What is solar pond? Explain with a neat sketch.

Solar pond
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that looks
like a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind
of a flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the
warm, lower layers of the pond.[1] These ponds can be natural or man-made,
but generally speaking the solar ponds that are in operation today are
artificial.[2]
How they Work
The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively
as a solar energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water. This
gradient results in water that is heavily salinated collecting at the bottom of
the pond, with concentration decreasing towards the surface resulting in cool,
fresh water on top of the pond. This collection of salty water at the bottom of
the lake is known as the "storage zone", while the freshwater top layer is
known as the "surface zone". The overall pond is several meters deep, with
the "storage zone" being one or two meters thick.[2]
These ponds must be clear for them to operate properly, as sunlight cannot
penetrate to the bottom of the pond if the water is murky. When sunlight is
incident on these ponds, most of the incoming sunlight reaches the bottom
and thus the "storage zone" heats up. However, this newly heated water
cannot rise and thus heat loss upwards is prevented. The salty water cannot
rise because it is heavier than the fresh water that is on top of the pond, and
thus the upper layer prevents convection currents from forming. Because of
this, the top layer of the pond acts as a type of insulating blanket, and the
main heat loss process from the storage zone is stopped. Without a loss of
heat, the bottom of the pond is warmed to extremely high temperatures - it
can reach about 90°C.[1] If the pond is being used to generate electricity this
temperature is high enough to initiate and run an organic Rankine
cycle engine.[1]
Figure 1. Diagram of a solar pond showing the temperature and saline
gradient.[3]
It is vital that the salt concentrations and cool temperature of the top layer
are maintained in order for these ponds to work. The surface zone is mixed
and kept cool by winds and heat loss by evaporation. This top zone must also
be flushed continuously with fresh water to ensure that there is no
accumulation of salt in the top layer, since the salt from the bottom layer
diffuses through the saline gradient over time.[2] Additionally, a solid salt or
brine mixture must be added to the pond frequently to make up for any
upwards salt loses.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of wind energy conversion
system? Describe with a neat sketch the working of a wind energy system
with main components
Advantages:
• It is a renewable source of energy.
• Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-
polluting, so it has no adverse influence on the environment.
• Wind energy systems avoid fuel combustion and transport.

Disadvantages:
• Wind energy available is fluctuating in nature and it varies from zero
to storm force.(unreliable)
• Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard
many kilo meters away.
• Birds and bats have been killed by flying into the rotors.
• Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities
where the electricity is needed.
• Installation & Maintenance cost of wind turbine is high.
HOW DOES A WIND TURBINE WORK?

The majority of wind turbines consist of three blades mounted to a tower

made from tubular steel. There are less common varieties with two blades,
or with concrete or steel lattice towers. At 100 feet or more above the
ground, the tower allows the turbine to take advantage of faster wind
speeds found at higher altitudes.

Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades, which act
much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure
air forms on one side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls
the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of
the lift is much stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the
blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor
to spin like a propeller.

A series of gears increase the rotation of the rotor from about 18 revolutions
a minute to roughly 1,800 revolutions per minute -- a speed that allows the
turbine’s generator to produce AC electricity.

A streamlined enclosure called a nacelle houses key turbine components --

usually including the gears, rotor and generator -- are found within a
housing called the nacelle. Sitting atop the turbine tower, some nacelles are
large enough for a helicopter to land on.

Another key component is the turbine’s controller, that keeps the rotor
speeds from exceeding 55 mph to avoid damage by high winds. An
anemometer continuously measures wind speed and transmits the data to
the controller. A brake, also housed in the nacelle, stops the rotor
mechanically, electrically or hydraulically in emergencies. Explore the
interactive graphic above to learn more about the mechanics of wind
turbines.

Write short note on Betz criterion &draw the performance characteristics

of wind mills

The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by German
physicist Albert Betz in 1919.[2] Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that at most only
59.3% of the kinetic energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and generate electricity.
Describe horizontal axis wind mill with a neat sketches.what are the
advantages of it?

Wind energy in the built environment

M.A. Hyams, in Metropolitan Sustainability, 2012
20.4.1 Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs)
HAWTs are the most common wind machine designs in use today. HAWTs
utilize aerodynamic blades (i.e. airfoils) fitted to a rotor, which can be
positioned either upwind or downwind. HAWTs are typically either two- or
three-bladed and operate at high blade tip speeds. Machines with upwind
rotors require a yaw, or tail vane, to help them orient into the wind while
downwind rotors have blades that are coned allowing the turbine to orient
on its own. One drawback identified with downwind rotors, however, is that
they have been known to ‘walk’ around when trying to line up with winds
during low speed conditions, diminishing low wind speed energy production
(Gipe, 2009).
Modern HAWTs use the aerodynamic lift force to turn each rotor blade, in a
manner similar to the way an airplane flies. The lift force generally works as
follows. When exposed to winds, air flows around both the upper and lower
portions of a blade. As a result of the blade’s curvature, however, air passes
over the top of the blade more quickly (owing to a longer fetch length) than
the lower portion, producing a low-pressure area on the topside. The
pressure difference created between the top and bottom sides of the blade
produces a force in the direction of the top of the blade (Mathew, 2006).
As shown in Fig. 20.10, the lift force acts perpendicular to the ‘relative wind’
acting on the wind turbine blade (Gipe, 2004). The force of the lift is actually
stronger than the force of the wind against the blade, or the drag, which
acts in parallel with the airflows. This allows turbine blades to turn at speeds
greater than could be achieved relying on drag forces alone. Although
some wind turbines also use the drag force to produce energy, most HAWTs
are designed to minimize drag while maximizing lift (Mathew, 2006).

Advantages of Horizontal axis wind mill

• High Power Output. ...

• High Efficiency. ...

• High Reliability. ...

• High Operational Wind Speed.

What are the reasons for variation in solar radiation reaching the earth that
received at the outside of the atmosphere?

While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively

constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:

• atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;

• local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and
pollution;
• latitude of the location; and
• the season of the year and the time of day.

The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the
Earth's surface. These changes include variations in the overall power
received, the spectral content of the light and the angle from which light is
incident on a surface. In addition, a key change is that the variability of the
solar radiation at a particular location increases dramatically. The variability
is due to both local effects such as clouds and seasonal variations, as well as
other effects such as the length of the day at a particular latitude. Desert
regions tend to have lower variations due to local atmospheric phenomena
such as clouds. Equatorial regions have low variability between seasons.
Solar radiation at the Earth's surface varies from the solar radiation incident
on the Earth's atmosphere. Cloud cover, air pollution, latitude of a location,
and the time of the year can all cause variations in solar radiance at the Earth's
surface.

The amount of energy reaching the surface of the Earth every hour is
greater than the amount of energy used by the Earth's population over an
entire year.
Explain in detail about solar radiation on titled surface
The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power
contained in the sunlight, but also on the angle between the module and the
sun. When the absorbing surface and the sunlight are perpendicular to each
other, the power density on the surface is equal to that of the sunlight (in
other words, the power density will always be at its maximum when the PV
module is perpendicular to the sun). However, as the angle between the sun
and a fixed surface is continually changing, the power density on a fixed PV
module is less than that of the incident sunlight.

The amount of solar radiation incident on a tilted module surface is the

component of the incident solar radiation which is perpendicular to the
module surface. The following figure shows how to calculate the radiation
incident on a tilted surface (Smodule) given either the solar radiation measured
on horizontal surface (Shoriz) or the solar radiation measured perpendicular
to the sun (Sincident).

Tilting the module to the incoming light reduces the module output.

The equations relating Smodule, Shoriz and Sincident are:

Shorizontal=Sincidentsin⁡α

Smodule=Sincidentsin⁡(α+β)
where
α is the elevation angle; and
β is the tilt angle of the module measured from the horizontal.
Describe the working of Dry & Flash steam geothermal
power plants in detail with neat sketch.

Dry steam plants are the most common types of geothermal

power plants, accounting for about half of the installed
geothermal plants. They work by piping hot steam from
underground reservoirs directly into turbines from
geothermal reservoirs, which power the generators to
provide electricity. After powering the turbines, the steam
condenses into water and is piped back into the earth via the
injection well. Dry steam plants use hydrothermal
fluids that are primarily steam. The steam travels
directly to a turbine, which drives a generator
that produces electricity. The steam eliminates
the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine
(also eliminating the need to transport and store
fuels). These plants emit only excess steam and
very minor amounts of gases.
Flash steam plants differ from dry steam because they pump
hot water, rather than steam, directly to the surface. These
flash steam plants pump hot water at a high pressure from
below the earth into a “flash tank” on the surface.
The flash tank is at a much lower temperature, causing the
fluid to quickly “flash” into steam. The steam produced
powers the turbines. The steam is cooled and condenses into
water, where it is pumped back into the ground through the
injection well.
Flash steam plants are the most common type of
geothermal power generation plants in operation
today. Fluid at temperatures greater than 360°F
(182°C) is pumped under high pressure into a
tank at the surface held at a much lower
pressure, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives a
turbine, which drives a generator. If any liquid
remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in a
second tank to extract even more energy.
Explain the various factors affecting the biogas generation.
Explain in detail about Mini Hydel Plants
Describe the construction and working principle of binary
cycle geothermal power plants in detail. Enumerate the
advantages and disadvantages of geothermal plant.

Binary Cycle Power Plant

Binary cycle geothermal power generation plants

differ from Dry Steam and Flash Steam systems
in that the water or steam from the geothermal
reservoir never comes in contact with the
turbine/generator units. Low to moderately
heated (below 400°F) geothermal fluid and a
secondary (hence, "binary") fluid with a much
lower boiling point that water pass through a
heat exchanger. Heat from the geothermal fluid
causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor,
which then drives the turbines and subsequently,
the generators.
.
Advantages:
• Renewable energy source

• No harmful gases emitted

• No green house effect

• Cost of Fuel is negligible

• Capital cost is 40-60% less than thermal and

Nuclear plants
• Short construction period

• Corrosive effects of steam tackled by advanced

metallurgy
• It is a reliable source of energy and is available

throughout the year.

• It is independent of weather conditions.

• No thermal storage is required.

• Capital and generation cost is low as compared

to conventional thermal power plants.

• Needs a very small land area.
Disadvantages:
• Availability at certain regions only (Where magma

is nearer to the surface)

• Low efficiency (10-12%)

• It is a low-grade heat energy since the

temperatures are limited to 150o
• The geothermal fluids are corrosive and abrasive

in nature due to the presence of salts. Therefore,

the life of the plant is low as compared to
conventional power plants.
• The geothermal fluids also bring dissolved gases

like H2S, CO2, NH3 and other solvents which

cause air and land pollution if not discharged
into the ground properly.
• Continuous extraction of these fluids may affect

the stability of land and may trigger earthquakes

also.
Write short notes on Principles of DEC and Need for DEC.
Principles of DEC:

The pioneer in thermos electrics was a

German scientist Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-
1831) Thermoelectricity refers to a class of
phenomena in which a temperature difference
creates an electric potential or an electric
potential creates a temperature
difference.Thermoelectric power generator is a
device that converts the heat energy into
electrical energy based on the principles of
Seebeck effect. Later, In 1834, French scientist,
Peltierand in 1851, Thomson (later Lord Kelvin)
described the thermal effects on conductors

Seebeckeffect:

When the junctions of two different metals

are maintained at different temperature, the emf
is produced in the circuit. This is known as Seebeck
effect.

Peltier effect:

Whenever current passes through the circuit

of two dissimilar conductors, depending on the
current direction, either heat is absorbed or
 released at the junction of the two conductors.
This is known as Peltier effect.

Thomson effect:

Heat is absorbed or produced when current

flows in material with a certain temperature
gradient. The heat is proportional to both the
electric current and the temperature gradient.
This is known as Thomson effect.

Thermoelectric effect:

The thermoelectric effect, is the direct

conversion of heat differentials to electric voltage
and vice versa The good thermoelectric materials
should possess large Seebeck coefficients, high
electrical conductivity and low thermal
conductivity

Need for dec:

Direct energy conversion (DEC) or simply direct
conversion converts a charged particle's
kinetic energy into a voltage. It is a scheme for power
extraction from nuclear fusion.
 It is the method of transformation of one type
of energy into another without passing through
the intermediate stage such as steam, generators
etc. Most of these energy converters, sometimes
called static energy-conversion devices, use
electrons as their “working fluid” in place of the
vapour or gas employed by such dynamic heat
engines as the external combustion and internal-
combustion engines mentioned above.

In recent years, direct energy-conversion

devices have received much attention because of
the necessity to develop more efficient ways of
transforming available forms of primary energy
into electric power. Direct energy-conversion
devices are of interest for providing electric
power in spacecraft because of their reliability
and their lack of moving parts. As have solar cells,
fuel cells, and thermoelectric generators,
thermionic power converters have received
considerable attention for space applications.
Thermionic generators are designed to convert
thermal energy directly into electricity.
 Direct Energy Conversion devices like
thermionic and thermoelectric converters are
heat engines The heat engine operates between
two reservoirs to and from which heat can be
transferred. We put heat into the system from the
hot reservoir and heat is expelled in to the
coldreservoir.
 What is solar radiation? Discuss briefly about the
various measuring devices for solar radiation with
neat sketch.

Solar radiation:
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just
sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar
radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of
technologies.
Explain the different types of concentrating type collectors

Types of Concentrating Solar Collectors

Various types of concentrating solar collectors are as under:

• Parabolic trough collector.
• Power tower receiver.
• Parabolic dish collector.
• Fresnel lens collector.

Parabolic Trough Collector

It is a line focusing type collector. In this type of collector, the solar radiations
falling on the area of the parabolic reflector are concentrated at the focus of
the parabola.

When the reflector is manufactured in the form of a trough with the parabolic
cross-section, the solar radiations gets focused along a line. An absorber pipe
is placed along this line and a working fluid (usually synthetic oil or water)
flows through it.

When the focused solar radiations fall on the absorber pipe, it heats the fluid
to a high temperature. Then the heat absorbed by the working fluid is
transferred to water for producing steam.

The focus of solar radiations changes with the change in sun’s elevation. In
order to focus the solar radiations on the absorber pipe, either the trough or
the collector pipe is rotated continuously about the axis of the absorber pipe.

Power Tower Receiver

In this collector, the receiver is located at the top of the tower. It has a large
number of independently-moving flat mirrors (heliostats) spread over a large
area of ground to focus the reflected solar radiations on the receiver. The
heliostats are installed all around the central tower.
Each heliostat is rotated into two directions so as to track the sun. The solar
radiations reflected from heliostats are absorbed by the receiver mounted on
a tower of about 500 m height.

The tower supports a bundle of vertical tubes containing the working fluid.
The working fluid in the absorber receiver is converted into the high-
temperature steam of about 600oC – 700oC. This steam is supplied to a
conventional steam power plant coupled to an electric generator to generate
electric power.

Parabolic Dish Collector

In these collectors, the receiver is placed at the focal point of the

concentrator. The solar beam radiations are focused at a point where the
receiver (absorber) is placed. The solar radiations are collected in the receiver.

A small volume of fluid is heated in the receiver to a high temperature. This

heat is used to run a prime mover coupled with a generator.

A typical parabolic dish collector has a dish of 6 m diameter. This collector

requires two-axis tracking. It can yield temperatures up to 3000oC.

Due to the limitations of size and the small quantity of fluid, dish type solar
collectors are suitable for only small power generation (up to few kW).

Fresnel Lens Concentrating Collector

In this collector, a Fresnel lens which consists of fine, linear grooves on the
surface of refracting material of optical quality on one side and flat on the
other side is used.
The angle of each groove is so designed that the optical behavior of the
Fresnel lens is similar to that of a common lens.

The solar radiations which fall normally to the lens are refracted by the lens
and are focused on a line where the absorber tube (receiver) is placed to
absorb solar radiations.
Write short notes on beam and diffuse radiations with neat
sketch. What is green-house effect?

Beam radiation:
Beam radiation refers to the solar radiation received from the
sun without having been scattered, whose direction is the
same as the relative geometric position between the sun and
the earth.
Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun
without having been scattered by the atmosphere.

Diffuse radiation:
Diffuse radiation is solar radiation reaching earth's surface
after having been scattered from the direct solar beam by
molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect:
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface.
When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is
reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by
greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).
The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius
warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.
Explain in detail the general arrangements for generating units in tidal
power plants. What are its merits and demerits?
Components of Tidal Power Plants:
For utilization of tidal energy, water must be trapped at high tide behind a
dam or barrage and then made to drive turbine coupled to an electric
generator as it returns to sea during low tides. The available energy is
proportional to the square of the amplitude.

The main components of tidal power plants are:

(i) Dam

(ii) Sluice ways from basin to sea and vice versa, and

(iii) Power house.

The function of a dam is to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or
between one basin to the other basin in case of multiple basins. The most
suitable word for tidal power plant is barrage. Barrages have to resist waves
whose shock can be severe and where pressure changes sides continuously.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The sluice ways are gate controlled devices. They are employed to fill the
basin during the high tide or empty the basin during low tide. In existing
plants, vertical lift gates have been employed. Flap gates are also used. The
flap gates allow only in the direction of sea to basin. Therefore, the level of
the basin rises.

Auxiliary equipments, turbines and generators are the main components of

the power house. Large sized turbines are used because of low head
available. Bulb types and rim type turbines are commonly used. Shaft
turbines are also under steady.
Advantages:
• Environment friendly
• Continuous and predictable energy
• Operational and maintenance cost is low.
• An inexhaustible source of energy.

Disadvantages:

• High tidal power plant construction costs

• Negative influence on marine life forms
• Location limits
• The variable intensity of sea waves
Write short notes on Carnot cycle and fuel cell

Carnot cycle:

The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of
two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can
be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws.
When the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat
in a heat engine can be used to do work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting
value on the fraction of the heat which can be so used.

In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat
engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in entropy. This means
that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real engine processes are
reversible and all real physical processes involve some increase in entropy.

For
= K
= K
the Carnot efficiency is
%

The temperatures in the Carnot efficiency expression must be expressed in

Kelvins. For the other temperature scales, the following conversions apply:
= K= °C = °F
= K= °C = °F

The conceptual value of the Carnot cycle is that it establishes the maximum
possible efficiency for an engine cycle operating between TH and TC. It is not a
practical engine cycle because the heat transfer into the engine in the
isothermal process is too slow to be of practical value. As Schroeder puts it,
"So don't bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase
your gas mileage, you would be passed on the highway by pedestrians."

Fuel cell:
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels
to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity. If hydrogen is the
fuel, the only products are electricity, water, and heat. Fuel
cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential
applications; they can use a wide range of fuels and feedstocks
and can provide power for systems as large as a utility power
station and as small as a laptop computer.

How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging.
They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists
of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode
(or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is
fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a hydrogen fuel cell, a
catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons and
electrons, which take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go
through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate
through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the
electrons to produce water and heat.
Explain in detail about various tidal power plants

Different tidal power plants

The tidal power plants are generally classified on the basis of the
number of basins used for the power generation. They are further subdivided
as one-way or two-way system as per the cycle of operation for power
generation.

The classification is represented with the help of a line diagram as given

below.

Working of different tidal power plants

1. Single basin-one-way cycle

This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system a basin is allowed
to get filled during flood tide and during the ebb tide, the water flows from
the basin to the sea passing through the turbine and generates power. The
power is available for a short duration ebb tide.

Figure: (a) Tidal region before construction of the power plant and tidal
variation
 Figure: (b) Single basin, one –way tidal power plant

Figure (a) shows a single tide basin before the construction, of dam and
figure (b) shows the diagrammatic representation of a dam at the mouth of
the basin and power generating during the falling tide.

2. Single-basin two-way cycle

In this arrangement, power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb
tide also. The power generation is also intermittent but generation period is
increased compared with one-way cycle. However, the peak obtained is less
than the one-way cycle. The arrangement of the basin and the power cycle is
shown in figure.

Figure: Single –basin two-way tidal power plant

The main difficulty with this arrangement, the same turbine must be
used as prime mover as ebb and tide flows pass through the turbine in
opposite directions. Variable pitch turbine and dual rotation generator are
used of such scheme.

3. Single –basin two-way cycle with pump storage

 In this system, power is generated both during flood and ebb tides.
Complex machines capable of generating power and pumping the water in
either directions are used. A part of the energy produced is used for
introducing the difference in the water levels between the basin and sea at
any time of the tide and this is done by pumping water into the basin up or
down. The period of power production with this system is much longer than
the other two described earlier. The cycle of operation is shown in figure.

Figure: Single-basin, two-way tidal plant coupled with pump storage

system.

4. Double basin type

In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the basins as shown in

figure. One basin is intermittently filled tide and other is intermittently
drained by the ebb tide. Therefore, a small capacity but continuous power is
made available with this system as shown in figure. The main disadvantages
of this system are that 50% of the potential energy is sacrificed in introducing
the variation in the water levels of the two basins.

5. Double basin with pumping

 In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected
transmission system is used either to pump the water up the high basin. Net
energy gain is possible with such a system if the pumping head is lower than
the basin-to-basin turbine generating head.
 Draw and explain the following cycles
a. Open OTEC
b. Closed OTEC

Open OTEC:

Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The
warm seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes
it to boil. In some schemes, the expanding vapor drives a low-pressure
turbine attached to an electrical generator. The vapor, which has left
its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure container, is pure fresh
water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from
deep-ocean water. This method produces desalinized fresh water, suitable
for drinking water, irrigation or aquaculture.[44]
In other schemes, the rising vapor is used in a gas lift technique of lifting
water to significant heights. Depending on the embodiment, such vapor
lift pump techniques generate power from a hydroelectric turbine either
before or after the pump is used.[45]
In 1984, the Solar Energy Research Institute (now known as the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory) developed a vertical-spout evaporator to
convert warm seawater into low-pressure steam for open-cycle plants.
Conversion efficiencies were as high as 97% for seawater-to-steam
conversion (overall steam production would only be a few percent of the
incoming water). In May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point,
Hawaii, produced close to 80 kW of electricity during a net power-producing
experiment.[46] This broke the record of 40 kW set by a Japanese system in
1982.[46]

Closed OTEC:

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low boiling point, such

as ammonia (having a boiling point around -33 °C at atmospheric pressure),
to power a turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface seawater is
pumped through a heat exchanger to vaporize the fluid. The expanding
vapor turns the turbo-generator. Cold water, pumped through a second
heat exchanger, condenses the vapor into a liquid, which is then recycled
through the system.
In 1979, the Natural Energy Laboratory and several private-sector partners
developed the "mini OTEC" experiment, which achieved the first successful
at-sea production of net electrical power from closed-cycle OTEC.[43] The
mini OTEC vessel was moored 1.5 miles (2.4 km) off the Hawaiian coast and
produced enough net electricity to illuminate the ship's light bulbs and run
its computers and television.
DESCRIBE A PASSIVE SOLAR SPACE HEATING SYSTEM.
DESCRIPTION
Passive solar heating systems make use of the building components to
collect, store, and distribute solar heat gains to reduce the demand for
space heating. A passive solar system does not require the use of
mechanical equipment because the heat flow is by natural means, such as
radiation, convection, and conductance, and the thermal storage is in the
structure itself.
A passive solar heating system is made up of the following key components,
all of which must work together for the design to be successful:

• Aperture (Collector)
• Absorber
• Thermal mass
• Distribution
• Control.

The five key elements of passive solar design.

In a passive solar heating system, the aperture (collector) is a large glass
(window) area through which sunlight enters the building. Typically, the
aperture(s) should face within 30° of true south and should not be shaded
by other buildings or trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating
season.
The hard, darkened surface of the storage element is known as the
absorber. This surface—which could consist of a masonry wall, floor, or
partition (phase change material), or a water container—sits in the direct
path of sunlight. Sunlight then hits the surface and is absorbed as heat.
The thermal mass is made up of materials that retain or store the heat
produced by sunlight. The difference between the absorber and thermal
mass, although they often form the same wall or floor, is that the absorber
is an exposed surface, whereas thermal mass is the material below or
behind that surface.
Distribution is the method by which solar heat circulates from the collection
and storage points to different areas of the building. A strictly passive design
will use the three natural heat transfer modes exclusively—conduction,
convection, and radiation. In some applications, however, fans, ducts, and
blowers may help with the distribution of heat through the building.
Elements to help control under- and overheating of a passive solar heating
system include roof overhangs, which can be used to shade the aperture
area during summer months, electronic sensing devices, such as a
differential thermostat that signals a fan to turn on, operable vents and
dampers that allow or restrict heat flow, low-emissivity blinds, and awnings.

How Does It Work?

Passive solar buildings are designed to let the heat into the building during
the winter months, and block out the sun during hot summer days. This can
be achieved by passive solar design elements such as shading, implementing
large south-facing windows, and building materials that absorb and slowly
release the sun's heat.

PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN

Incorporating shading concepts into your landscape design can help reduce
the solar heat gain in the summer and reduce cooling costs. The leaves of
deciduous trees or bushes located to the south of the building can help
block out sunshine and unneeded heat in the summer. These trees lose their
leaves in the winter, and allow an increase in the solar heat gain during the
colder days. Incorporating overhangs, awnings, shutters and trellises into
the building design can also provide shade.
A trellis with a climbing vine can shade a home and allow air circulation.
Photo by John Krigger, Saturn Resource.
Effective thermal mass materials, like concrete, or stone floor slabs, have
high specific heat capacities, as well as high density. It is ideally placed
within the building where it is exposed to winter sunlight but insulated from
heat loss. The material is warmed passively by the sun and releases the
thermal energy into the interior during the night.
The most important characteristic of passive solar design is that it is holistic,
and relies on the integration of a building's architecture, materials selection,
and mechanical systems to reduce heating and cooling loads. It is also
important to consider local climate conditions, such as temperature, solar
radiation, and wind, when creating climate-responsive, energy conserving
structures that can be powered with renewable energy sources.
In climates that are appropriate for passive solar heating, large south-facing
windows are used, as they have the most sun exposure in all seasons.
Although passive solar heating systems do not require mechanical
equipment for operation, fans or blowers may be used to assist the natural
flow of thermal energy. The passive systems assisted by mechanical devices
are referred to as hybrid heating systems.
Passive solar systems utilize basic concepts incorporated into the
architectural design of the building. This typically includes buildings with
rectangular floor plans, elongated on an east-west axis, a glazed south-
facing wall, a thermal storage media exposed to the solar radiation which
penetrates the south-facing glazing, overhangs, or other shading devices,
which sufficiently shade the south-facing glazing from the summer sun, and
windows on the east and west walls, and preferably none on the north
walls.
To achieve a high percentage of passive solar heating, it is necessary to
incorporate adequate thermal mass in buildings. Specific guidelines for this
include the following:

• Confirm that the area of thermal mass is six times the area of the
accompanying glazing (when possible). For climates with foggy or rainy
winters, somewhat less thermal mass is needed.
• Place the mass effectively by ensuring that it is directly heated by the
sun or is spread in thin layers throughout rooms in which there is a
large quantity of solar collection.
• Disregard the color of the mass surface. However, natural colors (e.g.
colors in the 0.5 to 0.7 absorption range) are quite effective.
• Incorporate thermal storage in floors or walls that consist of concrete,
masonry, or tile. To reflect light and enhance the space, walls should
generally remain light colored.

Sizing of glass areas, insulation values, shading, and mass will depend on
climate. Higher solar savings contributions will require greater amounts of
glazing and mass. Be aware that the relationship between glass area and
mass is not linear. For example, a doubling of glass area may require a
tripling of effective thermal mass.
Enumerate the different main applications of solar energy.

(a) Solar Water Heating:

A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector
with an associated metal tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The
plate collector has a transparent glass cover above and a layer of thermal
insulation beneath it.

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The metal tubing of the collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank

that stores hot water during cloudy days. The collector absorbs solar
radiations and transfers the heat to the water circulating through the tubing
either by gravity or by a pump.

This hot water is supplied to the storage tank via the associated metal
tubing. This system of water heating is commonly used in hotels, guest
houses, tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens as well as domestic and
industrial units.

(b) Solar Heating of Buildings:

Solar energy can be used for space heating of buildings in many ways
namely:
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(a) Collecting the solar radiation by some element of the building itself i.e.
solar energy is admitted directly into the building through large South-facing
windows.

(b) Using separate solar collectors which may heat either water or air or
storage devices which can accumulate the collected solar energy for use at
night and during inclement days.
When the building requires heat then from these collectors or storage
devices, the heat is transferred by conventional equipment such as fan,
ducts, air outlets, radiators and hot air registers etc. to warm up the living
spaces of a building.

When the building does not require heat, the heated air or water from the
collector can be moved to the heat storage device such as well insulated
water tank or other heat holding material. For inclement days, an auxiliary
heating system using gas, oil or electricity is required as a backup system.

(c) Solar-distillation:
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In arid semi and or coastal areas there is scarcity of potable water. The
abundant sunlight in these areas can be used for converting saline water
into potable distilled water by the method of solar distillation. In this
method, solar radiation is admitted through a transparent air tight glass
cover into a shallow blackened basin containing saline water.

Solar radiation passes through the covers and is absorbed and converted
into heat in the blackened surface causing the water to evaporate from the
brine (impure saline water). The vapors produced get condensed to form
purified water in the cool interior of the roof.

The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in the
troughs placed at the bottom and from there into a water storage tank to
supply potable distilled water in areas of scarcity, in colleges, school science
laboratories, defense labs, petrol pumps, hospitals and pharmaceutical
industries. Per liter distilled water cost obtained by this system is cheaper
than distilled water obtained by other electrical energy-based processes.

(d) Solar-pumping:
In solar pumping, the power generated by solar-energy is utilized for
pumping water for irrigation purposes. The requirement for water pumping
is greatest in the hot summer months which coincide with the increased
solar radiations during this period and so this method is most appropriate
for irrigation purpose. During periods of inclement weather when solar
radiations are low then the requirement for water pumping is also relatively
less as the transpiration losses from the crops are also low.

(e) Solar Drying of Agricultural and Animal Products:

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This is a traditional method of utilising solar energy for drying of agricultural

and animal products. Agricultural products are dried in a simple cabinet
dryer which consists of a box insulated at the base, painted black on the
inner side and covered with an inclined transparent sheet of glass.

At the base and top of the sides ventilation holes are provided to facilitate
the flow of air over the drying material which is placed on perforated trays
inside the cabinet. These perforated trays or racks are carefully designed to
provide controlled exposure to solar radiations.

Solar drying, especially of fruits improves fruit quality as the sugar

concentration increases on drying. Normally soft fruits are particularly
vulnerable to insect attack as the sugar content increases on drying but in a
fruit dryer considerable time is saved by quicker drying —minimizing gap the
chances of insect attack.

The present practice of drying chilies by spreading them on the floor not
only requires a lot of open space and manual labour for material handling
but it becomes difficult to maintain its quality and taste unless drying is
done in a controlled atmosphere. Moreover, the products being sun dried
very often get spoiled due to sudden rains, dust storms or by birds. Besides,
reports reveal that it is not possible to attain very low moisture content in
the sun-dried chilies.

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As a result, the chilies become prone to attack by fungi and bacteria. In sun-
drying sometimes, the produce is over dried and its quality is lost. Solar
energy operated dryer helps to overcome most of these disadvantages.

Other agricultural products commonly solar-dried are potato-chips,

berseem, grains of maize and paddy, ginger, peas, pepper, cashew-nuts,
timber and veneer drying and tobacco curing. Spray drying of milk and fish
drying are examples of solar dried animal products.

(f) Solar Furnaces:

In a Solar furnace, high temperature is obtained by concentrating the solar
radiations onto a specimen using a number of heliostats (turn-able mirrors)
arranged on a sloping surface. The solar furnace is used for studying the
properties of ceramics at extremely high temperatures above the range
measurable in laboratories with flames and electric currents.

Heating can be accomplished without any contamination and temperature

can be easily controlled by changing the position of the material in focus.
This is especially useful for metallurgical and chemical operations. Various
property measurements are possible on an open specimen. An important
future application of solar furnaces is the production of nitric acid and
fertilizers from air.

(g) Solar Cooking:

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A variety of fuel like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and
agricultural wastes are used for cooking purposes. Due to the energy crisis,
supply of these fuels are either deteriorating (wood, coal, kerosene, cooking
gas) or are too precious to be wasted for cooking purposes (cow dung can
be better used as manure for improving soil fertility). This necessitated the
use of solar energy for cooking purposes and the development of solar
cookers. A simple solar cooker is the flat plate box type solar cooker.
It consists of a well insulated metal or wooden box which is blackened from
the inner side. The solar radiations entering the box are of short wavelength.
As higher wavelength radiations are unable to pass through the glass covers,
the re-radiation from the blackened interior to outside the box through the
two glass covers is minimised, thereby minimising the heat loss.

The heat loss due to convection is minimised by making the box airtight. This
is achieved by providing a rubber strip between the upper lid and the box for
minimising the heat loss due to conduction, the space between the
blackened tray and outer cover of the box is filled with an insulting material
like glass wool, saw-dust, paddy husk etc.

When placed in sunlight, the solar rays penetrate the glass covers and are
absorbed by the blackened surface thereby resulting in an increase in
temperature inside the box. Cooking pots blackened from outside are placed
in the solar box.

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The uncooked food gets cooked with the heat energy produced due to in-
creased temperature of the solar box. Collector area of such a solar cooker
can be increased by providing a plane reflector mirror. When this reflector is
adjusted to reflect the sun rays into the box, then a 15°C to 25°C rise in
temperature is achieved inside the cooker box.
The solar cooker requires neither fuel nor attention while cooking food and
there is no pollution, no charring or overflowing of food and the most
important advantage is that nutritional value of the cooked food is very high
as the vitamins and natural tastes of the food are not destroyed.

Maintenance cost of the solar cooker is negligible. The main disadvantage of

the solar cooker is that the food cannot be cooked at night, during cloudy
days or at short notice. Cooking takes comparatively more time and
chapattis cannot be cooked in a solar cooker.
(h) Solar Electric Power Generation:
Electric energy or electricity can be produced directly from solar energy by
means of photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic cell is an energy conversion
device which is used to convert photons of sunlight directly into electricity. It
is made of semi conductors which absorb the photons received from the
sun, creating free electrons with high energies.

These high energy free electrons are induced by an electric field, to flow out
of the semiconductor to do useful work. This electric field in photovoltaic
cells is usually provided by a p-n junction of materials which have different
electrical properties. There are different fabrication techniques to enable
these cells to achieve maximum efficiency.
These cells are arranged in parallel or series combination to form cell
modules. Some of the special features of these modules are high reliability,
no expenditure on fuel, minimum cost of maintenance, long life, portability,
modularity, pollution free working etc.

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Photovoltaic cells have been used to operate irrigation pumps, rail road
crossing warnings, navigational signals, highway emergency call systems,
automatic meteorological stations etc. in areas where it is difficult to lay
power lines.

They are also used for weather monitoring and as portable power sources
for televisions, calculators, watches, computer card readers, battery
charging and in satellites etc. Besides these, photovoltaic cells are used for
the energisation of pump sets for irrigation, drinking water supply and for
providing electricity in rural areas i.e. street lights etc.

(i) Solar Thermal Power Production:

Solar thermal power production means the conversion of solar energy into
electricity through thermal energy. In this procedure, solar energy is first
utilised to heat up a working fluid, gas, water or any other volatile liquid.
This heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy m a turbine.
Finally a conventional generator coupled to a turbine converts this
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Production of Power through Solar Ponds:

A solar pond is a natural or artificial body of water utilised for collecting and
absorbing solar radiation and storing it as heat. It is very shallow (5-10 cm
deep) and has a radiation absorbing (black plastic) bottom. It has a curved
fibre glass cover over it to permit the entry of solar radiation but reduces
losses by radiation and convection (air movement). Loss of heat to the
ground is minimised by providing a bed of insulating material under the
pond.

Solar ponds utilise water for collecting and storing the solar energy which is
used for many applications such as space heating, industrial process heating
and to generate electricity by driving a turbine powered by evaporating an
organic fluid with a low boiling point.

(j) Solar Green Houses:

A green house is a structure covered with transparent material (glass or
plastic) that acts as a solar collector and utilises solar radiant energy to grow
plants. It has heating, cooling and ventilating devices for controlling the
temperature inside the green house.

Solar radiations can pass through the green house glazing but the thermal
radiations emitted by the objects within the green house cannot escape
through the glazed surface. As a result, the radiations get trapped within the
green house and result in an increase in temperature.
As the green house structure has a closed boundary, the air inside the
greenhouse gets enriched with CO2 as there is no mixing of the greenhouse
air with the ambient air. Further, there is reduced moisture loss due to
restricted transpiration. All these features help to sustain plant growth
throughout the day as well as during the night and all year round
advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors
over flat plate collectors
ADVANTAGES of Concentrating Collectors:-->

(1) No Fuel Cost: Solar thermal concentrator does not require any fuel like
most other sources of renewable energy. This is a huge advantages over other
fossil fuels whose cost are increasing at drastic rate every year. Electricity
prices are increasing by rapidly in more parts of the world much faster than
general inflation. Price shocks due to high fuel costs are a big risk with fossil
fuel energy these days.
(2) Predictable 24/7 Power: Solar thermal energy can generate power
24hours a day. This is made possible as solar thermal power plants store the
energy in the form of molten salt etc. Other forms of Renewable energy like
solar PV and wind energy are intermittent in nature.
(3) No Polution and Global Warning Effects: Solar thermal energy does not
cause pollution which is one of the biggest advantages. Note there are costs
associate with equipment used to build transport solar thermal energy
equipment.
(4) Using existing industrial base: Solar thermal energy uses equipment like
solar thermal mirror and turbines which is made in large scale at low cost by
existing industrial base and require no major changes in equipment and
materials unlike new technologies such as GIGs panels.
(5) Concentrated solar power production have been shown to create more
permanent job and stimulate the economy as compared to its natural gas
counterparts.
(6) The heat delivered by concentrating solar collectors is available at much
higher temperature. Higher temperatures allow the use of power generation
equipment to produce both electricity and heat.
(7) Large economy of scale effects are observed when moving towards large
concentrating systems, rendering such technology very cost effective
(compared with PV for example)

DISADVANTAGES of Concentrating Collectors:-->

(1) High Costs: Solar thermal energy cost atleat 3.5Euro/watt and has not
declined sola much in the last 3-4 years. However these costs are too high as
solar PV already costs 2.5Euro/watt and even on a conservative basis will have
it costs reduced by 5% in the next 10 years making it attain half the cost of
thermal technology by 2020.
(2) Future Technology has a probability of marking CSP obsolete: Solar
energy has become a hot bed of innovation with daily news of some new
breakthrough in material and process in PV technology. “Oerlikon” has come
out with a radial new a-si technology while GIGs players are touting increased
efficiencies. Chinese solar companies have captured large chunks of the solar
market through low cost leadership while number of Global Heavyweight like
POSCO, Samsung, Hyundai, Sharp, GE, TSMC, promise to further decrease
these costs.
(3) Water Issue: Solar thermal plant use lot of water which is major problem
in desert areas. Using non-water cooling raises the cost of CSP projects too
much. While using sea water has been proposed it remains to be seen If it
possible to implement this solution as this would imply building plants very
near the coastline.
(4) Ecological and Cultural Issue: This usage of massive arrays of Mirrors is
noted to heavily impact the Desert wildlife endangering the endangered
species. California has already seen massive fight on this issue with project
Developers Curtailing the size of their plants and spending money to move
wildlife (applicable only to CSP)
(5) Since concentrators can focus only direct solar radiation, this
performance is poor on cloudy days.
(6) Tracking mechanisms must be used to move the collectors during the day
to keep then focused on the sun.
(7) Maintaince and construction costs of the system is high.
(8) Concentrators are only practical in areas of high direct insolation, such as
arid and desert areas.
essential features of a probable site for wind storm
here are 5 key characteristics of a good wind power site that you need:
• A high average wind speed. Typically the site would be on top of a hill
or in a wide open space with no obstructions nearby. See more details
on how windy it needs to be ?
• Sufficient separation from noise-sensitive neighbours. Modern wind
turbines are remarkably quiet, but even so there are very stringent
maximum noise levels that have to be met to obtain planning consent.
The minimum separation varies depending on the turbine size, but as a
rough guide the following should ensure no problems:
Maximum Power Typical Turbine Type Minimum Noise
Output Separation

55 kW Endurance E-3120 250 metres

100 kW Norvento nED100 360 metres

500 kW EWT DW52/54 or Enercon 450 metres

E53/48/44

1.5 MW GE 1.5sl 550 metres

2 – 3 MW Enercon E82 620 metres

• Good grid connection. All of the wind turbines that we supply require a
suitable three-phase electrical supply to connect to. As a rough guide
you will need an 11 kV transformer or substation that is roughly double
the rated power output of the wind turbine you are considering, or an
11 kV three-phase power line passing close to the wind turbine site
that can have a new transformer / substation connected to it.
The larger multi-MW turbines could grid connect to 33 kV power lines,
though generally it is too expensive for sub-1MW wind turbine projects to
connect at such a high voltage.
• Good site access. Wind turbines are large and heavy, so the access
roads and tracks to the site need to be capable of taking oversize loads
with no weak bridges, excessively tight corners or steep gradients.
Obviously as the proposed turbine gets larger, the size of the
constituent parts that have to be delivered get larger and the access
requirements more stringent. The smaller Endurance 55 kW turbine is
delivered on standard articulated lorries, but all of the others come on
special oversize trailers.
• No special environmental or landscape designations. A lot of the older
objections to wind turbines due to bird strikes have now been shown
to be unfounded, but even so it would be good practice to not install a
wind turbine(s) in an area that had special bird designations. Peat bog
is also generally a no-go area for wind turbines.
Anaerobic digestion:
Anaerobic digestion is a sequence of processes by which
microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the
absence of oxygen. The process is used for industrial or
domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels.
advantages and disadvantages of pv solar energy conversion
Advantages

• Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because they do

not use fuel other than sunshine, PV systems do not release any
harmful air or water pollution into the environment, deplete natural
resources, or endanger animal or human health.
• Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.
• Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on
rooftops of existing buildings.
• PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where repair is
extremely expensive, if not impossible. PV still powers nearly every
satellite circling the earth because it operates reliably for long periods
of time with virtually no maintenance.
• Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does not need
to be imported from other regions of the country or across the world.
This reduces environmental impacts associated with transportation
and also reduces our dependence on imported oil. And, unlike fuels
that are mined and harvested, when we use solar energy to produce
electricity we do not deplete or alter the resource.
• A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy
requirements. Furthermore, the owner of a PV system can enlarge or
move it if his or her energy needs change. For instance, homeowners
can add modules every few years as their energy usage and financial
resources grow. Ranchers can use mobile trailer-mounted pumping
systems to water cattle as the cattle are rotated to different fields.

Disadvantages

• Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the PV
production process. These environmental impacts are minor and can
be easily controlled through recycling and proper disposal.
• Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than
conventional sources of energy due in part to the cost of
manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion efficiencies of
the equipment. As the conversion efficiencies continue to increase and
the manufacturing costs continue to come down, PV will become
increasingly cost competitive with conventional fuels.
• Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production
dependent on the sun. Solar facilities may produce no power at all
some of the time, which could lead to an energy shortage if too much
of a region's power comes from solar power.
Solar pumping:

Solar water pumping system.

Image credit: Energy & Development Group.
Access to a safe, sustainable water supply is a growing concern in every
region of the world. In many communities, groundwater is being pumped by
diesel fueled systems, which are both expensive and can be difficult to
maintain. In communities where electricity is scarce, solar can be a part of
the solution.

The highest demand for solar pumps is among rural off-grid areas, currently
underserved, or served by costly fuel-driven pumps. Solar pumping is most
competitive in regions with high solar insolation, which include most of
Africa, South America, South Asia, and Southeast Asia; but the technology
can operate successfully in almost any region of the world.
“Things are changing; new technologies are coming up. You can’t resist good
technology that offers you cheaper costs for what you need.” said Jackson
Mutazamba, assistant director of operational planning in the Ministry of
Water and Irrigation in Tanzania, when asked about the use of solar pumps
for water supply.

Echoed by Mamun from the Sohagpur village in Dhamrai, Bangladesh, “With

the solar pump installed, we are getting sufficient water with lower monthly
bills than we spent on buying diesel to run the generator”, he said.

In order for solar to be successful, however, this technology needs to be

understood and appreciated by water practitioners around the world.

To provide a clear and concise introduction to solar water pumping, my

colleagues and I have developed a handbook – Solar Pumping: The Basics,
which offers an overview of the various aspects of solar water pumping.

Let’s take a deeper look.

Over the last 7 years, things have changed dramatically. Solar photovoltaic
(PV) panels, which power the pumps, have dropped significantly in price,
while the technology has improved and is now able to pump higher volumes
of water and reach even deeper sources of groundwater.

While the initial acquisition of equipment is more costly than other pumping
alternatives, the operation and maintenance costs are low. Particularly
compared with diesel pumping, solar is not only more energy efficient, but
with a lifespan of over 20 years, the financial benefits vastly outweigh the
costs.

A solar pumping system is simple and includes the solar panel itself, the
pump, and a power conditioner. The new systems are flexible and can work
in tandem with a back-up generator and the electrical grid.
Considerations for designing a solar pumping system include various
parameters including: water demand (volume), water storage, water depth
(head), location of PV panels, and solar irradiance among others.
Fortunately, modern software provides a free and user-friendly tool that
enables engineers to easily design and size solar pumping system.

Finally, once the system is up, running, and secured, long-term maintenance
is critical. This includes warrantees on equipment and maintenance
contracts to ensure the water keeps flowing clean.

Solar cooking:

Solar cooking refers to using energy of direct sunlight to cook

and heat food. The idea of using heat from sunlight has been
around since the time of Archimedes of Syracuse in the
Classical World. The sun provides us with an inexhaustible
source of energy. Where the sun shines, you can solar cook.
See the infographic below on how many hours you can use
your solar cooker to cook at different locations around the
world
Solar array:

Solar Array Definition:

Combining several solar panels creates an array, which is part of your solar
system. The size of your solar array depends on where you live, the position
of your roof and the energy needs of your family.
Control Methods
You can use different control methods to either optimize or limit power output. You can control a
turbine by controlling the generator speed, blade angle adjustment, and rotation of the entire
wind turbine. Blade angle adjustment and turbine rotation are also known as pitch and yaw
control, respectively. A visual representation of pitch and yaw adjustment is shown in Figures 5
and 6.

Figure 5. Pitch Adjustment Figure 6. Yaw Adjustment

The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the optimum blade angle to achieve certain rotor
speeds or power output. You can use pitch adjustment to stall and furl, two methods of pitch
control. By stalling a wind turbine, you increase the angle of attack, which causes the flat side of
the blade to face further into the wind. Furling decreases the angle of attack, causing the edge of
the blade to face the oncoming wind. Pitch angle adjustment is the most effective way to limit
output power by changing aerodynamic force on the blade at high wind speeds.

Yaw refers to the rotation of the entire wind turbine in the horizontal axis. Yaw control ensures
that the turbine is constantly facing into the wind to maximize the effective rotor area and, as a
result, power. Because wind direction can vary quickly, the turbine may misalign with the
oncoming wind and cause power output losses. You can approximate these losses with the
following equation:

EQ 6: ∆P=α cos(ε) Where ∆P is the lost power and ε is the yaw error angle

The final type of control deals with the electrical subsystem. You can achieve this dynamic control
with power electronics, or, more specifically, electronic converters that are coupled to the
generator. The two types of generator control are stator and rotor. The stator and rotor are the
stationary and nonstationary parts of a generator, respectively. In each case, you disconnect the
stator or rotor from the grid to change the synchronous speed of the generator independently of
the voltage or frequency of the grid. Controlling the synchronous generator speed is the most
effective way to optimize maximum power output at low wind speeds.
Vertical Axis Wind Mill:

VAWT is a type of wind turbine which have two or three blades and in which
the main rotor shaft runs vertically. They are however used less frequently
as they are not as effective as HAWT.

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The Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) is the most popular of the turbines
that people are adding to make their home a source of renewable energy.
While it is not as commonly used as the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine, they
are great for placement at residential locations and more. Here we will take
a look at the VAWT, and fill you in on the pros and the cons as well as other
important information that will alleviate stress and headache when you
simply want to do your part to keep the environment protected.

Vertical turbines spin on the vertical axis and comes in various shapes sizes
and colors. It’s movement is similar to a coin spinning on the edge. The main
difference between the VAWT and HAWT is the position of blades. In HAWT,
blades are on the top, spinning in the air while in VAWT, generator is
mounted at the base of the tower and blades are wrapped around the shaft.
Flat plate collectors:
types of Biogas Digesters and Plants
• 2.1 Fixed Dome Biogas Plants.

• 2.2 Floating Drum Plants.

• 2.3 Low-Cost Polyethylene Tube Digester.

• 2.4 Balloon Plants.

• 2.5 Horizontal Plants.

• 2.6 Earth-pit Plants.

• 2.7 Ferro-cement Plants.

Wet fermentation
Wet Fermentation: Anaerobic digestion using input material that has
moisture content greater than 75% and a system that requires the addition
of liquid for the movement of organic material. ... Steps often include:
separation of non-organic material, liquefaction, sand separation and
sanitization.

Dry fermentation (SSAD) in a biogas plant involves the fermentation of

organic feedstocks to produce biogas under anaerobic conditions (without
atmospheric oxygen). ... After insertion of the impact wall, the fermenter
box is closed with a gas-tight gate.