℎ𝑖𝐴𝑖 2𝜋∗𝑘𝑚∗𝐿 2𝜋∗𝑘𝑖∗𝐿 ℎ𝑜𝐴𝑜

(−110 − 30)
−186.971 =
ln ( 0.252⁄0.242) ln(𝑟3⁄0.252)
1 1
1.1261 ∗ 3.678 + 2𝜋 ∗ 54 ∗ 2.419 + 2𝜋 ∗ 0.038 ∗ 2.419 + 0.3639 ∗ 3.67

𝑟3 = 0.3234𝑚
𝑡𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟3 − 𝑟2 = 0.3234 − 0.252 = 0.0714𝑚 = 71.4𝑚𝑚

26
 4.3. Weight of ladders:-
𝑊𝑙 = 150 ∗ 𝐻 (Eq.4.15)

𝐻 = 𝐷𝑜 + 1.5
Assume the support of vessl=1.5m

𝑊𝑙 = 150 ∗ (0.494 + 1.5) = 299.1𝑁

4.4. Weight of insulation:-

𝑊𝑖𝑛 = (𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝜌𝑖𝑛 + 𝑔) (Eq.4.16)

𝑉𝑖𝑛 surface area of insulation of longht m³

𝜌𝑖𝑛 dencity of insulation from(Table:3.2)pa-18.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝜋(𝑟3 − 𝑟1 )2 ∗ 𝐿 = 𝜋(0.3234 − 0.242)2 ∗ 2.419
= 0.0503𝑚3

𝑊𝑖𝑛 = (0.0503 + 24 + 9.81) = 33.8603𝑁

4.5. Dead Weight:-

𝑊𝐷 = 𝑊𝑣 + 2 ∗ 𝑊𝐻 + 𝑊𝑙 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛 (Eq.4.17)

= 363.980 + 2 ∗ 604.42 + 297.6 + 33.8603

= 1905.7803𝑁

27
 4.6. Life Weight:-
𝑊𝑓 = 𝜌𝑓 + 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑔 = (Eq.4.18)

𝜌𝑓 = density of methane, 𝑉𝑓 =volume of methane=0.445m³

𝑊𝑓 = 334.545 + 0.445 + 9.81 = 344.8𝑁

4.7. Total Weight:-

𝑊𝑇 = 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝐷 (Eq.4.19)

= 344.8 + 1905.7803 = 2250.5803𝑁

4.8. Wind Loads:-
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑃𝑤 ∗ 𝐷𝑚 (Eq.4.20)

𝐹𝑤 =Pressure loading per longth (N/m).

𝑃𝑤 =Wind pressure (N/m²).
𝐷𝑚 =Mean diameter (m).
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑖 + 2 ∗ (𝑡𝑣 ) (Eq.4.21)

𝐷𝑚 = 0.484 + 2 ∗ (9.856 ∗ 10−3 ) = 0.5037𝑚

𝑃𝑤 = 0.05 ∗ 𝑢𝑤 2 (Eq.4.22)

𝑢𝑤 = Wind speed (120Km/hr).

𝑃𝑤 = 0.05 ∗ (120) 2 = 720𝑁/m²
𝐹𝑤 = 720 ∗ 0.503 = 362.16 N/m

28
 4.9. Bending Moment (Mx):-
𝐹𝑤 +𝑋 2
𝑀𝑥 = (Eq.4.23)
2

X= Distance measured from the free end.=L

362.16 +(2.419)2
𝑀𝑥 = = 184.0057N/m
2

𝑀𝑥 = 184005.7𝑁/𝑚𝑚
4.10. Analysis of stress:-
𝑃𝑜 +𝐷𝑖
𝜎ℎ = (Eq.4.24)
2𝑡𝑣
𝑃𝑜 +𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑙 = (Eq.4.25)
4𝑡𝑣

𝜎ℎ = Longithudinal stress (N/mm²).

𝜎𝑙 = Circumferential stress (N/mm²).

3.6674 + 484
𝜎ℎ = = 24.739N/mm²
2 ∗ (9.856)
3.6674 + 484
𝜎𝑙 = = 12.369N/mm²
4 ∗ (9.856)

29
 4.11. Dead weight stress:-
𝐷 𝑊
𝜎𝑤 = (𝜋∗ (𝐷 +𝑡 (Eq.4.26).
𝑖 𝑣 )∗𝑡𝑣

1905.7803
𝜎𝑤 = = 0.1246N/mm²
(𝜋 ∗ (484 + 9.856) ∗ 9.856

4.12. Bending stress:-

𝑀𝑥 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑏 = ± 𝑙𝑣
( 2 + 𝑡𝑣 ) (Eq.4.27).

𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = (𝐷04 + 𝐷𝑖4 ) (Eq.4.28).
64

𝑙𝑣 =Second moment of area of the vessel about plant of

bending.

𝑀𝑥 = The total bending moment at place being

considered.
𝜋
𝑙𝑣 = ((494)4 + (484)4 ) = 5.617 ∗ 109 𝑚𝑚4
64
184005.7𝑁 484
𝜎𝑏 = ± 5.617 ∗109
( 2
+ 9.856) = ±0.00825𝑁/
𝑚𝑚²

30
 4.13. The Resultant of longitudinal
stresses:-
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑙 + 𝜎𝑤 ± 𝜎𝑏 (Eq.4.29).

𝜎𝑧 =Total longitudinal stress.

𝜎𝑤 is compressive and therefore negative.
At the up wind (+𝜎𝑏 ).
𝜎𝑧 = 12.369N − 0.1246 + 0.00825 = 12.252𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
At the dowen wind (−𝜎𝑏 ).
𝜎𝑧 = 12.369N − 0.1246 − 0.00825 = 12.236𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

4.14. The Maximum Operating stresses:-

The greatest difference between the principle stresses
will be down wind side so:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎ℎ − 𝜎𝑧 (Eq.4.30).

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum Operating stresses.

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 24.739 − 12.236 = 12.502𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
The ( 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝑓) ,( 12.502 < 135).
The thickness of vessel is satisfactory where 𝑓 is the
stress.

31
 4.15. Elastic Stability:-
𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = 2 ∗ 104 ∗ 𝐷𝑣 (Eq.4.31).
𝑜

𝜎𝑐 = Elastic Stability .
For check must be (𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑤 < 𝜎𝑐 ).
9.856
𝜎𝑐 = 2 ∗ 104 ∗ = 399.028𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
494
(0.1408 < 399.028) .
Then that is it acceptable.
4.16. Vessel Support(Skirt Support):-

Figure 4.2. Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports.

32
Figure 4.3. Typical skirt-support designs. (a) Straight skirt. (b)
Conical skirt.

Figure 4.4. Bracket supports. (a) Supported on legs. (b) Supported

from steelwork.

33
 4.16.1. Skirt Thickness (ts) .

Assume 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑡𝑣 = 9.856𝑚𝑚.
4.16.2. Skirt Diameter (Ds) .

Assume 𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑖 = 0.484𝑚 .
4.16.3. Skirt Lenght (Ls) .

𝐿𝑠 = 1.5𝑚 .
4.16.4. Bending Moment at Base of the Skirt (Mxs) .
𝐹𝑤
𝑀𝑥𝑠 = ∗ (𝐿 + 𝐿𝑠 )2 (Eq.4.32).
2

362.16
𝑀𝑥𝑠 = ∗ (2.419 + 1.5)2 = 2781.128𝑁/𝑚
2
4.16.5. Bending Stress in the Skirt (𝜎 b.s) .
4∗𝑀𝑥𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = (Eq.4.33).
𝜋∗(𝐷𝑠𝑘 +𝑡𝑠 )∗𝑡𝑠 ∗𝐷𝑠𝑘

𝐷𝑠𝑘 =Inside skirt diameter =𝐷𝑖 = 484𝑚𝑚.

4 ∗ 2781.128 ∗ 103
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = = 1.503𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
𝜋 ∗ (484 + 9.856) ∗ 9.856 ∗ 484
4.16.6. Dead Weight Stress in the Skirt (𝜎 w.s) .
𝑊𝐷
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = 𝜋∗ (𝐷 (Eq.4.34).
𝑠𝑘 +𝑡𝑠 )∗𝑡𝑠

1905.7803
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = = 0.1246𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
𝜋 ∗ (484 + 9.856) ∗ 9.856

34
 𝑊𝑓
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ) = 𝜋∗(𝐷 (Eq.4.35).
𝑠𝑘 +𝑡𝑠 )∗𝑡𝑠

344.8𝑁
𝜎𝑤𝑠(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ) =
𝜋 ∗ (484 + 9.856) ∗ 9.856
= 0.0225𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
4.16.7. The Resultant Stress on the Skirt.

𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 ) = (𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 ) ∗ (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑔) (Eq.4.36).

For tensile must be 𝜎𝑠(𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 ) ≤ 𝐽 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜎𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 ) = (1.503 − 0.0225) = 1.4805𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

𝐽 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0.85 ∗ 135 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 = 114.75𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

1.4805 < 114.75 Then that is it acceptable.
𝜎𝑠(𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒) = (𝜎𝑏𝑠 − 𝜎𝑤𝑠 ) ∗ (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) (Eq.4.37).
For Compressive must be
𝑡
𝜎𝑠(𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 ) ≤ 0.125 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ ( 𝑠 ) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐷𝑖

𝜎𝑠(𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 ) = (1.503 − 0.1246) = 1.3784𝑁/𝑚𝑚²

𝑡
0.125 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ (𝐷𝑠 ) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑖

E Young's Modulus of Elasticity for Carbon steel at

30°C

35
From the Young Modulus of Elasticity for Metals and
Alloys from( Engineering ToolBox.com)=201956.4N/mm².

9.856
= 0.125 ∗ 201956.4 ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛90
484
= 514.071𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
1.3784 < 514.071 Then that is it acceptable.
4.17. The Optimum Pipes Diameter and
Flange Design for Carbon steel:-
𝑑𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 293 ∗ 𝐺 0.53 ∗ 𝜌𝑚
−0.37
(Eq.4.38).

𝐺= mass flow rate = 1500 kg/hr =0.416 kg/sec.

𝜌𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (Table. 3.4)Pag19 = 334.545kg/m³
.

𝑑𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 293 ∗ (0.416 )0.53 ∗ (334.545)−0.37 = 21.425𝑚𝑚

Figure 4.5. Flange types. (a) Welding-neck. (b) Slip-on. (c) Lap-
joint. (d) Screwed.

36
STEEL SLIP-ON BOSS FLANGE FOR WELDING
Nominal pressure 6 bar

Figure 4.6 Typical standard flange design (All dimensions mm)

37
38
5.1. Storag Tank Cost Estimation:-

Figure 5.1.Horizontal pressure vessel,Time base mid-2004

Purchase cost=(bare cost from figure)*Material factor*Pressur factor

39
Vessel lenght =2.419m
Inside diameter =0.484m
Design pressure =3.6674 N/mm²=36.674bar
Presser factor =1.6 from (Figure 5.1)
Material factor for Carbon steel =1.0
Bare cost from (Figure 5.1) =2000$.
Purchase cost=(bare cost from figure)*Material factor*Pressur factor (Eq.5.1)

=2000*1*1.6=3200$

5.2. Insulation Cost Estimation:-

Assume the cost of insulation is 10% 0f the cost
vessel.
cost of insulation= cost of vessel*0.1 (E.q.5.2)
cost of insulation=3200*0.1=320$

5.3. Total Cost Estimation:-

Total cost= cost of vessel +cost of insulation (E.q.5.3)
Total cost=3200+320=3520$

40
41
1) International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies
2) Electric Power Research Institute, Carbon Steel Handbook.
3) THE PROPERTIES OF GASES AND LIQUIDS, Bruce E. Poling
Professor of Chemical Engineering Fifth Edition.
4) CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN Principles, Practice and
Economics of Plant and Process Design GAVIN TOWLER RAY
SINNOTT.
5) HEAT TRANSFER A Practical Approach YUNUS A. CENGEL
SECOND EDITION PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS).
6) Material Properties. engineeringtoolbox.com
7) Calculation of Methane, Online calculation of properties of water and
steam. Peacesoftware.de ,email: webmaster@ peacesoftware.de
8) MISUMI USA engineering@misumi.com
9) Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica.com
10) Young Modulus of Elasticity for Metals and Alloys from( Engineering
ToolBox.com)
11) Estimation of Purchased Equipment Costs,Chemical Engineering
Projects - WordPress.com

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