smallpox

.IMAGE SOURCE,GETTY IMAGES

In the 18th century, the British doctor Edward Jenner (middle) invented a smallpox vaccine
based on vaccinia. The picture shows him vaccinating a child named James Phipps in 1796
Ancient India and Africa also had similar immunization methods. In 1688 (the 27th year
of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty), Russian doctors brought the Chinese method
of inoculation to Russia and then to Turkey. In the early 18th century, the British
noblewoman, Mrs. Mary Montague, introduced the human pox vaccination method from
Turkey to Britain.
However, the world's first true smallpox vaccine was invented by the Englishman
Edward Jenner in 1976, using a virus from cattle. Jenner's vaccine was introduced to
China in 1805. Because vaccinia was safer than human pox, it gradually replaced the
ancient method of human pox vaccination.
In 1967, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated the Global Smallpox Elimination
Program (IEP). After more than ten years of hard work, it finally announced in May 1980
that there would be no smallpox on the earth.
Elimination of smallpox is inseparable from capital investment and technological
progress. There are two technological inventions that make mass vaccination possible:
freeze-dried vaccines are easy to store and transport; two-ended needles for vaccine
injections, the vaccine can be clamped at the bifurcation of the needle to avoid virus
contamination, and the needles can be sterilized and reused.

AGRICULTURAL ROBOT
Information  Industry  Object  Product Technology

Agricultural robots are robots used for agricultural purposes. The main application areas of
today's agricultural robots are in the harvest stage. Emerging applications of robots or drones in
agriculture include weed control, cloud seeding, seed planting, harvesting, environmental
monitoring, and soil analysis.
General 
fruit picking robots, driverless tractors/sprayers and sheep shearing robots are designed to
replace humans. In most cases, many factors must be considered before the task starts (for
example, the size and color of the fruit to be picked). The robot can be used for other gardening
tasks such as pruning, weeding, spraying and monitoring. Robots can also be used for livestock
applications (livestock robots), such as automatic milking, washing, and castration. Robots like
this have many benefits to the agricultural industry, including higher quality fresh produce, lower
production costs and reduced manual labor requirements. They can also be used to automate
manual tasks, such as weed or bracken spraying, where the use of tractors and other manned
vehicles is too dangerous for the operator.
Design The 
mechanical design includes end effectors, manipulators and fixtures. Several factors must be
considered in the design of the manipulator, including the task, economic efficiency and required
movement. The end effector affects the market value of the fruit, and the gripper is designed
based on the crop being harvested.
End Effector An end effector in an 
agricultural robot is a device found at the end of a robot arm and used for various agricultural
operations. Several different types of end effectors have been developed. In agricultural
operations involving grapes in Japan, end effectors are used for harvesting, berry dilution,
spraying and bagging. Each is designed according to the nature of the task and the shape and size
of the target fruit. For example, the end effector for harvesting is designed to grab, cut and push
bunches of grapes.
Berry thinning is another operation performed on grapes to increase the market value of the
grapes, increase the size of the grapes, and promote the bunching process. For berry thinning, the
end effector consists of an upper part, a middle part and a lower part. There are two plates on the
upper part and a rubber that can be opened and closed. The two plates compress the grapes to cut
off the axes and extract a bunch of grapes. The middle part contains a disc of needles, a
compression spring and another plate with holes on its surface. When the two plates are
compressed, the needle punches through the grapes. Next, the lower part has a cutting device that
can cut the bundle to standardize its length.
For spraying, the end effector includes a nozzle connected to the manipulator. In practice, the
producer wants to ensure that the chemical liquid is evenly distributed in the beam. Therefore,
this design allows uniform distribution of chemicals by moving the nozzle at a constant speed
while maintaining a distance from the target.
The last step in grape production is the bagging process. The bagging end effector is designed
with a bag feeder and two mechanical fingers. In the bagging process, the bag feeder is
composed of slits that continuously supply bags to the fingers by moving up and down. When
the bag is sent to the fingers, the two leaf springs at the upper end of the bag keep the bag
open. The bags produced contain bunches of grapes. Once the bagging process is complete, your
fingers open and release the bag. This will close the leaf spring, seal the bag and prevent it from
opening again.
Clamp 
forceps gripping means is a target for harvesting crops. The fixture design is based on simplicity,
low cost and high efficiency. Therefore, the design usually consists of two robotic fingers that
can move synchronously when performing tasks. The technical characteristics depend on the
assigned tasks. For example, when the procedure is to cut plant parts for harvesting, the clamping
device is equipped with cutting blades.
Robotic arm A 
manipulating arm is a mechanical device that allows grippers and effectors to navigate in its
environment. It consists of parallel bars with four bars, which can maintain the position and
height of the grip. The manipulator can also use one, two or three pneumatic actuators. Actuator
tires are motors that produce linear or rotational movement, which converts compressed air into
energy. Pneumatic actuators are most effective for agricultural robots due to their high power-to-
weight ratio. For robotic arms, the most cost-effective design is a single actuator configuration,
although this option is the least flexible.
Claw 
grippers are grabbing devices used to harvest target crops. The design of the fixture is based on
simplicity, low cost and effectiveness. Therefore, the design usually consists of two robotic
fingers that can move synchronously when performing tasks. The details of the design depend on
the task being performed. For example, in the process of cutting plants for harvesting, the jig is
equipped with sharp blades.
Robotic 
manipulators allow grippers and end effectors to navigate in their environment. The manipulator
consists of four parallel links, which can maintain the position and height of the fixture. The
manipulator can also use one, two or three pneumatic actuators. Pneumatic actuators are motors
that generate linear and rotary motion by converting compressed air into energy. Pneumatic
actuators are the most effective actuators for agricultural robots due to their high power-to-
weight ratio. The most cost-effective design of the manipulator is the single actuator
configuration, but this is the least flexible option.
Development 
As early as the 1920s, the first development of agricultural robot technology can be traced back
to the date, and research on the integration of automatic vehicle guidance into agriculture began
to take shape. This research contributed to the advancement of autonomous agricultural vehicles
from the 1950s to the 1960s. However, this concept is not perfect, and vehicles still need a cable
system to guide their path. As technologies in other sectors have begun to develop, agricultural
robots continue to develop. It was not until the 1980s that machine vision guidance became
possible with the development of computers.
Other developments over the years include the use of robots to harvest oranges in France and the
United States.
Although robots have been incorporated into indoor industrial environments for decades, outdoor
robots for agriculture are considered more complex and difficult to develop. This is due to safety
concerns, but also due to the complexity of selecting crops subject to different environmental
factors and unpredictability.
Market demand 
People worry about the amount of labor needed in the agricultural sector. With an aging
population, Japan cannot meet the needs of the agricultural labor market. Similarly, the United
States currently relies on a large number of immigrant workers, but between the decline of
seasonal farm workers and the increase in government efforts to stop immigration, they cannot
meet demand. Because they cannot clean up all the crops before the end of the season,
companies are often forced to rot the crops. In addition, people are worried that the population
that needs to be kept will continue to grow in the next few years. Therefore, people very much
hope to improve agricultural machinery to make it more cost-effective and sustainable.
Current applications and trends 
Many current researches continue to focus on autonomous agricultural vehicles. The research is
based on advances in driver assistance systems and autonomous vehicles.
Although robots have been incorporated into many areas of agricultural farms, they are still
largely missing in the harvest of various crops. This situation began to change as the company
began to develop robots that perform more specific tasks on the farm. The biggest concern for
robots harvesting crops comes from harvesting soft crops such as strawberries, which are easily
damaged or missed altogether. Despite these problems, progress is being made in this
area. According to Gary Wishnatzki, co-founder of Harvest Croo Robotics, one of the strawberry
pickers currently being tested in Florida can “choose a 25-acre plot of land and replace
approximately 30 farm workers in just three days.” Similar progress has been made in harvesting
apples, grapes and other crops.
Another goal set by agricultural companies is to collect data. People are paying more and more
attention to population growth and the decrease in the labor force that feeds the population. Data
collection is being developed to increase farm productivity. AgriData is currently developing
new technologies to help farmers better determine the best time to harvest crops by scanning
fruit trees.
Applications 
Robots have many applications in agriculture. Some examples and prototypes of robots include
Merlin Robot Milker, Rosphere, Harvest Automation, Orange Harvester, Lettuce Robot and
Weeder. One example of large-scale use of robots in agriculture is milk robots. It is very
common in British dairy farms because of its efficiency and no need to move. According to
David Gardner (CEO of the Royal Agricultural Society), a robot can complete a complex task if
it repeats and allows the robot to sit in one place. In addition, robots that handle repetitive tasks
(such as milking) fulfill their roles of consistent and specific standards.
The case of large-scale use of agricultural robots is milking robots. These are very common in
UK dairy farms because of their availability and lack of travel requirements. According to David
Gardner (Managing Director of the Royal Agricultural Society), a robot can complete a complex
task, and if it is repeated, the robot can remain motionless. In addition, robots that handle
repetitive tasks (such as milking) can play a role with good regularity and task-specific
adaptability.
Another application area is horticulture. The horticultural application is the RV 100 developed
by Harvest Automation Inc. The robot is designed to transport potted plants in greenhouses or
outdoor gardening operations. The functions of the RV 100 in processing and organizing potted
plants also include separation, collection and integration capabilities. The advantages of using
RV 100 to accomplish this task include the accuracy of tank placement, the autonomy of internal
and external operations, and the reduction of production costs.
Another application area is horticulture. One horticultural application is the RV100 developed by
Harvest Automation. The RV 100 is designed to transport potted plants in a greenhouse or
outdoor environment. The functions of the RV100 in processing and organizing pot plants
include spacing capabilities, collection and integration. The benefits of using RV100 for this task
include high placement accuracy, autonomous outdoor and indoor functions, and reduced
production costs.
Examples 
Vinobot and Vinoculer 
LSU’s AgBot 
Harvest Automation is a company founded by former iRobot employees to develop greenhouse
robots 
from robotic harvesting and Agrobot’s strawberry picking robots. 
Casmobot's next-generation ramp mower 
Fieldrobot Event is a mobile agricultural robot competition 
HortiBot-plant care robot, 
lettuce robot-organic weed elimination and lettuce dilution. 
Rice planting robot was developed by the National Agricultural Research Center of Japan. 
IBEX autonomous spray robot is suitable for extremes Terrain, 
FarmBot under development , open source CNC agriculture 
VAE developed by the Argentine agricultural technology startup company aims to become a
universal platform for a variety of agricultural applications, from precision spraying to livestock
processing. 
ACFR RIPPA: used for spot spraying 
ACFR SwagBot; used for livestock monitoring 
ACFR digital farm: used for spraying, weeding and seeding

Development and Application of Smart Agriculture

Technology in Livestock and Poultry Production

　　Abstract: With the development of smart agriculture, informatization,

automation, and intelligent management have become the development trend of

large-scale livestock and poultry breeding. Internet of Things technology, big data

platform applications and artificial intelligence technology subtly help the modern

aquaculture industry update. This article focuses on the extensive application and

development prospects of smart agriculture in livestock and poultry production,

management, and market sales.

Keywords: Smart Agriculture; Internet of Things; Big Data; Livestock and Poultry

Production Smart agriculture is the smart economy in agriculture, or the concrete

manifestation of smart economy in agriculture.  Smart agriculture is an important part

of the smart economy; it is the main way for developing countries to eradicate
poverty, achieve late-comer advantages, enable economic development to catch up

from behind, and achieve a catch-up strategy.  In 2016, smart agriculture was included

in the “Central No. 1” document, marking that the development of smart agriculture

has been incorporated into the national top-level design and has risen to the height

of national economic strategic development. In 2017, governments at all levels

introduced a number of policies to support the development of smart agriculture,

covering a wider range of fields from planting to breeding, from facilities to

software. Below, the author briefly introduces the application and development of

smart agricultural technology in livestock and poultry production in recent years.

1. The application of Internet of Things technology in livestock and poultry

production

1. Standardized breeding of livestock and poultry

Most large-scale livestock and poultry farms have installed a video surveillance

system based on the Internet of Things technology, that is, multiple small cameras are

wired or wirelessly connected in series through a computer.  The camera can capture

the feeding, growth and reproduction, disinfection and epidemic prevention of

livestock and poultry in the farm in real time. At the same time, it can also save all the

previous videos. Farmers or visitors can view image data at any time and area through

a computer or mobile phone. This method not only improves the farmers'

understanding of the growth of livestock and poultry, but also reduces the number of

man-made visits and the risk of imported diseases.  The development and

reproduction data of livestock and poultry collected by the Internet of Things can also

provide scientific basis and best solutions for breed breeding. According to the

parameters of livestock and poultry appearance, reproductive capacity and by-

product quality, the data is entered in the computer, and the genealogical tree is

constructed at the same time. The program for product requirements is compiled, and

the formula is checked, assisted by manual screening, to obtain a more scientific

breeding plan.

2. Environmental factors monitoring and control

The Internet of Things can automatically adjust the amount of drinking water and

feeding according to the age of livestock and poultry and changes in temperature,

which can optimize the feed conversion rate, save water, and improve economic

efficiency. At the same time, it can also be used for resource and environmental

detection, collecting the temperature and humidity of livestock and poultry houses,

light time, ammonia concentration, carbon dioxide concentration and other related

data through various sensors. With the help of software statistical analysis, farmers

can remotely log in to the control platform software through mobile phones or

computers to control temperature, humidity, lighting, ventilation and other

equipment; they can also make the system automatically adjust according to the

situation through pre-designed software.

3. Livestock and poultry electronic traceability system

The electronic production traceability system for agricultural products was created

by Chengxin Rural Commercial Network of China International Electronic Commerce

Center of the Ministry of Commerce. By learning from the successful practices of

Japan's agricultural product quality and safety management system, and in

conjunction with the CPC business product coding system, "electronic" management

of agricultural product production records is carried out, and a transparent "identity

file" is established for agricultural products.  In the breeding process, by putting

electronic tags on livestock and poultry, the data generated is connected with the

blockchain platform to record the height and weight, immune procedures,

environmental factors, product processing and other information during the breeding

process. In the consumption link, relevant production information can be quickly

inquired through specific barcodes or QR codes. Consumers can scan the code to

achieve "knowing the roots" and trace the entire process from information such as

raw material collection, logistics transportation, and store sales.  Satisfy consumers'

right to know, so as to purchase and consume with confidence.

The agricultural product electronic production traceability system not only

helps consumers build a credible food traceability system, but also provides a

convenient channel for building branded agricultural products. Japan’s full-

process electronic traceability system is more commonly used. Due to its basic

national conditions of more people and less land, Japanese farmers have embodied a
refined and aristocratic production model in the process of planting and breeding.

Most of the high-priced agricultural products are in excess of The merchant will

indicate the place of origin and the serial number of the livestock and poultry when it

is sold. At the same time, this is also the expression of the farmer’s confidence in the

product. After many consumption comparisons, consumers will choose the best

varieties to buy. This survival of the fittest has created many familiar classic varieties,

such as Japanese Wagyu, Red Fuji Apple, Sunshine Rose Grapes and so on.

2. Application of big data platform construction in livestock and poultry

production

1. Big data concept

Gartner, the research organization of "Big data", gave this definition: "Big data"

requires new processing models to have stronger decision-making power, insight and

discovery, and process optimization capabilities to adapt to massive and high growth

rates. And diversified information assets. The strategic significance of big data

technology is not to master huge data information, but to professionally process

these meaningful data. Agricultural big data is an agricultural practice that integrates

big data concepts, technologies and methods. Agricultural big data involves all

aspects of production. Through the acquisition and scientific analysis of visualized

data, the goal of benefit optimization is achieved.

Starting from the characteristics of agriculture and the specific division of the

industrial chain, agricultural big data can be divided into four categories:   agricultural

environment and resources big data, agricultural production big data, agricultural

market and agricultural management big data, covering everything from

production to sales. All links. The "2018 Smart Agriculture Development Report-New

Technology Drives Agricultural Transformation" report pointed out: According to the

current different agricultural application fields and types, big data platform

application services account for the highest proportion, reaching 48%.

2. Construction of local agricultural big data platform

 The content of agricultural big data platforms often requires local agricultural

regulatory authorities to provide multiple industry-related data, including crop yields,

livestock and poultry breeding scales, disease prevention and control trends, market

price trends, etc. Local governments spare no effort in the construction of smart

agricultural data platforms , Each shows its magical powers.

Take Jiangsu Province as an example, actively carry out the construction and

application of intelligent agriculture and agricultural big data, assist the development

of agricultural e-commerce, rural information management and services, and answer

questions with expert network technology, and promote the healthy development of

Jiangsu's intelligent agriculture. The construction of smart agriculture in Jiangsu

adopts the idea of "municipal demonstration, from point to point". Based on the

concept of big data statistics, since 2016, Nanjing has established the Municipal Smart

Agriculture Construction Center, started to promote the construction of big data

platforms, and established the "11N" model, which is an integrated display platform, a

big data platform, and N systems Application; development and promotion of

agricultural industry information maps, agricultural information technology guidance

and answering "Agricultural Technology", agricultural e-commerce classification

analysis system and other information software. Then, on the basis of summarizing

the experience of Nanjing's smart agriculture construction, the experience was

proposed for reference, and it was gradually promoted throughout the province.

3.  Advantages of agricultural big data platform

The construction of the agricultural big data platform has greatly improved

the efficiency and quality of livestock and poultry breeding.

First of all, based on years of big data statistical research, breeding can instantly

obtain the growth characteristics of livestock and poultry, key points of breeding

management, knowledge of disease prevention and control, and market trends, which

shortens the time and loss of production experience accumulation.

 Second, big data analysis can effectively avoid production risks.  Traditional

agricultural production "relies on the sky for food", and drastic climate change will

often cause farmers to lose crops and raging livestock and poultry diseases.  Big data

analysis can provide years of climate and environmental data, and make timely

adjustments to take precautions.

Finally, summarizing the market demand in recent years and the number of

breeding of various species can reduce the loss caused by "big and small years".  With

China's accession to the WTO, the needs of the international agricultural product

market should also be included in the attention of large-scale farms.

3. Application of artificial intelligence in livestock and poultry production

Artificial Intelligence (ArtificialIntelligence) is abbreviated as AI in English.  It is a

new technological science that studies and develops theories, methods, technologies

and application systems used to simulate, extend and expand human intelligence.

The application of artificial intelligence can easily locate individual livestock and

poultry positions and obtain physiological characteristics indicators.  The Nanjing

Institute of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Science has invented a mobile smart IoT

electric measuring vehicle that can detect the physiological signs of livestock and
poultry. The measuring vehicle system adopts non-contact technology such as three-

dimensional geometric imaging of random moving targets, real-time online

measurement of three-dimensional dimensions of moving live pigs (including height,

length, and width), real-time collection of live pig optical geometric imaging and

weight measurement data, and can be based on the operator The instruction to read

the geometric imaging of live pigs. During the measurement process, the measured

data and images will be transmitted to the intelligent all-in-one platform software in

real time. The server analyzes and calculates, stores and records the results, and the

mobile phone can realize real-time data synchronization through Bluetooth.

1. Improve production and economic efficiency

The use of artificial intelligence technology can effectively analyze the output and

quality of livestock and poultry and agricultural products, and provide a basis for

decision-making in livestock and poultry production and management.  The

application of artificial intelligence in the field of layer breeding is relatively mature.

According to different functions, it can be roughly divided into mobile environmental

control detection robots, cleaning and disinfection robots, egg sorting robots, and

feeding robots. Take the egg collection robot of free-range laying hens as an

example. It mainly uses vision technology to locate eggs, picks up the eggs through

intelligent planning of the transportation path, and uses the principle of vacuum

suction cups to suck the eggs into the egg tray, and at the same time, it can be

weighed and sorted. Identify cracks and other operations.  Foreign automated fresh

egg processing research has been compared, from collection, disinfection, drying and

filming, grading and packaging, and coding, etc., are all integrated and integrated

processing. It not only saves labor and improves efficiency, but also reduces the risk

of cross-infection.

The use of artificial intelligence can also save manual labor time in livestock and

poultry breeding and improve production efficiency.  Since the first set of commercial

automation was next to the system interview in 1992, the automation system has

been continuously updated and improved. There are tens of thousands of robot
automatic milking systems worldwide. The equipment uses feed to lure cows into the

milking station. At the same time, it uses high-precision optical instruments, sensors,

and detection equipment to simulate human eyes and ears to achieve operations such

as nipple cleaning and abnormal milk diversion.

3. Prevention of Livestock and Poultry Diseases

The use of artificial intelligence can establish a livestock and poultry disease

diagnosis system. Establish a disease monitoring system by monitoring the calls and

behaviors of livestock and poultry, and transmit individual information to a computer

or mobile phone terminal through sensors, so that managers can analyze the health of

individual livestock and poultry according to the system and provide solutions for

disease control . A team of researchers led by Osaka University has developed an early

detection method for lameness in dairy cows (a major disease in dairy cows) by

applying human gait analysis. This kind of technology can detect the situation of

lameness which was difficult to judge from the gait of dairy cows as early as possible,

and realize the revolution of dairy cow breeding through detailed observation of AI-

driven image analysis. Lu Changhua et al. optimized the proportional training BP

neural network algorithm of 30 kinds of common chicken infectious diseases,

nutritional metabolism and parasitic diseases proposed by the model sample

reorganization to improve the self-learning ability of the traditional animal disease

diagnosis system, improve the diagnostic coincidence rate, and achieve clinical

diagnosis Expert level.

Fourth, the conclusion

In summary, the application of smart agriculture in modern livestock and poultry

breeding and production is becoming more and more extensive, although at this

stage there are still some difficulties in popularization, such as lack of information

knowledge for farmers, low popularity of modern agricultural machinery in rural areas,

and intelligence. Large investment in breeding equipment, etc., but with national

policy support, the sinking of agricultural science and technology personnel, the

development of rural economy and the improvement of the education level of

farmers, these problems will be solved, and the application of smart agriculture in

livestock and poultry breeding will become more popular And wonderful.

Introduction
The growing population increase implies an increase in energy and food production; thus,
agricultural efficiency must triple in the coming years to sustain the increased demand for food.

One of the techniques to intensify food production is robotics. In recent years, several advances
have been made in the sector. The speed of operation of robots has surpassed that of humans and
they are reaching other abilities, being able to work continuously and consistently with minimal
maintenance (TANKE et al., 2011).

The robotization of agricultural activities must consider all agents involved in production, enabling
intensification with the least possible impact. The exploration of agriculture in a sustainable way
depends on the joint conciliation of variables such as, for example: 1) economic, which translates
into profit, points out that if agriculture does not generate profit and income for the farmer, it
disappears; 2) social, because if the man in this environment does not obtain a dividend, there is no
reason to have from agriculture itself; 3) environmental, which is the very survival of nature, so that
agriculture and a healthy environment can exist in the future. Therefore, the economic, social and
environmental tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. Increasing
productivity with sustainability requires the use and mastery of techniques, methodologies and
instruments that, in most cases, are not adapted to the real need. In this aspect, agriculture must be
directed towards the development of methods, processes, systems, sensors and equipment with a
view to integrating production systems and that are sustainable (CRESTANA; FRAGALLE, 2012).

This article aims to address the new directions of agriculture, presenting the fundamental aspects of
robotics, creation of intelligent machines in agricultural production environments, examples of uses
of agricultural robots, as well as indicating the main challenges encountered for the implementation
of robotic systems in agricultural environment, relate social problems and expectations generated by
robotization.

2 Material and method

This study was carried out through an exploratory, descriptive and bibliographic methodological
process. These methods were suitable because the objective was to describe and point out the state
of the art of robotization in agriculture. Through bibliographical research, it is possible to explain,
describe and analyze its evolution, the types that are available in the market and others that are in
development and the technological and social context of its implantation in the field.

The need to increase productivity, quality and efficiency in food production is extremely
important. Increasing productivity with sustainability requires the use and mastery of techniques,
methodologies and instruments that, sometimes, are not yet fully developed or adapted to reality. In
the practice of sustainable agriculture, it is essential to combine the economic concept of increasing
productivity with that of environmental and social harmony. The economic is translated through
profit, so if agriculture does not generate profit and income for the farmer, it disappears. Social
harmony means that men can live off agricultural work and maintain their families with dignity so that
they feel compensated for the effort or investment made. Environmental harmony is the coexistence
of man and nature so that the first respects the second in its limits, rights to life and the entire
ecosystem involved in order to maintain its own survival and that of nature, too, so that agriculture
can exist and a healthy and balanced environment that can guarantee its continuity. The economic,
social and environmental tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. In this
scenario, Crestana and Fragalle (2012), in a survey carried out at Embrapa, point to areas
considered "bearers of the future", as follows: so that agriculture can exist and a healthy and
balanced environment that can guarantee its continuity. The economic, social and environmental
tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. In this scenario, Crestana and
Fragalle (2012), in a survey carried out at Embrapa, point to areas considered "bearers of the
future", as follows: so that agriculture can exist and a healthy and balanced environment that can
guarantee its continuity. The economic, social and environmental tripod is the great challenge of
sustainability and agriculture today. In this scenario, Crestana and Fragalle (2012), in a survey
carried out at Embrapa, point to areas considered "bearers of the future", as follows:

1. Sensors and methodologies for monitoring that assess physical, chemical and biological
characteristics related to the quality of the environment, agro-industrial processes and
agricultural business chains;
2. Precision Agriculture, with emphasis on instrument development, immediate reading
sensors, remote sensing techniques, aerial images, crop forecast, management zone
recognition technique;
3. Non-invasive techniques applied to agriculture and environmental monitoring, such as
spectroscopic and imaging techniques, associated with statistical and computational analysis
methods;
4. Application of nanotechnology and production of nanomaterials of agricultural interest,
machines, equipment and instruments that improve processes in the agricultural chain and
the potential for human work;
5. Demand for sensors on packaging to indicate quality and aid in traceability;
6. International demand for the development of cellulosic ethanol, comprising equipment,
processes, characterization methodologies and input development;
7. Demand for agricultural products with functional properties, such as those coated with film or
film impregnated with indicators of microbiological contamination;
8. Demand for soil quality assessment techniques — including macro and micronutrients and
contaminants — faster and more efficient; Demand for practical techniques to assess the
 physical characteristics of the soil, such as particle size, water retention curve, resistance to
penetration and permeability;
9. Development of portable fruit and vegetable classification systems for small and medium
entrepreneurs;
10. High demand for new techniques to assess aspects related to global climate change and
heat islands, greenhouse gas emissions, pollutants and the water cycle.

In this aspect, the trend in agriculture should be directed towards the development of methods,
processes, systems, sensors and equipment with a view to integrating production systems and
which are sustainable.

3 Results and discussion

The succession of technological development has brought greater productivity and economic
efficiency to agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Historically, the generating factor was the
mechanization of fields that gradually became larger. Currently, the trend is to replace large and
heavy machines with information-based technologies that can provide viable and reliable
autonomous operations in the field (EARL et. al, 2000).

Robotics is the term used to indicate the discipline associated with using and programming
robots. Robotic Engineering refers to the construction of robots and robotic devices. Therefore, a
robot, as called in ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 10218 (1992) "is a
manipulator machine with several degrees of freedom automatically controlled, reprogrammable,
multifunctional, which can have a fixed or mobile base for use and industrial automation applications
".

Robots can be classified according to their construction application, into two distinct types: industrial
robots and non-industrial robots. The applications, limitations, models and forms cause them to be
divided into two basic types (SILVEIRA, 2012).

1. Fixed Robot: Known as robotic arm. It consists of a fixed base and a set of links and joints
that allow movement in various directions. Because it is widely used in industrial
applications, it has become the most common type of robot.
2. Mobile Robot: commonly called a robotic vehicle, it can come in many different shapes and
models. They usually have a certain degree of intelligent assistance for locomotion or for
controlling the system, including: AGV (Automatically Guided Vehicle) automatically guided
vehicle, usually land on wheels, legs or tracks; UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) unmanned
aerial vehicles, are generally pilotless aircraft and helicopters; AUV (Autonomous
Underwater Vehicles) autonomous underwater vehicles, are intelligent and unmanned,
and ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) remotely operated vehicles, are generally robot
submarines with umbilical cable control transmission.

Industrial robots have a limited space for manipulator movement, called work space or volume,
where the robotic system can position itself and use the tool ( end-effector ). Robotics was
developed with different goals, often all of these at the same time. These include creating useful
controllers for real-world robot work, exploring details, psychological phenomena, and more
(SILVEIRA, 2012).

The use of robots as autonomous agricultural vehicles has an interesting potential as a valuable
technological tool for precision agriculture, bringing the advantage of being able to make use of
several theories in robotic control, already founded and consolidated for applications in several other
areas (TANGERINO et al., 2011).
The recent trend of developing mobile robots and autonomous vehicles to perform specific tasks is
mainly guided by improving efficiency and generating operating gains (reduces soil compaction,
absence of operator) when compared to the use of large machines
(BLACKMORE; GRIEPENTRONG, 2006).

Robotics in agriculture is not a new concept, in controlled environments (greenhouses) it has a

history of over 20 years. Studies have been carried out to develop harvesters for cherry tomatoes,
cucumbers, mushrooms, and other fruits. In horticulture, robots were used to harvest citrus fruit and
apples. In dairy farming, robotic milking is very common in the Netherlands (NOGUCHI,
2010). However, the greatest development of automated agricultural production systems is
undoubtedly among the Japanese. From this development, we can mention the "Plant factory",
where vegetables are cultivated in a hydroponic system under artificial lighting. Computers and
robots control the process of planting seedlings, fertilization, sanitation, root cutting, packaging and
weighing, resulting in perfect products, that is, without defects, diseases or damage caused by
insects. The level of automation in plant factories is so high that, over time, they can become fully
autonomous production facilities (NOGUCHI, 2010).

The use of robotics in the field is relatively new, although Hollywood in 1984 produced a movie
called "Escape" in which agricultural robots are designed as scouts to pluck insects from corn
leaves. However, the first robot for field agricultural applications was developed in 1998 by Astrand
and Baerveldt for weed control (ASTRAND; BAERVELDT, 2002). In 2004, Bak and Jakobsen
developed a small robot capable of traveling between crop rows to record the location of weeds
using a camera and a receiver Global Positioning System (GPS). Also in 2004, Hofstee, Grift and
Tian developed a machine vision based algorithm for autonomously oriented field crops ( GRIFT,
2007).

Farmers need to collect information about the crop and the soil, its status before and during the
growing season, such as: beater robots, which can travel to a predetermined location, take a soil
sample to identify levels of moisture using a cone penetrometer, a type of probe that is inserted into
the soil to measure compaction, and using an electric probe to measure pH. During the development
stage, the need lies in measuring nitrogen and water stress in plants using optical sensors, as well
as insect and weed infestations using cameras (GRIFT, 2007). This same author states that the new
generation of agricultural robots presents satisfactory results. Although much smaller than
conventional agricultural machines, they can act cooperatively and perform tasks such as spraying
pesticides that pose risks to humans. Lasers are used for a variety of tasks, from harvesting to
weeding (GRIFT, 2007).

The new generation of lightweight robots, with low pressure tires, will turn over the minimum volume
of soil to allow for the accommodation of the seeds. These in turn will be precisely sown according to
soil moisture levels. Your movements will be controlled by specific software - SAFAR (Software
Architecture for Agricultural Robots), and routes will be planned through Google Earth. The robots
will still be capable of selective harvesting, allowing farmers to obtain a higher quality of cut, while
plants that still need time to grow are left in the field (GRIFT, 2007).

While robots are still too small to perform tasks that require high storage capacity, such as loading
fertilizer and removing harvested grain, they can be used in situations where relatively low energy
needs are required. A good example of this is weeding, in which weeds can be treated with a small
amount of chemical, highly concentrated or mechanical weed control (NOGUCHI, 2010).

A limiting factor of field robots is their energy consumption, which interferes with their range of
action. Although robots can be powered by fossil fuels, it is appropriate to use locally available
sources such as sunlight, renewable energies or biofuels to reduce the environmental impact. If
robots are used for harvesting, they might even consume some of the crops for their own
operation. It can be argued that this is similar to homologous biological use such as harvesting hay
using horses (NOGUCHI, 2010).

Agricultural robots range from large multipurpose mechanical frames, to small autonomous vehicles
built for specific applications. Robot design is generally determined by the environment in which it
operates. Outdoor environments generally allow the use of large robots such as autonomous
tractors. However, outdoor robots require sophisticated navigation systems to explore an
unstructured environment (CHEN, 2012). However, robots used in the interior of stores, warehouses,
plant factories and others can take advantage of the infrastructure within their environment, for
example, controlled lighting conditions can increase the reliability of the vision system that allows the
development of robots more sophisticated cultivation (CHEN, 2012).

Robots for outdoor or unprotected areas are largely about navigation, trajectory planning, and
obstacle avoidance. Over the last decade, this area of research has transitioned from controlling a
single autonomous tractor to coordinating multiple autonomous tractors. For example, a recent
system could harvest 100 fields of peat moss during a season using three autonomous
tractors. Each tractor was able to drive to a field, harvest peat moss, drive to a designated location
and unload it autonomously (CHEN, 2012). This same author also states that other agricultural
robots, for outdoor performance, focus on the agricultural implement instead of the tractor. For
example, robotic towed sprayers can aim nozzles at weeds through an artificial vision system. Such
systems have been tried out in tomato and cotton crops. The selective spray developed byLamm et
al. (2002), was able to correctly identify and spray 88% of weeds in a cotton field.

Ongoing projects include full automation for special crops, which focuses on increasing production
efficiency and lowering labor costs in the industry, with a special attention to fruit and seedling
production. This has led to the development of utility vehicles for robotic automation in orchards and
the creation of systems that detect plant stress, diseases, insects, measured tree diameter, count
and fruit size before harvest (CHEN, 2012).

Another project aimed at managing irrigation and nutrients through distributed sensing, focuses on
saving water, increasing the efficiency and reducing the environmental impacts of agricultural
production practices, using data from the sensor network with plant physiology models for
automated irrigation and nutrient management in ornamental crops (SANCHEZ, 2011).

Hydroponics is a good platform for robotic automation because it requires periodic work, a
systematic approach, repetitive motion and a structured environment. Thus, combining hydroponics
and robotic improvements, plant growth efficiency, increased productivity and reduced losses are
obtained (TANKE et al., 2011).

As for robots and autonomous vehicles built specifically for greenhouse work, Sanchez (2011) points
out some studies: Sandini et al. (nineteen ninety) and Darius et al. (1994) developed the Agrobot
project, which was a mobile platform with stereoscopic vision and a manipulator arm with a
clamp/hand. Mandow et al. (1996) described an autonomous vehicle (Aurora) for crop
spraying. Subramanian et al. (2005) and Singh et al. (2005) described a minirobot to carry out
spraying activities, whose navigation is controlled by algorithms based on fuzzy logic. Belforte et
al. (2006) described an autonomous platform designed to assess the health of the plant. Kitamura
and Oka (2005)developed a robot for harvesting sweet peppers in the greenhouse. Another
cucumber harvesting robot was developed byVan Henten et al. (2002).

Derek Morikawa, coordinator of a fruit harvest automation project with two robot prototypes: the first
finds all the fruits to be harvested and the second collects each one. The first robot is equipped with
an artificial vision system that tracks the entire crop, building a 3-D map of the location and size of
each fruit. Then it calculates the best order for them to be harvested. The information is sent to the
second robot, which has eight arms. Working in a coordinated way, the arms never cross, optimizing
the task of picking up all the anticipated fruits (TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION, 2007).

The University of Osnabrück, Germany, in partnership with Bosch, developed a robot, called
BoniRob, with four individually articulated wheels, moving without a driver, without a remote control,
measuring different characteristics of each plant, such as: if the plants are ok nourished, if they are
under water stress or indicative of disease. Weighing around 500 kg, it is equipped with a range of
sensors, electronics and software. The navigation module evaluates the measurement data from a
3D laser scanner, which is used to drive the wheel hub motors. BoniRob's first applications were
plant improvement and field research (RUCKELSHAUSEN, 2010).

A study that has been carried out in Japan on a robotic vehicle system using RTK-GPS (real-time
system and global kinematic positioning) and GIS (geographical information system), with a view to
fully automating the production chain, that is. from agricultural production to marketing and delivery
of the product to the end user (NOGUCHI, 2010).

The rice transplant robot, developed in NARO (Japan) was modified to perform a fully automated
operation, with the addition of direct current servo motors, for the operation of the pressure regulator,
the transmission gear (CVT) with the implement clutch, hydraulic control valves, steering and
electromagnetic hydraulic valves to operate left and right brakes, clutches and lift. It also employs an
RTK-GPS and navigation sensors. The transplant robot can travel within a margin of error of ±10 cm
from the predetermined path. Although rice seedlings must be supplied manually, the use of the mat
along the rice seedlings (hydroponic) allows the robot to transplant up to 3,000 m 2of area at a rate of
0.2 minutes/ha without replenishing seedlings. The combine robot has speed control functions,
header height control, automatic leveling system similar to a conventional combine harvester
(NOGUCHI, 2010).

The robot management system developed based on an integrated agricultural GIS ( YAMAGATA,
2011) can handle various types of data, such as: field information, crop type, soil type, yield, quality,
farmer information, cost, chemical and fertilizer information. This system has a function to
communicate with the robot vehicles about the status of the work such as the work efficiency, fuel
level, fertilizer and chemical substances contained in each tank. The robot management system can
also obtain crop information data from robot vehicles using an intelligent vision sensor. Another
function of the robot management system is real-time monitoring of robot vehicles while in working
condition. In the case of the combine, each field is represented by a color, according to its harvest
status: not harvested, harvested and harvested. Using this management system,NOGUCHI, 2010).

Professionals from the Center for Teaching and Research in Automation and Simulation, Mechanical
Engineering, EESC-USP and from Embrapa Instrumentation are developing a modular and
multifunctional robotic platform for data acquisition in Precision Agriculture. The platform is able to
move around in typical environments of the agricultural area, with the purpose of data acquisition
and research of new technologies for remote sensing for the agricultural area. Its main features are:
robustness, mobility, high operational capacity and autonomy consistent with agricultural needs.

According to Tangerine et al. (2011), the base robotic platform will present a multifunctional
characteristic in order to allow the coupling of modules for data acquisition in the field, aiming at the
study of spatial variability through sensors and equipment considered portable.

In 1999, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) developed an integrated

system to control agricultural production that takes into account the variability of soil
parameters. Inputs consist of data involving laboratory analysis, data collected automatically by
static (field installed) and dynamic sensors, as well as data obtained by remote sensing. Positioning
data is provided by GPS. The processing integrates GIS systems with geostatistical techniques,
modeling programs, among others, to establish and generate control maps.
Another technology developed by Embrapa (JORGE; JUNIOR TRINITY, 2002) is a model airplane
built from conventional kits with a digital camera adapted to the aircraft, fired through radio control
equipment. The aeromodel facilitates topographic surveys, obtains detailed maps of the properties
and assesses the state of the crops it flies over, making it possible to identify the points on the land
that are subject to erosion, locate pests in the crop and detect nutritional deficiencies.

A technology designed for remote monitoring of environmental variables is the Data Acquisition
System in Agricultural Environment, which allows the reading of up to 250 sensors, and is also
suitable for automatic irrigation control. The system allows remote monitoring of sensors in the
agricultural area, enabling the reading of numerous variables of interest for the automation of
processes on a farm, including irrigation controlled by soil moisture sensors (tensiometers) and by
climatological environmental sensors. These, consisting of "smart" sensors with automatic
monitoring of environmental data and also on the ground, whose transmission is carried out via
radio-modem (INAMASU et al., 1996).

The Thermoelastic Probe, equipment designed to identify the plant's hydration status, was built
using Brazilian technology and its operation uses a simple and unprecedented technique in the
world. This is capable of measuring the internal pressure of plant cells and root suction, and in this
way identifies the hydration status of the plant. The Probe is basically composed of a sensor, a
voltage/current source and a microscope. Its main component, a glass sensor, is a capillary with an
internal volume of the order of microliters that must either puncture the cell (in pressure
measurements), or touch the tissue (in suction measurements). The sensor contains a properly
treated mineral oil and water, which must be kept at a constant temperature during measurements
(BERTUCCI NETO et al., 2006).

Robotic agricultural spraying plays an extremely important role in both the economic and social
sectors in the world. The system provides precise spraying, real-time collecting information on
position, incidence of diseases and pests, transmitting them to an atomizer or sprayer that regulates
the need for a greater or lesser amount of pesticides. In addition to reducing waste, it improves the
farmer's working conditions, since he will not have contact with highly toxic products that could lead
to health problems and, in the worst case, death (BERTUCCI NETO et al., 2006).

A study carried out in China resulted in the development of a robot for spraying and collecting
information in real time with a variable error of less than 10%. Another robotic system developed
was the control of invasive plants, this system is composed of a digital camera, a computer, a
chemical deposit and a locomotion system, whose efficiency allows saving 90% of applied herbicide
(LIBIN et al., 2008).

3.1 Obstacles and perspectives of agricultural robotics

Robotic systems have not been fully implemented in agriculture, for a number of reasons including:
fragility of machines, costly mechanical technology, work under machine capacity, as well as the
efficiency of work still to be improved and adapted to diverse situation. Also, in an outdoor
environment, it is difficult to spread capital costs across multiple operations because most robots are
designed for a single application, and the need is typically only available in one station ( INAMASU,
2011).

The economic viability of the system is largely determined by the robot's function. Some agricultural
robots are designed for an expensive process such as harvesting, which can represent up to 40% of
the total cost of horticultural production in the United States. A greenhouse inspection robot, instead
of aggregating, protects against losses by allowing a problem to be detected sooner. Most
agricultural production costs are calculated per square meter; thus increasing the efficiency per area
without increasing the size of the cultivated area can be an economical alternative ( OLIVEIRA, 2009).
Second Inamasu (2011), the scope of the research focuses on the individual development of each
robot's project, and not on the needs of agriculture in relation to robots. This condition makes robot
designs not reach the maximum level of quality. Thus, one of the techniques that can be applied is
the analysis from multiple perspectives, enabling a systemic view of the project's strengths and
weaknesses. In this context, eight perspectives that must be addressed in the development process
are considered: security, energy, economy, environment, management, mechanization, technology
and society. With regard to the mobile system itself, they must overcome problems related to the
limitation of computing resources and power, due to restrictions on the mobility of the system.

Recurring to this aspect, the challenge is to design these complex systems with a mobile
configuration with low energy consumption, while maintaining the high computational power
required. A good design depends on a balance between factors such as cost, size, power,
performance and complexity, with the required functions.

Currently, the cost for agricultural robotization is still very high, but as the demand for a technology
increases, its total cost decreases, either by diluting the investment spent on developing the
technology, or by decreasing the cost of large-scale production.

Another point that must be taken into account is the intrinsic resistance existing in this sector on the
part of farmers, regarding changes in the form of management practiced, with the need to
understand that automation is not an immediate solution to a given shortage or problem, but part of
a management process.

3.2 Development of robotic technology

Accordingly Oliveira (2009), until the present stage of technology development, the adoption of
robotics has been mainly stimulated by the evaluation of the economic return, essentially promoted
by the efficiency in the differentiated application of inputs. However, technology must be understood
as an agricultural production system that integrates information within a holistic view of
production. Thus, robotics aims to simultaneously increase efficiency in production management,
learning in agronomic knowledge management and, in the long term, profiting from rural properties
through a gradual minimization of undesirable impacts on the environment and wildlife.

Scientific tests on productive properties estimate a profitability in the use of the technology in the
order of thirty dollars per hectare (US$30.00/ha), when considering the reduction in waste in the
application of fertilizers. Other specific studies indicate net gains in dollars per acre of US$48.25/A in
the use of nitrogen to grow sugar beet; US$5.00/A in the use of limestone for soil fertility correction
purposes; and US$7.00/A in the use of insecticides to fight weeds (INAMASU, 2011).

However, this type of economic benefit is difficult to characterize, since the conversion of monitored
information translated into financial metrics is not always easy to be established. As evidence of this,
a wide variation in annual farm profitability can be seen in the reports of commercial grain farmers
who have invested in precision farming technology over the past ten years. These variations range
from US$11 to US$48 per hectare in the United States, and from US$9 to US$33 per hectare in
regions of Australia (OLIVEIRA, 2009).

In Brazil, several factors suggest a relatively slow and heterogeneous adoption

(LOWENBERG; GRIFFIN, 2006), as is actually happening in the rest of the world. Among the
predominant factors of the limited adoption of technology in the country, the following stand out:
cheap labor, limited number of computers on farms; high import fees for state-of-the-art
equipment; insufficient and unprepared technical support; low market value of agricultural
products; low scale of production on most farms; and the relatively low price of land.
In a simple way, it can be stated that the potential benefits of robotics are the increase in the quantity
and quality of products and the improvement in the management of natural resources, through the
efficient use of inputs. Despite proposing a highly technified solution that is still inaccessible to most
family farming production systems, robotics and precision farming technology basically enhance the
increase in production and energy value of grains, through specific and localized application
management. of inputs. This more efficient management provides a crop yield that tends to reach
the maximum levels of productive capacity in the stands, often increasing the average grain yield
from two and a half tons per hectare (2.5 t/ha) to up to eight ( 8t/ha), in the case of wheat
(INAMASU, 2010).

According to estimates by UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) in 2009, up to 25% of

world food production could be threatened during this century, as a result of water scarcity, more
aggressive and pesticide-resistant pests, and advanced soil degradation. In this sense, a significant
social contribution can be attributed as a consequence of technologies, considering the challenge of
increasing food production in response to the demands of a growing population, a reduction in
environmental degradation and a reduction in accidents in the most dangerous activities ( OLIVEIRA,
2009).

On the other hand, the issue of automation and its impact on the level of employment has recently
been discussed with greater insistence in Brazil. The process of introducing and disseminating this
set of state-of-the-art technologies must be accompanied by structural changes of a socioeconomic
nature, in order to engender the conditions for making the new techniques profitable.

Unlike industries like aerospace, agriculture is a low-margin industry, so it's vital that new robots are
robust and affordable. Agriculture in 20 years' time will be a mix of the traditional and the new, but
the new robots must be smart enough to work with the natural environment to maintain economic
and sustainable competitiveness and the production of high quality food ( EUROBOTICS, 2012).

The multidisciplinarity and technological advances that come to involve new agricultural practices
open the opportunity for the insertion of autonomous systems in the field. This, in turn, should be
interpreted as an aid tool that will compose and enhance the management system and not as an
isolated and immediate solution (INAMASU, 2011).

4 Final considerations
The discussion of new technologies in the rural production process is very incipient, as is the
discussion of what their impact may have on the rural work process. It is known that technological
development, under capitalism, has promoted a significant decrease in the number of rural workers
in the world. And the current technological development is more exclusive for workers.

Machines have changed the farmer's way of life in many places. Today, most farmers and their
employees must know how to operate sophisticated machinery and maintain it. Your job has
become increasingly lonely. That spirit of camaraderie typical of sowing, weeding and harvesting in
groups has ceased to exist.

In many countries, a new type of farmer has emerged: an academically educated businessman
specializing in mass production of a few agricultural products or just one. He invests a lot of
resources in land, facilities and machinery. But it is far from independent. Large food processing
companies and supermarket chains dictate the price, variety, size and color of products. Agronomist
engineers design production systems for him, and specialized companies supply him with the right
types of fertilizer, pesticide and hybrid seed needed for the conditions on his farm. The modern
 farmer has progressed a lot compared to his forebears, but he still faces many challenges and
concerns about the possible harmful effects of certain more intense cultivation techniques.

Technology can make you unemployed, but also, in another social project, it can make work easier
and increase production. Thus, there is a need for hegemonic control of technologies, so that we can
have a society where land, work, technology and its fruits can be socialized.

References

 ASTRAND, B.; BAERVELD, J. An Agricultural Mobile Robot with Vision-Based Perception for

Mechanical Weed Control. Autonomous Robots , Los Angeles, v. 13, no. 3, p. 21-35, 2002.
 BELFORTE, G. et al. Robot Design and Testing for Greenhouse Applications. Biosystems Engineering ,
v. 95, no. 3, p. 309-321, 2006.
 BERTUCCI NETO, Victor et al. Modeling and automation of a thermoelastic probe to measure parameters
related to plant physiology. Research and Development Bulletin , Embrapa Agricultural Instrumentation, São Carlos,
SP, n. 14, Nov. 2006. Available at: <http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/CNPDIA-2009-
09/11849/1/BPD14_2006.pdf>. Accessed on: Oct. 2012.
» http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/CNPDIA-2009-09/11849/1/BPD14_2006.pdf
 BLACKMORE, SM; GRIEPENTRONG, HW Autonomous Vehicles and Robotics. Chapter 7, Section
7.3 Mechatronics and Applications , ASAE CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering, v. 6, p. 204-215, 2006.

Introduction
The growing population increase implies an increase in energy and food production; thus,
agricultural efficiency must triple in the coming years to sustain the increased demand for food.

One of the techniques to intensify food production is robotics. In recent years, several advances
have been made in the sector. The speed of operation of robots has surpassed that of humans and
they are reaching other abilities, being able to work continuously and consistently with minimal
maintenance (TANKE et al., 2011).

The robotization of agricultural activities must consider all agents involved in production, enabling
intensification with the least possible impact. The exploration of agriculture in a sustainable way
depends on the joint conciliation of variables such as, for example: 1) economic, which translates
into profit, points out that if agriculture does not generate profit and income for the farmer, it
disappears; 2) social, because if the man in this environment does not obtain a dividend, there is no
reason to have from agriculture itself; 3) environmental, which is the very survival of nature, so that
agriculture and a healthy environment can exist in the future. Therefore, the economic, social and
environmental tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. Increasing
productivity with sustainability requires the use and mastery of techniques, methodologies and
instruments that, in most cases, are not adapted to the real need. In this aspect, agriculture must be
directed towards the development of methods, processes, systems, sensors and equipment with a
view to integrating production systems and that are sustainable (CRESTANA; FRAGALLE, 2012).

This article aims to address the new directions of agriculture, presenting the fundamental aspects of
robotics, creation of intelligent machines in agricultural production environments, examples of uses
of agricultural robots, as well as indicating the main challenges encountered for the implementation
of robotic systems in agricultural environment, relate social problems and expectations generated by
robotization.

2 Material and method

This study was carried out through an exploratory, descriptive and bibliographic methodological
process. These methods were suitable because the objective was to describe and point out the state
of the art of robotization in agriculture. Through bibliographical research, it is possible to explain,
describe and analyze its evolution, the types that are available in the market and others that are in
development and the technological and social context of its implantation in the field.

The need to increase productivity, quality and efficiency in food production is extremely
important. Increasing productivity with sustainability requires the use and mastery of techniques,
methodologies and instruments that, sometimes, are not yet fully developed or adapted to reality. In
the practice of sustainable agriculture, it is essential to combine the economic concept of increasing
productivity with that of environmental and social harmony. The economic is translated through
profit, so if agriculture does not generate profit and income for the farmer, it disappears. Social
harmony means that men can live off agricultural work and maintain their families with dignity so that
they feel compensated for the effort or investment made. Environmental harmony is the coexistence
of man and nature so that the first respects the second in its limits, rights to life and the entire
ecosystem involved in order to maintain its own survival and that of nature, too, so that agriculture
can exist and a healthy and balanced environment that can guarantee its continuity. The economic,
social and environmental tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. In this
scenario, Crestana and Fragalle (2012), in a survey carried out at Embrapa, point to areas
considered "bearers of the future", as follows: so that agriculture can exist and a healthy and
balanced environment that can guarantee its continuity. The economic, social and environmental
tripod is the great challenge of sustainability and agriculture today. In this scenario, Crestana and
Fragalle (2012), in a survey carried out at Embrapa, point to areas considered "bearers of the
future", as follows: so that agriculture can exist and a healthy and balanced environment that can
guarantee its continuity. The economic, social and environmental tripod is the great challenge of
sustainability and agriculture today. In this scenario, Crestana and Fragalle (2012), in a survey
carried out at Embrapa, point to areas considered "bearers of the future", as follows:

11. Sensors and methodologies for monitoring that assess physical, chemical and biological
characteristics related to the quality of the environment, agro-industrial processes and
agricultural business chains;
12. Precision Agriculture, with emphasis on instrument development, immediate reading
sensors, remote sensing techniques, aerial images, crop forecast, management zone
recognition technique;
13. Non-invasive techniques applied to agriculture and environmental monitoring, such as
spectroscopic and imaging techniques, associated with statistical and computational analysis
methods;
14. Application of nanotechnology and production of nanomaterials of agricultural interest,
machines, equipment and instruments that improve processes in the agricultural chain and
the potential for human work;
15. Demand for sensors on packaging to indicate quality and aid in traceability;
16. International demand for the development of cellulosic ethanol, comprising equipment,
processes, characterization methodologies and input development;
17. Demand for agricultural products with functional properties, such as those coated with film or
film impregnated with indicators of microbiological contamination;
18. Demand for soil quality assessment techniques — including macro and micronutrients and
contaminants — faster and more efficient; Demand for practical techniques to assess the
 physical characteristics of the soil, such as particle size, water retention curve, resistance to
penetration and permeability;
19. Development of portable fruit and vegetable classification systems for small and medium
entrepreneurs;
20. High demand for new techniques to assess aspects related to global climate change and
heat islands, greenhouse gas emissions, pollutants and the water cycle.

In this aspect, the trend in agriculture should be directed towards the development of methods,
processes, systems, sensors and equipment with a view to integrating production systems and
which are sustainable.

3 Results and discussion

The succession of technological development has brought greater productivity and economic
efficiency to agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Historically, the generating factor was the
mechanization of fields that gradually became larger. Currently, the trend is to replace large and
heavy machines with information-based technologies that can provide viable and reliable
autonomous operations in the field (EARL et. al, 2000).

Robotics is the term used to indicate the discipline associated with using and programming
robots. Robotic Engineering refers to the construction of robots and robotic devices. Therefore, a
robot, as called in ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 10218 (1992) "is a
manipulator machine with several degrees of freedom automatically controlled, reprogrammable,
multifunctional, which can have a fixed or mobile base for use and industrial automation applications
".

Robots can be classified according to their construction application, into two distinct types: industrial
robots and non-industrial robots. The applications, limitations, models and forms cause them to be
divided into two basic types (SILVEIRA, 2012).

3. Fixed Robot: Known as robotic arm. It consists of a fixed base and a set of links and joints
that allow movement in various directions. Because it is widely used in industrial
applications, it has become the most common type of robot.
4. Mobile Robot: commonly called a robotic vehicle, it can come in many different shapes and
models. They usually have a certain degree of intelligent assistance for locomotion or for
controlling the system, including: AGV (Automatically Guided Vehicle) automatically guided
vehicle, usually land on wheels, legs or tracks; UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) unmanned
aerial vehicles, are generally pilotless aircraft and helicopters; AUV (Autonomous
Underwater Vehicles) autonomous underwater vehicles, are intelligent and unmanned,
and ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) remotely operated vehicles, are generally robot
submarines with umbilical cable control transmission.

Industrial robots have a limited space for manipulator movement, called work space or volume,
where the robotic system can position itself and use the tool ( end-effector ). Robotics was
developed with different goals, often all of these at the same time. These include creating useful
controllers for real-world robot work, exploring details, psychological phenomena, and more
(SILVEIRA, 2012).

The use of robots as autonomous agricultural vehicles has an interesting potential as a valuable
technological tool for precision agriculture, bringing the advantage of being able to make use of
several theories in robotic control, already founded and consolidated for applications in several other
areas (TANGERINO et al., 2011).
The recent trend of developing mobile robots and autonomous vehicles to perform specific tasks is
mainly guided by improving efficiency and generating operating gains (reduces soil compaction,
absence of operator) when compared to the use of large machines
(BLACKMORE; GRIEPENTRONG, 2006).

Robotics in agriculture is not a new concept, in controlled environments (greenhouses) it has a

history of over 20 years. Studies have been carried out to develop harvesters for cherry tomatoes,
cucumbers, mushrooms, and other fruits. In horticulture, robots were used to harvest citrus fruit and
apples. In dairy farming, robotic milking is very common in the Netherlands (NOGUCHI,
2010). However, the greatest development of automated agricultural production systems is
undoubtedly among the Japanese. From this development, we can mention the "Plant factory",
where vegetables are cultivated in a hydroponic system under artificial lighting. Computers and
robots control the process of planting seedlings, fertilization, sanitation, root cutting, packaging and
weighing, resulting in perfect products, that is, without defects, diseases or damage caused by
insects. The level of automation in plant factories is so high that, over time, they can become fully
autonomous production facilities (NOGUCHI, 2010).

The use of robotics in the field is relatively new, although Hollywood in 1984 produced a movie
called "Escape" in which agricultural robots are designed as scouts to pluck insects from corn
leaves. However, the first robot for field agricultural applications was developed in 1998 by Astrand
and Baerveldt for weed control (ASTRAND; BAERVELDT, 2002). In 2004, Bak and Jakobsen
developed a small robot capable of traveling between crop rows to record the location of weeds
using a camera and a receiver Global Positioning System (GPS). Also in 2004, Hofstee, Grift and
Tian developed a machine vision based algorithm for autonomously oriented field crops ( GRIFT,
2007).

Farmers need to collect information about the crop and the soil, its status before and during the
growing season, such as: beater robots, which can travel to a predetermined location, take a soil
sample to identify levels of moisture using a cone penetrometer, a type of probe that is inserted into
the soil to measure compaction, and using an electric probe to measure pH. During the development
stage, the need lies in measuring nitrogen and water stress in plants using optical sensors, as well
as insect and weed infestations using cameras (GRIFT, 2007). This same author states that the new
generation of agricultural robots presents satisfactory results. Although much smaller than
conventional agricultural machines, they can act cooperatively and perform tasks such as spraying
pesticides that pose risks to humans. Lasers are used for a variety of tasks, from harvesting to
weeding (GRIFT, 2007).

The new generation of lightweight robots, with low pressure tires, will turn over the minimum volume
of soil to allow for the accommodation of the seeds. These in turn will be precisely sown according to
soil moisture levels. Your movements will be controlled by specific software - SAFAR (Software
Architecture for Agricultural Robots), and routes will be planned through Google Earth. The robots
will still be capable of selective harvesting, allowing farmers to obtain a higher quality of cut, while
plants that still need time to grow are left in the field (GRIFT, 2007).

While robots are still too small to perform tasks that require high storage capacity, such as loading
fertilizer and removing harvested grain, they can be used in situations where relatively low energy
needs are required. A good example of this is weeding, in which weeds can be treated with a small
amount of chemical, highly concentrated or mechanical weed control (NOGUCHI, 2010).

A limiting factor of field robots is their energy consumption, which interferes with their range of
action. Although robots can be powered by fossil fuels, it is appropriate to use locally available
sources such as sunlight, renewable energies or biofuels to reduce the environmental impact. If
robots are used for harvesting, they might even consume some of the crops for their own
operation. It can be argued that this is similar to homologous biological use such as harvesting hay
using horses (NOGUCHI, 2010).

Agricultural robots range from large multipurpose mechanical frames, to small autonomous vehicles
built for specific applications. Robot design is generally determined by the environment in which it
operates. Outdoor environments generally allow the use of large robots such as autonomous
tractors. However, outdoor robots require sophisticated navigation systems to explore an
unstructured environment (CHEN, 2012). However, robots used in the interior of stores, warehouses,
plant factories and others can take advantage of the infrastructure within their environment, for
example, controlled lighting conditions can increase the reliability of the vision system that allows the
development of robots more sophisticated cultivation (CHEN, 2012).

Robots for outdoor or unprotected areas are largely about navigation, trajectory planning, and
obstacle avoidance. Over the last decade, this area of research has transitioned from controlling a
single autonomous tractor to coordinating multiple autonomous tractors. For example, a recent
system could harvest 100 fields of peat moss during a season using three autonomous
tractors. Each tractor was able to drive to a field, harvest peat moss, drive to a designated location
and unload it autonomously (CHEN, 2012). This same author also states that other agricultural
robots, for outdoor performance, focus on the agricultural implement instead of the tractor. For
example, robotic towed sprayers can aim nozzles at weeds through an artificial vision system. Such
systems have been tried out in tomato and cotton crops. The selective spray developed byLamm et
al. (2002), was able to correctly identify and spray 88% of weeds in a cotton field.

Ongoing projects include full automation for special crops, which focuses on increasing production
efficiency and lowering labor costs in the industry, with a special attention to fruit and seedling
production. This has led to the development of utility vehicles for robotic automation in orchards and
the creation of systems that detect plant stress, diseases, insects, measured tree diameter, count
and fruit size before harvest (CHEN, 2012).

Another project aimed at managing irrigation and nutrients through distributed sensing, focuses on
saving water, increasing the efficiency and reducing the environmental impacts of agricultural
production practices, using data from the sensor network with plant physiology models for
automated irrigation and nutrient management in ornamental crops (SANCHEZ, 2011).

Hydroponics is a good platform for robotic automation because it requires periodic work, a
systematic approach, repetitive motion and a structured environment. Thus, combining hydroponics
and robotic improvements, plant growth efficiency, increased productivity and reduced losses are
obtained (TANKE et al., 2011).

As for robots and autonomous vehicles built specifically for greenhouse work, Sanchez (2011) points
out some studies: Sandini et al. (nineteen ninety) and Darius et al. (1994) developed the Agrobot
project, which was a mobile platform with stereoscopic vision and a manipulator arm with a
clamp/hand. Mandow et al. (1996) described an autonomous vehicle (Aurora) for crop
spraying. Subramanian et al. (2005) and Singh et al. (2005) described a minirobot to carry out
spraying activities, whose navigation is controlled by algorithms based on fuzzy logic. Belforte et
al. (2006) described an autonomous platform designed to assess the health of the plant. Kitamura
and Oka (2005)developed a robot for harvesting sweet peppers in the greenhouse. Another
cucumber harvesting robot was developed byVan Henten et al. (2002).

Derek Morikawa, coordinator of a fruit harvest automation project with two robot prototypes: the first
finds all the fruits to be harvested and the second collects each one. The first robot is equipped with
an artificial vision system that tracks the entire crop, building a 3-D map of the location and size of
each fruit. Then it calculates the best order for them to be harvested. The information is sent to the
second robot, which has eight arms. Working in a coordinated way, the arms never cross, optimizing
the task of picking up all the anticipated fruits (TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION, 2007).

The University of Osnabrück, Germany, in partnership with Bosch, developed a robot, called
BoniRob, with four individually articulated wheels, moving without a driver, without a remote control,
measuring different characteristics of each plant, such as: if the plants are ok nourished, if they are
under water stress or indicative of disease. Weighing around 500 kg, it is equipped with a range of
sensors, electronics and software. The navigation module evaluates the measurement data from a
3D laser scanner, which is used to drive the wheel hub motors. BoniRob's first applications were
plant improvement and field research (RUCKELSHAUSEN, 2010).

A study that has been carried out in Japan on a robotic vehicle system using RTK-GPS (real-time
system and global kinematic positioning) and GIS (geographical information system), with a view to
fully automating the production chain, that is. from agricultural production to marketing and delivery
of the product to the end user (NOGUCHI, 2010).

The rice transplant robot, developed in NARO (Japan) was modified to perform a fully automated
operation, with the addition of direct current servo motors, for the operation of the pressure regulator,
the transmission gear (CVT) with the implement clutch, hydraulic control valves, steering and
electromagnetic hydraulic valves to operate left and right brakes, clutches and lift. It also employs an
RTK-GPS and navigation sensors. The transplant robot can travel within a margin of error of ±10 cm
from the predetermined path. Although rice seedlings must be supplied manually, the use of the mat
along the rice seedlings (hydroponic) allows the robot to transplant up to 3,000 m 2of area at a rate of
0.2 minutes/ha without replenishing seedlings. The combine robot has speed control functions,
header height control, automatic leveling system similar to a conventional combine harvester
(NOGUCHI, 2010).

The robot management system developed based on an integrated agricultural GIS ( YAMAGATA,
2011) can handle various types of data, such as: field information, crop type, soil type, yield, quality,
farmer information, cost, chemical and fertilizer information. This system has a function to
communicate with the robot vehicles about the status of the work such as the work efficiency, fuel
level, fertilizer and chemical substances contained in each tank. The robot management system can
also obtain crop information data from robot vehicles using an intelligent vision sensor. Another
function of the robot management system is real-time monitoring of robot vehicles while in working
condition. In the case of the combine, each field is represented by a color, according to its harvest
status: not harvested, harvested and harvested. Using this management system,NOGUCHI, 2010).

Professionals from the Center for Teaching and Research in Automation and Simulation, Mechanical
Engineering, EESC-USP and from Embrapa Instrumentation are developing a modular and
multifunctional robotic platform for data acquisition in Precision Agriculture. The platform is able to
move around in typical environments of the agricultural area, with the purpose of data acquisition
and research of new technologies for remote sensing for the agricultural area. Its main features are:
robustness, mobility, high operational capacity and autonomy consistent with agricultural needs.

According to Tangerine et al. (2011), the base robotic platform will present a multifunctional
characteristic in order to allow the coupling of modules for data acquisition in the field, aiming at the
study of spatial variability through sensors and equipment considered portable.

In 1999, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA) developed an integrated

system to control agricultural production that takes into account the variability of soil
parameters. Inputs consist of data involving laboratory analysis, data collected automatically by
static (field installed) and dynamic sensors, as well as data obtained by remote sensing. Positioning
data is provided by GPS. The processing integrates GIS systems with geostatistical techniques,
modeling programs, among others, to establish and generate control maps.
Another technology developed by Embrapa (JORGE; JUNIOR TRINITY, 2002) is a model airplane
built from conventional kits with a digital camera adapted to the aircraft, fired through radio control
equipment. The aeromodel facilitates topographic surveys, obtains detailed maps of the properties
and assesses the state of the crops it flies over, making it possible to identify the points on the land
that are subject to erosion, locate pests in the crop and detect nutritional deficiencies.

A technology designed for remote monitoring of environmental variables is the Data Acquisition
System in Agricultural Environment, which allows the reading of up to 250 sensors, and is also
suitable for automatic irrigation control. The system allows remote monitoring of sensors in the
agricultural area, enabling the reading of numerous variables of interest for the automation of
processes on a farm, including irrigation controlled by soil moisture sensors (tensiometers) and by
climatological environmental sensors. These, consisting of "smart" sensors with automatic
monitoring of environmental data and also on the ground, whose transmission is carried out via
radio-modem (INAMASU et al., 1996).

The Thermoelastic Probe, equipment designed to identify the plant's hydration status, was built
using Brazilian technology and its operation uses a simple and unprecedented technique in the
world. This is capable of measuring the internal pressure of plant cells and root suction, and in this
way identifies the hydration status of the plant. The Probe is basically composed of a sensor, a
voltage/current source and a microscope. Its main component, a glass sensor, is a capillary with an
internal volume of the order of microliters that must either puncture the cell (in pressure
measurements), or touch the tissue (in suction measurements). The sensor contains a properly
treated mineral oil and water, which must be kept at a constant temperature during measurements
(BERTUCCI NETO et al., 2006).

Robotic agricultural spraying plays an extremely important role in both the economic and social
sectors in the world. The system provides precise spraying, real-time collecting information on
position, incidence of diseases and pests, transmitting them to an atomizer or sprayer that regulates
the need for a greater or lesser amount of pesticides. In addition to reducing waste, it improves the
farmer's working conditions, since he will not have contact with highly toxic products that could lead
to health problems and, in the worst case, death (BERTUCCI NETO et al., 2006).

A study carried out in China resulted in the development of a robot for spraying and collecting
information in real time with a variable error of less than 10%. Another robotic system developed
was the control of invasive plants, this system is composed of a digital camera, a computer, a
chemical deposit and a locomotion system, whose efficiency allows saving 90% of applied herbicide
(LIBIN et al., 2008).

3.1 Obstacles and perspectives of agricultural robotics

Robotic systems have not been fully implemented in agriculture, for a number of reasons including:
fragility of machines, costly mechanical technology, work under machine capacity, as well as the
efficiency of work still to be improved and adapted to diverse situation. Also, in an outdoor
environment, it is difficult to spread capital costs across multiple operations because most robots are
designed for a single application, and the need is typically only available in one station ( INAMASU,
2011).

The economic viability of the system is largely determined by the robot's function. Some agricultural
robots are designed for an expensive process such as harvesting, which can represent up to 40% of
the total cost of horticultural production in the United States. A greenhouse inspection robot, instead
of aggregating, protects against losses by allowing a problem to be detected sooner. Most
agricultural production costs are calculated per square meter; thus increasing the efficiency per area
without increasing the size of the cultivated area can be an economical alternative ( OLIVEIRA, 2009).
Second Inamasu (2011), the scope of the research focuses on the individual development of each
robot's project, and not on the needs of agriculture in relation to robots. This condition makes robot
designs not reach the maximum level of quality. Thus, one of the techniques that can be applied is
the analysis from multiple perspectives, enabling a systemic view of the project's strengths and
weaknesses. In this context, eight perspectives that must be addressed in the development process
are considered: security, energy, economy, environment, management, mechanization, technology
and society. With regard to the mobile system itself, they must overcome problems related to the
limitation of computing resources and power, due to restrictions on the mobility of the system.

Recurring to this aspect, the challenge is to design these complex systems with a mobile
configuration with low energy consumption, while maintaining the high computational power
required. A good design depends on a balance between factors such as cost, size, power,
performance and complexity, with the required functions.

Currently, the cost for agricultural robotization is still very high, but as the demand for a technology
increases, its total cost decreases, either by diluting the investment spent on developing the
technology, or by decreasing the cost of large-scale production.

Another point that must be taken into account is the intrinsic resistance existing in this sector on the
part of farmers, regarding changes in the form of management practiced, with the need to
understand that automation is not an immediate solution to a given shortage or problem, but part of
a management process.

3.2 Development of robotic technology

Accordingly Oliveira (2009), until the present stage of technology development, the adoption of
robotics has been mainly stimulated by the evaluation of the economic return, essentially promoted
by the efficiency in the differentiated application of inputs. However, technology must be understood
as an agricultural production system that integrates information within a holistic view of
production. Thus, robotics aims to simultaneously increase efficiency in production management,
learning in agronomic knowledge management and, in the long term, profiting from rural properties
through a gradual minimization of undesirable impacts on the environment and wildlife.

Scientific tests on productive properties estimate a profitability in the use of the technology in the
order of thirty dollars per hectare (US$30.00/ha), when considering the reduction in waste in the
application of fertilizers. Other specific studies indicate net gains in dollars per acre of US$48.25/A in
the use of nitrogen to grow sugar beet; US$5.00/A in the use of limestone for soil fertility correction
purposes; and US$7.00/A in the use of insecticides to fight weeds (INAMASU, 2011).

However, this type of economic benefit is difficult to characterize, since the conversion of monitored
information translated into financial metrics is not always easy to be established. As evidence of this,
a wide variation in annual farm profitability can be seen in the reports of commercial grain farmers
who have invested in precision farming technology over the past ten years. These variations range
from US$11 to US$48 per hectare in the United States, and from US$9 to US$33 per hectare in
regions of Australia (OLIVEIRA, 2009).

In Brazil, several factors suggest a relatively slow and heterogeneous adoption

(LOWENBERG; GRIFFIN, 2006), as is actually happening in the rest of the world. Among the
predominant factors of the limited adoption of technology in the country, the following stand out:
cheap labor, limited number of computers on farms; high import fees for state-of-the-art
equipment; insufficient and unprepared technical support; low market value of agricultural
products; low scale of production on most farms; and the relatively low price of land.
In a simple way, it can be stated that the potential benefits of robotics are the increase in the quantity
and quality of products and the improvement in the management of natural resources, through the
efficient use of inputs. Despite proposing a highly technified solution that is still inaccessible to most
family farming production systems, robotics and precision farming technology basically enhance the
increase in production and energy value of grains, through specific and localized application
management. of inputs. This more efficient management provides a crop yield that tends to reach
the maximum levels of productive capacity in the stands, often increasing the average grain yield
from two and a half tons per hectare (2.5 t/ha) to up to eight ( 8t/ha), in the case of wheat
(INAMASU, 2010).

According to estimates by UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) in 2009, up to 25% of

world food production could be threatened during this century, as a result of water scarcity, more
aggressive and pesticide-resistant pests, and advanced soil degradation. In this sense, a significant
social contribution can be attributed as a consequence of technologies, considering the challenge of
increasing food production in response to the demands of a growing population, a reduction in
environmental degradation and a reduction in accidents in the most dangerous activities ( OLIVEIRA,
2009).

On the other hand, the issue of automation and its impact on the level of employment has recently
been discussed with greater insistence in Brazil. The process of introducing and disseminating this
set of state-of-the-art technologies must be accompanied by structural changes of a socioeconomic
nature, in order to engender the conditions for making the new techniques profitable.

Unlike industries like aerospace, agriculture is a low-margin industry, so it's vital that new robots are
robust and affordable. Agriculture in 20 years' time will be a mix of the traditional and the new, but
the new robots must be smart enough to work with the natural environment to maintain economic
and sustainable competitiveness and the production of high quality food ( EUROBOTICS, 2012).

The multidisciplinarity and technological advances that come to involve new agricultural practices
open the opportunity for the insertion of autonomous systems in the field. This, in turn, should be
interpreted as an aid tool that will compose and enhance the management system and not as an
isolated and immediate solution (INAMASU, 2011).

4 Final considerations
The discussion of new technologies in the rural production process is very incipient, as is the
discussion of what their impact may have on the rural work process. It is known that technological
development, under capitalism, has promoted a significant decrease in the number of rural workers
in the world. And the current technological development is more exclusive for workers.

Machines have changed the farmer's way of life in many places. Today, most farmers and their
employees must know how to operate sophisticated machinery and maintain it. Your job has
become increasingly lonely. That spirit of camaraderie typical of sowing, weeding and harvesting in
groups has ceased to exist.

In many countries, a new type of farmer has emerged: an academically educated businessman
specializing in mass production of a few agricultural products or just one. He invests a lot of
resources in land, facilities and machinery. But it is far from independent. Large food processing
companies and supermarket chains dictate the price, variety, size and color of products. Agronomist
engineers design production systems for him, and specialized companies supply him with the right
types of fertilizer, pesticide and hybrid seed needed for the conditions on his farm. The modern
 farmer has progressed a lot compared to his forebears, but he still faces many challenges and
concerns about the possible harmful effects of certain more intense cultivation techniques.

Technology can make you unemployed, but also, in another social project, it can make work easier
and increase production. Thus, there is a need for hegemonic control of technologies, so that we can
have a society where land, work, technology and its fruits can be socialized.

References

 ASTRAND, B.; BAERVELD, J. An Agricultural Mobile Robot with Vision-Based Perception for

Mechanical Weed Control. Autonomous Robots , Los Angeles, v. 13, no. 3, p. 21-35, 2002.
 BELFORTE, G. et al. Robot Design and Testing for Greenhouse Applications. Biosystems Engineering ,
v. 95, no. 3, p. 309-321, 2006.
 BERTUCCI NETO, Victor et al. Modeling and automation of a thermoelastic probe to measure parameters
related to plant physiology. Research and Development Bulletin , Embrapa Agricultural Instrumentation, São Carlos,
SP, n. 14, Nov. 2006. Available at: <http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/CNPDIA-2009-
09/11849/1/BPD14_2006.pdf>. Accessed on: Oct. 2012.
» http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/CNPDIA-2009-09/11849/1/BPD14_2006.pdf
 BLACKMORE, SM; GRIEPENTRONG, HW Autonomous Vehicles and Robotics. Chapter 7, Section
7.3 Mechatronics and Applications , ASAE CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering, v. 6, p. 204-215, 2006.
 Executive summary:

After more than half a century of development, international trade law has undergone profound changes

in both its adjustment targets and its adjustment methods. The emergence of a large number of treaties

that adjust international trade norms and the formation of the multilateral trading system within the

framework of the WTO are forcing us to think about how to build a new discipline system of international

trade law. Separating the world trade law from the traditional disciplines of international trade law is

precisely a hypothesis based on the above-mentioned thinking. Area points of international trade law

and the World Trade significance is clear both objects and their different adjustment adjustment

means. This distinction is not only conducive to the development of world trade law, but also conducive

to the restoration of international trade law to its true colors.

Key words:

International Trade World Trade Shimituofu Jackson        

                         

   A preface

   

International trade law and world trade law are two related and different discipline
concepts. The former is formed on the 1940s marked by a British scholar
Cliff · Shimituofu ( Clive M. Schmitthoff ) of the book "International Trade Law and
Practice" at The Law and Practice of International's Trade's [1] came out. The latter are formed
in the late 1980s, marked by the American scholar John · Jackson ( John H. Jackson )
book "The world trading system" at The World Trading System  [2] published. After decades
of development, international trade law has established its own disciplinary definition
and scope of adjustment. At present, international trade law has become one of the main
courses of international economic law in civil law and common law schools in many
countries. In contrast, as an emerging discipline, World Trade Law requires a
development process for the establishment of its definition and the division of the scope
of adjustment. This article starts with the connection and difference between
international trade law and world trade law, gives an overview of the formation and
development of these two disciplines, and looks forward to their future development
direction.

                    2. Definition and scope of international trade law and world trade law

    Although there are multiple versions of the definition of international trade law,
the basic content is similar. Domestic textbooks such as "International Trade Law"
edited by Wang Chuanli consider it to "adjust the exchange of goods, technologies, and
services between countries, as well as the sum of various legal systems and legal norms
related to this relationship. Including international conventions, international
Commercial practices and the laws, systems, decrees and regulations of various countries
related to foreign trade". [3] Schmitoff wrote at the beginning of his "International
Trade Law and Practice": "International trade involves the export of goods and services
from one country to another. This type of transaction is usually called an export
transaction. And it is divided into two types, namely transactions based on international
goods sales contracts and transactions that provide services to other countries, such as
construction and installation of projects." [4] Judging from these definitions, the
objects of international trade law adjustments are various legal relationships formed in
goods transactions and service trades in two or more countries and regions. Since
international trade involves cargo transportation, cargo insurance, bank settlement,
etc., the objects of international trade law adjustments also include various legal
relationships between buyers and sellers, transporters, insurers, and banks.

    The emergence of international trade law has led to the formation of two branches
of traditional commercial law, namely, the law that regulates the sale of domestic goods
and the law that regulates the sale of international goods. The laws that regulate the
international sale of goods are firstly derived from some trading habits of domestic
law. However, international trade law soon formed a legal system that was different from
domestic law. Domestic laws are rooted in the legal culture of each country, so they are
somewhat marked by the political ideology of some countries. The international trade law
is composed of many technical clauses. Relatively speaking, its political ideology is
lighter. Therefore, it is easier to reach consensus among various countries. On the
basis of this consensus, numerous international treaties regulating international trade
norms have been produced. It is also on the basis of this consensus that another way for
the formation of international trade law is to unify the original commercial laws of
various countries. In addition, many long-standing trade terms also play an important
role in international trade exchanges. All these together constitute the legal source of
international trade law.

   The source of law determines the legal characteristics of international trade

law. After more than half a century of development, international trade law has become a
meeting point of public law and private law, domestic law and international law. The
second half of the twentieth century witnessed the rapid development of international
trade, and at the same time witnessed the development of international trade law from the
rise to the gradual improvement. Nowadays, the adjustment object of international trade
law has extended from the traditional trade in goods and services to the protection of
intellectual property rights. The changes in communication and transportation methods,
the emergence of e-commerce and paperless trade, are challenging the traditional methods
of international trade, and at the same time, they have also raised new legislative
issues for the makers of international trade laws. The treaties formulated by many
international organizations, as well as many laws and regulations formulated by the
legislative bodies and governments of various countries, directly or indirectly affect
the development of international trade. This kind of government intervention is quietly
changing the private law characteristics of traditional international trade law. At the
same time, in order to avoid transaction risks and reduce transaction costs, many non-
governmental organizations, especially many international commercial organizations, have
formulated many new trade terms and established many industry arbitration
institutions. Borrowing the views of some scholars, international trade law has entered
a "post-modernization period." [5]

    In sharp contrast with international trade law, world trade law is showing an
ascendant development momentum. This discipline achieved a qualitative leap when the
World Trade Organization was established in 1995 . Regarding the relationship between
international trade law and world trade law, there are currently two main
viewpoints. The first view is to incorporate world trade law into international trade
law as an integral part of it. As Michael J. Trebilcock and Robert Howse editor at The
International's Regulation of Trade's (second edition) [6] and Wang Chuanli editor of the
"International Trade Law." [7] The second view is to classify the world trade law as an
independent system. Scholars holding this view should first recommend John Jackson. He
published a series of books, such as The World Trading System mentioned above ,
and The World Trade Organisation---Constitution and Jurisprudence  [8] and The
Jurisprudence of GATT and the WTO , [9] for the discipline of World Trade Law The
establishment of lay a solid foundation. "The World Trade Organization" co-authored by
Cao Jianming and He Xiaoyong is also a book dedicated to introducing the legal mechanism
of the World Trade Organization. Another point of view is to incorporate the WTO dispute
settlement mechanism into the chapter on international trade dispute
settlement, [10] Submitting trade disputes to the WTO for settlement is one of the ways
to resolve international trade disputes.

Of the world trade law is an emerging discipline is on the rise, at present, has not
been formed to define and adjust a range of widely accepted about the world trade
law. In many of his books, Jackson has incisively discussed the legal mechanisms of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the WTO, as well as the impact of the
documents formulated by these two organizations on international trade. However,
Jackson’s article analyzes the legal mechanisms of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade and the WTO from a technical perspective, and all analyses are carried out within
these two legal frameworks. Therefore, to be precise, what Jackson did was research on
the legal mechanism of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade
Organization, which is different from the concept of world trade law discussed in this
article. The author believes that the World Trade Law is based on the laws of the World
Trade Organization, but it is not limited to the laws enacted by the World Trade
Organization. The World Trade Law refers to the sum of all laws and regulations that
adjust government departments to manage import and export trade. Specifically, it
includes the following aspects: First, the international treaties related to import and
export trade management formulated by inter-governmental organizations (inter-governmental
organisations) , these treaties involve commodity import and export management systems,
customs supervision systems , Foreign exchange management system, commodity inspection
system, and international legislation related to anti-dumping and countervailing. Among
these treaties, there are both those formulated by the WTO and other international
organizations. It should be pointed out that these international treaties are different
from the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law ( Unidroit ), the United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law ( UNCITRAL ) and some non-governmental
organizations ( non-governmental organisations)The treaties made, because these treaties are
more about adjusting the code of conduct between the parties to international trade, and
do not involve the code of conduct of government departments. Many such treaties often
contain content for the parties to choose arbitrarily. For example, the Commercial
Arbitration Regulations formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce. Second,
some basic principles of international law, such as the principle of sovereign
independence and the principle of equality of nations. These basic principles of
international law are generally used as guidelines for the adjustment of relations
between countries, including economic and trade relations, as well as the legal basis for
the formulation of treaties within various international organizations. Third,
international customs. International custom is gradually formed in the exchanges between
countries, and it is also one of the sources of modern international law. Many
international treaties are developed and formed on the basis of some international
customs. Broadly speaking, the trade terms in international trade law also belong to
international customs. International customs are not immutable, they will develop with
the development of the times. In addition, the doctrines of some jurists and the rulings
made by dispute settlement agencies can also be included in the scope of world trade
law. However, they are not mandatory, and their legal status is not as good as
international treaties, international principles and international customs.     

         3. The contribution of Schmitoff and Jackson and the significance of dividing

international trade law and world trade law

     

    When it comes to international trade law and world trade law, it is necessary to
mention two scholars Schmitoff and Jackson. Because their contributions to the formation
and development of international trade law and world trade law are unmatched by any other
scholar in these two fields. Shimituofu 1903 was born in Germany, however, since
the 20 century 30 early years until 1990 his death, his life most of the time is
spent in the UK. Schmitoff has a wide range of research fields, but his greatest
contribution is still in the two areas of conflict law and international trade law. He
participated in the preparation of Palmer version of "Business Law" ( Palmer  ' S
Company Law ) up to 31 years. 1957 , he founded the "Journal of Business
Law" ( Journal of Business Law ) , and served as editor until 1989 years. His
published books include " The Sale of Goods ", " The English Conflicts of Laws "
( The English Conflicts of Laws ), " Legal Aspects of Export Sales " ( Legal
Aspects of Export Sales ), and his achievements. The masterpiece "Export Trade"
( Schmitthoff  's Export Trade ). Since its publication in 1948 , Schmitoff’s
"Export Trade" has been published in ten editions until 2000 , of which the seventh
edition was translated into Chinese in 1985 .

    "Export Trade" is the first book to systematically introduce the legal system
of international trade. Its advent marked the establishment of the discipline of
international trade law. Before this, the adjustment of international trade mainly
relied on the commercial laws of various countries. Although, the publication of "Export
Trade" has its specific historical background. At that time, the Second World War had
just ended, and international trade was in a new stage of development. The establishment
of the Bretton Woods ( the Bretton Woods ) [11] system objectively requires
international trade to develop along the track of legalization. However, the publication
of the book "Export Trade" relies on Schmitov's long-term accumulation of knowledge and
sharp insight in this field. It is no exaggeration to say that the various editions of
international trade law textbooks published since then have been directly or indirectly
affected by Schmitov's "Export Trade". After more than half a century of changes,
international trade has undergone great changes in both its content and form. After the
tenth edition of the revision, "Export Trade" has also developed from the original
introduction of goods sales contracts, goods transportation contracts, goods insurance
and bank payments, and other basic contents of international trade, to include e-
commerce, the latest trading and settlement method. The tenth edition of "Export Trade"
has 33 chapters, including ten parts. The first part is about international sale of
goods ( The International Sale of Goods ), the second part is about bank settlement
( Finance of Exports ), the third part is about transportation of goods
( Transportation of Exports ), and the fourth part is about cargo transportation
insurance. ( Insurance of Goods in Transit ), the fifth part is about the settlement of
international commercial disputes ( International Commercial Dispute Resolution), the
sixth part is about construction and long-term contracts ( Construction and Long Term
Contracts ), the seventh part is about Customs Law (Customs Law ), the eighth part is
about overseas marketing agencies ( Marketing Organisations Abroad ), the ninth part
with regard to market information ( market information ), part X is related to trade
standardized terminology, unified international trade law and e-commerce
( standardization, unification, Electronic Commerce and EDI ). This is by far the most
comprehensive textbook on international trade law. Another important contribution of
Schmitoff was the establishment of The Centre for Commercial Law ( The Centre for
Commercial Law ) at Queen Mary College, London University in 1980 , together with
Professor Roy Goode . Studies ) and introduce international trade law into graduate
courses. Today, the Business Law Research Center of Queen Mary's College has become an
influential international trade law research center in the UK and even the world. [12]

    Compared with Schmitoff, Jackson , born in 1932 , can be regarded as a

rising star. However, Jackson's contribution to world trade law is no less than that of
Schmitov's contribution to international trade law. In 2000 , to commemorate the 30th
anniversary of the publication of Professor Jackson’s pioneering work " World Trade
and the Law of GATT " ( World Trade and the Law of GATT ), [13] World Trade Law
experts and scholars from all over the world gathered in the United States , Discussed
Jackson's thoughts and its influence on world trade law, and published a collection of
papers. [14] In the field of world trade law, apart from Jackson, no second person can
enjoy such an honor. As early as before the establishment of the World Trade
Organization, Jackson had proposed that the means of resolving trade disputes between
governments had transitioned from power-orientation to rule-orientation . [15] If
we put this point of view in a specific historical period at that time, it is not
difficult to understand how important this change is to world trade. The predecessor of
the WTO was the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, an essential difference
between the GATT and the WTO is that the former is not an international
organization. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade is an institution based on a
trade agreement, and it does not have the legal personality of an international
organization. Therefore, it is impossible for the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
to formulate mandatory and binding dispute settlement regulations. This also led to the
settlement of many disputes in the early stages of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade with uncertainty or even inability to resolve them. It wasn't until the later
period of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade that this situation
changed. Because more and more countries realize that in today’s world, people live in
an interdependent world ( interdependent world).), only by cooperating with each other
can we achieve a win-win result of common development. This change of concept laid the
ideological foundation for the establishment of a unified trade and dispute settlement
mechanism by the WTO. Jackson's view that dispute settlement in the WTO is based on the
rule of law was particularly prominent in his controversy with Judith H.
Bello . [16] Jackson compared the " Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade
Organisation " to a document with "constitutional" status in the legal system of the
World Trade Organization . [17] Its relationship with other WTO multilateral trade
agreements It is the relationship between the Basic Law and the Common Law, which
together constitute an organic legal system. The Georgetown University Law
Center, where Jackson is currently located, is one of the most authoritative research
institutions in the world to study the legal mechanism of the WTO. Many scholars in our
country have received training here. . [18]

The significance of distinguishing between international trade law and world trade
law is to highlight that the former focuses on adjusting the behavioral norms of direct
participants in international trade, while the latter emphasizes the importance of
unifying governments' foreign trade management policies. Therefore, international trade
law more reflects the "private law" side of the law, while the world trade law more
reflects the "public law" side of the law. However, this division is not absolute. Even
Schmitoff's "Export Trade" also includes the government's management of foreign
trade. [19] It is precisely because the traditional theory of international trade law
incorporates government management of foreign trade into it, many international
organizations, especially the World Trade Organization, have formulated a large number of
legal documents that regulate government management of foreign trade, so that those who
are accustomed to People who have incorporated all policies and laws related to
international trade into international trade law feel that the international trade law
system has now become larger and larger. Therefore, it is necessary to separate the
world trade law from the traditional international trade law system.

One of the main criteria that distinguishes international trade law and world trade
law is the "public" and "private" nature of the law. The divided international trade law
mainly involves goods sales contracts, goods transportation contracts, goods
transportation insurance contracts, bank settlement, commercial arbitration and other
aspects. [20]  Most of the laws regulating this aspect are determined by the
principles of private international law. For example, 1991 Nian 4 Yue 1 with
effect from the date Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations
provisions of Article III, to determine the law applicable to the contract, select the
main basis for the contract parties. This embodies the principle of "autonomy of will"
in traditional commercial law. In the case where both parties have unclear intentions,
Article 4, Paragraph 1 stipulates that the law of the country that has the closest
connection to the contract shall be selected. However, which country is most closely
related to the contract requires the use of private international law theory to
determine. Therefore, international trade law is closely related to conflict of laws.

In sharp contrast with international trade law, many international treaties contained
in world trade law are generally binding on contracting states. The "Treaty Must Obey"
( pacta sunt severnda ) principle established in Article 26 of the Convention on the
Law of Treaties of Vienna is applicable to all intergovernmental treaties. [21] This
is particularly evident in the laws formulated by the World Trade Organization. What the
WTO promotes is a "package" policy, that is, all members joining the WTO must accept the
various multilateral trade agreements signed in the Uruguay Round of
negotiations. [22] At the same time, Article 16, paragraph 4 of the WTO
Agreement requires that the trade policies, laws and regulations formulated by WTO
member states must be consistent with their commitments when they joined the
WTO. . [23] Compared with many other international organizations, the WTO has a
distinctive feature that the decisions made by the WTO Dispute Settlement Body have
compulsory binding force on both parties to the dispute. [24] In the context of the
gradual integration of the global economy, the establishment of the WTO legal mechanism
will have a profound impact on the formation of the world trade law system and even the
entire international law legislation.

                      4. Development direction of international trade law and world trade law

    In the tenth edition of "Export Trade", Chapter 32 of the tenth part is devoted
to the two major contents: the standardization of international trade terms and the
unification of national goods sales laws. At present, the harmonisation of
international trade law (harmonisation of international trade law ) is mainly carried
out by some international organizations. These international organizations include not
only some intergovernmental international organizations, such as the aforementioned
International Association for the Unification of Private Law and the United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law, but also some non-governmental organizations, such
as the International Chamber of Commerce. The most influential intergovernmental
organization in the unification of international trade law is the "United Nations
Commission on International Trade Law." The agency was established in 1966 , [25]
a total of 36 member states. [26] The purpose of the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law is to promote the unification of international trade law. The
secretariat of the agency is located in Vienna.

    The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law will publish the
rules of international trade law that have been unified by the agency each year in the
annual journal of that year. So far, the agency issued legal documents including the
"United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods" ( at The United Nations
Convention Contracts for ON at The International's Sale of Goods ), [27] "United
Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and credit witness" ( at The United
Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of
Credit , [28] " United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978  ",
referred to as "Hamburg Rules" ( Hamburg Rules ) . [29] In addition, the United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law Model Law also developed a number ( Model
LAW ) as a reference for countries in the formulation of domestic law. These model laws
include the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration  , the UNCITRAL
Model Law on Procurement of Goods , and the E-Commerce Model Law ( UNCITRAL Model
Law on International Commercial Arbitration ).UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic
Commerce , UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency , and United Nations Model
Law on International Credit Transfers . Atthe "Schmitoff Symposium"
heldin 2000 ,Dr.Gerold Herrmann, then Secretary of the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law, put forward an ambitious plan, that is, by 2010 , the
Hague The Hague Convention Center ( the Hague Convention Center ) will propose a plan
tounify the commercial laws of various countries. By 2020 , the work of unifying the
commercial laws of various countries will finally be completed to realize the ideals of
Professor Schmitov during his lifetime. [30] Although the eventual realization of this
plan depends on time to prove, but the gradual unification of international trade law is
the general trend.

    In unifying international trade laws and regulations, the role of the

International Chamber of Commerce ( ICC ) cannot be underestimated. Unlike the United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law, the International Chamber of Commerce is a
non-governmental organization. The legal documents formulated by the International
Chamber of Commerce that have a relatively large impact on international trade include
" International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms " ( also known
as Incoterms ), [31] "Uniform Customs and Practices Concerning Letters of Credit"
( Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits  , Uniform Rules for
Collections , [32] and ICC Rules of Conciliation and Abitration . [33] In
addition, the International Chamber of Commerce and the United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) jointly formulated the "Multimodal Transport Rules"
to cater to the increasingly changing transportation methods of international trade.

    While the international trade law is gradually becoming unified, the world
trade law represented by the law of the World Trade Organization is also infiltrating
into many fields. The Uruguay Round of trade negotiations not only incorporated
agricultural products trade and textile trade, which had long been outside the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, into the WTO’s management system, but also broke through
the traditional trade field and transformed WTO’s management into investment , service
trade and trade. Extension of trade-related intellectual property protection and other
fields. Since the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations,
whether to incorporate environmental protection and labor standards into the WTO's
management system has been the focus of debate among many people, and related papers and
monographs are not uncommon. Labor standards are not a new topic. The International
Trade Organisation ( International Trade Organisation ), which was initially prepared
to be established together with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, was
still dead and was replaced by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade . There are
provisions on labor standards in its charter ( Havana Charter ). . During the GATT’s
existence, labor standards did not attract much attention, because at that time, with the
exception of a small number of newly industrialised countries ( newly industrialised
countries ), the vast majority of developing countries did not account for much of
international trade. It does not pose a threat to the export trade of developed
countries. However, in recent years, the traditional industries in many developed
countries have been shrinking day by day, and the number of unemployed in these fields
has been increasing. This has made people start to point their fingers at the vast number
of developing countries, thinking that developing countries use much lower labor
standards than developed countries to produce the same product. , This is unfair
competition. Compared with labor standards, environmental protection is a completely new
topic. For the first time, the "WTO Agreement" made "sustainable development" one of the
goals of the WTO's future development, making people start to pay attention to
environmental protection while developing trade. The several trade disputes tried by the
WTO Dispute Settlement Body have pushed people with two different opinions to the
forefront. [34] Although labor standards and environmental protection are not the
topics discussed in this article, the WTO did not include them in the next round of
multilateral trade negotiations. [35] Explains that the WTO’s management will be
extended to these two areas. The timing is not yet ripe.

    While expounding the future trends of international trade law and world trade
law, there are two issues that need attention. First, legal unification is not a panacea
for solving many problems in international trade. Although many rules of international
trade are formulated by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law, the use
of these rules is not mandatory for members of the United Nations. In order to prevent
these uniform laws from becoming too specific and rigid in their implementation, some of
the provisions have been made more flexible. For example, according to the "United
Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods", the place of
business of the parties to an international contract for the sale of goods must be in two
different contracting states. If there is no place of business, the parties’ residences
are in two different contracting states. When either the business place of one of the
parties or the business place of both parties are not in the territory of the contracting
states, the rules of private international law need to be used to derive whether the
convention applies to the contract between the parties. This easily leads to uncertainty
in the application of the law. When our country joined the Convention, it made
reservations to this method of expanding the scope of application. According to my
country's judicial practice, the applicable law of the contract refers to the country's
substantive law, excluding the conflict of laws, so as to ensure the certainty of the
application of the law. [36] Second, the legislation of the World Trade Organization
has a trend of continuous expansion, which easily leads to conflicts with the principle
of sovereign independence in international law. The laws formulated by each country are
closely related to the specific national conditions of that country. Different levels of
economic development and differences in cultural traditions determine the diversity of
laws in various countries around the world. If we use economic globalization as an
excuse to pursue the globalization of law, this will naturally be resisted by many
countries. The recent controversy over linking trade with human rights reflects this
problem. [37] Therefore, how to define the functions of the WTO and the scope of the
world trade law requires continuous exploration.

                                 Five summary

    Although the international trade law and the world trade law have different
adjustment targets, the management of international trade has the same effect, that is,
both are aimed at the development of international trade in the direction of
standardization and legalization. Separating the world trade law from the traditional
international trade law is conducive to distinguishing the respective roles of countries
and individuals (including legal persons) in international trade. Of course, this
division is not absolute, nor is it unique. As the rules for adjusting international
trade continue to become unified, people's understanding of international trade law will
also continue to deepen. At the same time, the definition of international trade law and
world trade law will become more scientific and reasonable.     

 
international trade
The study  "Doing Business"  appreciates the time and cost to the
organization and provision of export and import goods. "Doing
Business" measures the time and financial costs (excluding duties) when
going through the three stages required for the export or import of a
consignment of goods: compliance with paperwork requirements, compliance
with border and customs control requirements, and transportation of goods
within the country. The ranking of countries according to the degree of ease of
doing international trade is determined by sorting the scores for the indicator
"International Trade". For each country, this score is the arithmetic mean
calculated from the sum of the values for the indicators of time and financial
costs for compliance with the requirements for paperwork and the
requirements of border and customs control in the implementation of export-
import operations.

The Doing Business study   also records the time and expense involved in

transporting goods domestically. These data are published but are not
included in the calculation of the overall indicator for the indicator
“International trade” and the ranking of the degree of ease of doing
international trade. The main reason is that the transportation of goods within
the country depends on many external factors (for example, the geography
and topography of the territory, the throughput of highways and general
infrastructure, the distance to the nearest port or border, the location of
warehouses for storing goods), which do not directly depend on the country's
trade policy and foreign trade reforms.
Data collection on international trade is carried out through surveys conducted
among freight forwarding companies, customs brokers, port authorities and
traders.

If in a country private business does not officially carry out international trade
on a large scale as a result of trade restrictions imposed by the government of
the country, armed conflicts or natural disasters, then such a country is
considered a country where there is "no practice" and the country receives 0
points on all indicators of international trade.

Initial assumptions

In order to ensure the possibility of comparison of data for different countries,

in relation to goods of export and import and foreign trade transactions, the
following assumptions are taken into account:

 For each of the 190 countries measured in  Doing Business  , the

consignment is assumed to be in a warehouse in the largest economic
center of the exporting country and transported to a warehouse in the
largest economic center in the importing country. In 11 countries, data are
also collected for the second largest economic center (using the same
assumptions).

 When evaluating import and export transactions, different supply goods

are considered. Each country is expected to import in containers a
standardized consignment of auto parts (GS 8708) weighing 15 metric tons
from the country that is its largest import partner, i.e. from the country from
which the largest volume of spare parts is imported (price multiplied by
quantity). Each country is assumed to export the product with the greatest
competitive advantage (i.e., the one with the highest export value) to the
country that is the largest export partner (i.e., to the country that is the main
 buyer of the given product). goods). At the same time, precious metals and
stones, fossil fuels, oil products, animals, food waste and medicines are
excluded from the list of possible goods for export. In this way,i 

 The unit of trade is a consignment of goods. Export shipments are not

necessarily shipped in containers, but import shipments of parts are
assumed to be shipped in containers.

 If government fees are determined depending on the cost of the party,

then this cost is set at 50 thousand US dollars.

 The product is new and not used.

 The exporting company / importing company hires and pays for the
services of a freight forwarder and / or customs broker, and also pays all
costs associated with the internal transportation of goods, customs
clearance and mandatory checks by customs and other authorities, loading
and unloading operations and cargo handling in ports and at the border,
and also pays fees for paperwork, etc.

 It is assumed that the most widely used mode of transport is used for
the transport of the selected export or import product, and which is also
used by the trading partner. Similarly, the choice of a seaport or a land
border crossing point is carried out.

 All information provided in electronic form at the request of any

government agency in connection with this consignment of goods are
considered documents received, prepared and presented in the process of
export or import.
 A port or border is a checkpoint (seaport or land border crossing point)
through which goods can be brought into a country or taken out of a
country.

 Competent government agencies that are considered are those such as

customs, port authorities, traffic police, border guards, standardization
agencies, ministries and departments of agriculture or industry, national
security agencies, central banks and other government agencies.

Time

Time is measured in hours, with 1 day equal to 24 hours (for example, 22

days is calculated as 22 × 24 = 528 hours). Thus, if customs clearance takes
7.5 hours, this data is accounted for accordingly. If the documents submitted
to the customs authority at 8 a.m. are processed by the next day and can be
received at 8 a.m. the next day, then it is considered that customs clearance
took 24 hours, since in fact the clearance procedure took 24 hours.

The cost

The total cost does not include insurance costs and unofficial payments that
are not supported by receipts. The cost is estimated in US dollars. When
submitting data, respondents convert local currency amounts to US dollars at
the prevailing currency exchange rate on the day of the survey. The
respondents are experts from private enterprises in the organization of
international trade, and they have information on the exchange rate and its
fluctuations.

Paperwork

Paperwork covers the time and financial costs required to comply with
paperwork requirements. This takes into account the requirements of all
government agencies of the country of origin of goods, the country of
destination of goods and all countries of transit. This approach allows you to
take into account the entire burden associated with the preparation of a
package of documents for the implementation of a foreign trade operation,
taking into account the goods and trading partner considered in the study. For
example, when transporting goods from Mumbai to New York, the freight
forwarder is required to prepare and submit documents to the Indian customs
authorities, the port authority in Mumbai and the customs authorities in the
United States of America.

Time and financial costs for paperwork include costs associated with obtaining
documents (for example, the time to receive and certify a document with a
seal), preparation of documents (for example, the time to collect information to
fill out a customs declaration or certificate of origin of goods), processing of
documents (for example, waiting for the issuance of a phytosanitary certificate
by authorized bodies), the presentation of documents (for example, the time
for the port administration to present a receipt from the port terminal), as well
as the provision of documents (for example, the time of submission of the
customs declaration to the customs authority - in person or in electronic form).

All information provided in electronic or paper form at the request of any

government agency in connection with this consignment of goods are
considered documents received, prepared and presented in the process of
export or import. All documents prepared by the freight forwarder or customs
broker for the type of goods and trading partner considered in the study are
taken into account, regardless of whether these documents are subject to
provision in accordance with the requirements of the law or in accordance with
established practice. When assessing the time and financial costs for the
preparation of the necessary documents, any documents prepared and
submitted for the purpose of applying the preferential treatment (for example,
a certificate of origin) are taken into account. Any documents prepared and
submitted based on expectation are also taken into account.

In addition, when assessing time and cost, any documents that are subject to
mandatory registration when exporting and importing goods are taken into
account. However, documents drawn up only once are not taken into
account. In the study,  "Doing Business",  are not taken into account the cost
of registration of documents, which are necessary for the production and sale
of goods in the internal market, for example, on the observance of safety
standards certificates which may be required for the sale of toys in the internal
market. The exceptions are cases when such documents must be presented
to state authorities when carrying out export deliveries.

Border and customs control

When assessing the time and financial costs for compliance with the
requirements of border and customs control, the costs of compliance with the
customs procedures in force in the country and various inspections, which are
mandatory before issuing a permit for the transport of goods across the
border, are taken into account, as well as the time and financial costs for
handling of goods at the port or at the border. This indicator covers the time
and financial costs during customs clearance and during the inspection of
goods by other authorities. For example, this category includes the time and
cost of passing a phytosanitary inspection.

Calculations of time and financial costs for compliance with the requirements
of border and customs control depend on where these procedures are carried
out, who requires them and who conducts them. The likelihood of searches
and inspections is also taken into account. If all customs clearance
procedures and other checks are carried out at the port or at the border at the
same time, then the time costs are estimated when the simultaneity of such
procedures is taken into account. It is quite possible that the time and financial
costs for compliance with the requirements of border and customs control will
be insignificant or even zero, which is typical for trade between countries
belonging to the EU or other customs unions.

If all or some of the customs inspections and other checks are carried out
elsewhere, then the time and cost of these procedures is added to the time
and cost of procedures at the port or at the border. For example, in
Kazakhstan, all customs clearance and inspection procedures are carried out
in Almaty. Since Almaty is not located on the land border between Kazakhstan
and China, the time to comply with the requirements of border and customs
control consists of the time to complete procedures at the terminal in Almaty
and the time to process goods directly at the border.

During the  Doing Business survey ,  respondents estimate the time and cost

of customs clearance, screening and inspections, ie. document checks and
physical examination of goods in order to calculate the amount of customs
duties after confirming the classification and quantity of goods, determining
the country of origin and checking the reliability of other information specified
in the customs declaration. (This category also includes all checks to prevent
smuggling in and out of goods). Such clearance and verification procedures
are performed in most cases and are considered “standard”. The time and
cost of customs procedures reflect the efficiency of a country's customs
authorities.

In addition, as part of  the Doing Business survey ,  respondents estimate the

total time and cost of clearance, screening and inspections by customs and all
other authorities in relation to a given consignment. These assessments cover
procedures related to checking compliance with current medical requirements,
safety requirements, phytosanitary standards, compliance requirements, etc.
This allows you to take into account the effectiveness of the work of bodies
that require and directly conduct additional checks.

If inspections by non-customs authorities are carried out in no more than 20%

of cases, then only the clearance procedures and inspections carried out by
customs authorities are taken into account in calculating the time and financial
costs for compliance with border and customs control procedures (i.e.,
“standard »Procedures). If inspections by non-customs authorities are carried
out in more than 20% of cases, then the assessment of time and cost covers
all inspections and clearance procedures carried out by all
authorities. Different inspections can have different degrees of probability: for
example, scanning in a country is carried out in 100% of cases, and physical
inspection of goods only in 5% of cases. In a similar situation, the Doing
Business study  only takes into account the time to scan, as scanning occurs
in more than 20% of cases, while physical searches occur less
frequently. Time and financial costs for compliance with border and customs
control requirements of one country do not include the time and financial costs
for compliance with border and customs control requirements of any other
country.

Domestic transportation of goods

The time and financial cost of transporting goods within a country covers the
cost of transporting a consignment from a warehouse in the largest economic
center of the country to the most commonly used seaport or land border
crossing. For 11 countries, data are also collected for the country's second
largest economic center. This takes into account the time (and financial) costs
directly for the transportation of goods, delays on the way, inspections by
representatives of the traffic police, as well as the time for loading and
unloading operations at a warehouse or at the border. If a country has access
to the sea and exports goods by sea, then in calculating the time and cost of
transporting goods within the country, the time and financial costs are taken
into account from the moment the consignment is loaded at the warehouse
until it is delivered to the port of the country. For the country

Time and cost estimates are calculated based on the most frequently used
modes of transport (road, rail) and transportation routes (highways, ports,
border crossing points) indicated by the respondents. The calculation of the
time and cost of transportation of goods is based on the types of transport and
routes indicated by the majority of respondents. For the 11 countries for which
the data for the two largest economic centers are considered, a discrepancy is
allowed for the most frequently used routes and modes of transport for the two
cities. For example, export goods from Delhi are transported by rail to the port
of Mundra, while from Mumbai by road to the port of Nava Sheva.

As noted, when evaluating export transactions, goods are not necessarily

shipped in containers, so time and cost calculations for goods transportation
may be based on transporting 15 tonnes of non-containerized goods. When
evaluating imports, it is assumed that auto parts are delivered in containers. In
cases of containerized cargo transportation, calculations of time and financial
costs for the transportation of goods and for other procedures are made for a
batch of homogeneous goods designated by the same code according to the
Harmonized System of Description and Coding of Goods (HS code). This
assumption is of particular importance for the assessment of the checks
carried out because checks of homogeneous consignments are often carried
out less frequently and take less time than checks of consignments of goods
with different HS codes.

In some cases, a consignment of goods is delivered from a warehouse to a

customs post or terminal for clearance and verification, and then sent to the
border or port. In such cases, the time and financial costs of transportation are
comprised of the costs of both transportation segments. Time and financial
costs for clearance and inspection are taken into account when assessing the
time and cost of compliance with border and customs control requirements,
but are not taken into account in calculating the time and cost of transporting
goods within the country.

REFORMS

The International Trade indicators annually reflect the time and cost
associated with logistics when exporting and importing goods. Depending on
the nature of the data, certain changes are classified as reforms. To mark the
introduction of significant changes, such reforms are being included in the
Doing Business Reform Briefs 2018/2019 section. Reforms fall into two
categories - those that make it easier to do business and those that make it
harder. The International Trade indicators use a standard criterion for
classifying change as reform.

To determine the impact of changes on the data, the change in international

trade indicator scores relative to best practices is assessed. Any change in
data that changes the difference between best practice and a country's score
by 2% or more is classified as reform - unless such change is caused by
automatic indexation of government fees based on price index or wage index
(for more details, see chapter "Description of the methodology for calculating
the rating and indicators of the ease of doing business"). For example, if the
implementation of a single window reduces time or cost in such a way that the
cumulative difference between good practice and a country's international
trade score is reduced by 2% or more, then that change is classified as
reform.

The assessment of the impact of changes on data depends on the absolute

change in the overall indicator score, as well as on the relative difference
between best practice and country scores. Any data update that increases the
overall score by 0.5 or more, or changes the difference between best practice
and the country's score by 2% or more, is classified as reform, unless such a
result is due to the official automatic indexation of government duties or an
update of the indexation of wages ( for more details, see the chapter
“Description of the methodology for calculating the rating and the ease of
doing business indicators”). For example, if the implementation of a single
window reduces the time and number of procedures in such a way that the
total score increases by 0.5 or more, and if the difference between best
practice and a country's score is reduced by 2% or more, such a change is
classified as reform. Minor changes in fees or other small changes in indicator
scores that cumulatively change the overall score by less than 0.5 or less than
2% difference from best practice are not classified as reforms, but such
changes are still reflected in the updated data...

Detailed data on international trade for each country is available at

http://www.doingbusiness.org. This methodology was originally developed by
Djankov et al. (2008) and revised in 2015.

 ________________________________________
To identify trading partners and exports of each economy, the study collected
i 

data on commodity flows over the past 4 years from international databases,
in particular from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database
(UN Comtrade; in English: UN Comtrade). To identify exported goods and
major trading partners for economies for which trade flow data were not
available in international databases, data from subsidiary sources (various
ministries and agencies) and local offices of the World Bank Group were
used.

 
The most prominent features of globalization are manifested in the enhancement of trade liberalization, the
improvement of the investment system, and the sounder operation of the international financial system. If one
of the main targets of the September 11 incident is the capitalist "face" of the US system, the resulting shock to
finance, banking, insurance, and other related global industries will have a serious impact on this system.

　　As an international organization, the WTO finds itself in a dilemma: on the one hand, industrialized
countries force it to pay attention to trade liberalization and seek to include new issues in negotiations; on the
other hand, various organizations require it to take measures on human rights issues. Act decisively. Of course,
developing countries and underdeveloped countries also oppose the WTO’s more comprehensive treatment of
human rights issues. The key is how to coordinate these competing interests while ensuring that the WTO
plays an essential role in promoting global development.

　　The WTO’s limited areas of activity (ie, trade law) "...does not mean that the WTO Agreement exists in a
closed system and has nothing to do with general international law and human rights law. On the contrary,
countries must implement them in good faith. All obligations, including human rights and WTO obligations.”
48 In this regard, the Doha Drug Access Agreement is often cited as an example of reconciling trade
liberalization issues through the human rights “prism”. If a similar creative and well-intentioned interpretation
of other provisions of the international trading system is made, it can also produce more positive results. As
Caroline Dommen pointed out, "...If a conflict between WTO rules and human rights provisions is referred to
the dispute settlement mechanism, the dispute settlement mechanism must explicitly consider international
human rights law."

　　Some people say that the WTO actually permeates the concerns of human rights law. This statement needs
further clarification and explanation. Although the so-called human rights considerations do enter the
negotiation and dispute settlement mechanisms, they are not necessarily systematic or conscious actions, nor
are the mechanisms involved to ensure that human rights issues are taken for granted. This is how the verdict
on the "beef hormone" and "asbestos" disputes that have a serious impact on human rights emerged. In this
regard, the Doha process is an exception, and factors other than legal provisions have received serious
attention within the framework of the WTO. A major feature of the Doha Conference is the active participation
of actors outside the state, coupled with issues of interest. Regrettably, it is difficult for these actors to secure a
place in negotiations or dispute settlement mechanisms. This issue of interest also did not mobilize the same
enthusiasm and action as the issue of access to medicines. In addition, if there is a process of tolerance and
concern for human rights, and a member with the supreme power will also obliterate it, then it is obvious that
greater efforts need to be made to ensure that international law, especially human rights, is firmly established
within the framework of the WTO. status. Currently, there is no guarantee that trade issues can give way to
other issues. In short, we must get rid of temporary, subordinate practices.

　　In order to ensure that human rights issues receive widespread attention in the WTO, a dual strategy must be
adopted. First, the WTO needs to make more coordinated commitments to ensure that the basic rules of
international trade law that the WTO is responsible for are more complementary to the rules of international
human rights law, and it also opposes certain recent theories that try to give trade law a special status. It also
requires renewed efforts by WTO member states. In the final analysis, member states are the key to deciding
how to consider human rights issues (as they treat the issue of access to core medicines).
 International Trade Law

(Books of Wang Chuanli)

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International trade law (international trade law) is to adjust the relationship between commodity
transactions between different countries and other relationships attached to this transaction
relationship, that is, the sum of legal norms related to international commodity transportation,
insurance, payment and settlement, mediation and arbitration. . As international trade law plays an
increasingly important role in international trade, the society has published a variety of "International
Trade Law" related books.

Chinese name

International Trade Law

Foreign name

international trade law

Sex

legal

Role

Regulate the country's trade relations

table of Contents

1. 1 The basic principle

2. 2 Related specifications
3. 3 History
4. 4 China related
5. 5 Relevant range
1. 6 Related sources
2. ▪ Sources of International Trade Law
3. ▪ International trade practices
4. ▪ Standard contract and standard clause

5. 7 Related books
6. ▪ brief introduction
1. ▪ Book catalog

2. 8 New edition book

3. ▪ brief introduction
4. ▪ About the Author
5. ▪ table of Contents

6. 9 Related standards
The basic principle

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①The principle of liberalization of trade;

② The principle of equality, mutual benefit, and consensus .

Related specifications

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International trade law includes three types of norms:

① Substantive law norms that directly stipulate the rights and obligations of both parties . This
is the main specification.

② Conflict norms : used when the above-mentioned substantive law norms are lacking.

③Procedures for handling disputes in international trade. Mainly the dispute mediation

or arbitration procedural rules.

Some scholars also believe that conflict norms belong to private international law , and
procedural norms belong to international civil procedure law . This is about the divergence of
academic views on the division of branches. The subjects of international trade law relations are
often legal persons of different nationalities , sometimes natural persons , and in a few cases they
can be countries.

History

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International trade law relations were originally foreign-related civil law relations. The
foundation is international economic exchanges. With the development of international economic
exchanges, the relationship between international trade law has developed day by day. Around the
12th century, the custom of specifically adjusting the relationship between international trade law
appeared in European maritime trade, which was the embryonic form of international trade law. In
the future, due to the formation of conflict of laws (see private international law), the relationship of
international trade law is mainly based on conflict norms (see conflict rules ) for a long period of time,
and the civil law or commercial law of general countries is applied. Since entering the 20th century,
international trade law relations have become more frequent. The use of conflicting norms to cite a
country’s law adjustment method can no longer adapt to its development. Therefore, the custom of
directly stipulating the rights and obligations of the parties in this relationship has further
developed. Based on this, a treaty that specifically adjusts this relationship and a unified
interpretation of custom appeared . In 1926, with the support of the League of Nations ,
the Institute for the Unification of Private International Law was established in Rome . It is an
intergovernmental international organization whose main task is to formulate a unified international
trade law. All these have promoted the formation and development of international trade law.

After the Second World War , due to the increase in productivity, the internationalization of the
production, circulation and consumption process of commodities further increased, and the number
and complexity of international trade law relations also developed and increased. In order to adapt to
the development of this relationship, There have been many treaties that directly adjust the nature
of its bilateral, regional, and worldwide substantive law , strengthen the application of international
trade practices , and provide conditions for the formation of international trade law as an
independent legal department . In September 1962, funded by UNESCO and hosted by
the International Legal Science Association , a meeting was held in London to discuss issues of
international trade law. This meeting laid the foundation for the formation of an independent legal
department in international trade law. The theoretical basis. In 1966, the 21st United Nations
General Assembly passed a resolution to strengthen international trade law and decided to establish
a body under the General Assembly, named " United Nations Commission on International Trade
Law ", with the task of advancing the formulation of conventions, practices,
and codification of commercial clauses . , To coordinate and unify international trade law. Since
then, the formulation of international trade law has entered a new stage. The establishment of the
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law is a sign that international trade law has
become an independent legal department.

China related

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According to the proposal of the delegation of the People’s Republic of China and the support
of most other countries, the basic principles of the new international economic order have been
enshrined in the preamble of the 1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International
Sale of Goods , which can be summarized as follows:

① In line with the goal of establishing a new international economic order .

②Develop trade on the basis of equality and mutual benefit.

③Take care of different social, economic and legal systems .

④Help to reduce legal obstacles in international trade.

These are the basic principles that should be followed in the formulation, interpretation and
application of international trade law norms. By implementing these principles, the young,
independent legal department of international trade law can continue to develop and improve day by
day, becoming a legal department that promotes the continuous development of international trade
relations.

Relevant range

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International trade law regulates two types of relationships:

The first category is the international commodity sales relationship itself. Its content is the
relationship of rights and obligations between the buyer and the seller in the transaction, which is
manifested in the international commodity sales contract relationship. The regulation of this type of
relationship is specifically regulated and belongs to the international trade law. The other is the
relationship that is attached to the international commodity trading, which is indispensable for the
realization of international commodity trading, but it is not the commodity trading relationship itself,
including:

①The transportation relationship in the international cargo transaction includes the

transportation relationship of international cargo by sea, air, railway, road, river, etc. The content
is the shipper (or the consignor) in the bill of lading , air, railway, and road cargo waybill . The rights
and obligations between the person), the consignee and the carrier .

② international sale of goods in the insurance relationship , and include sea, land and
air transport insurance cargo relationship, says international cargo transportation insurance in the
insurer 's rights and obligations and the relationship between the insured (see Insurance Law ).

③The relationship between payment and settlement in international goods sales . The content

is the rights and obligations between the parties involved in various payment methods
(see International Settlement ).

④ Mediation or arbitration that specializes in solving international commodity sales

disputes. The content is the relationship of rights and obligations among arbitration institutions ,
arbitrators, claimants, defendants, witnesses, and other related parties during mediation or
arbitration procedures . The adjustment of the above-mentioned various norms that are attached to
the international commodity trading relationship also belong to the norms of international trade law.

Related sources

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Sources of International Trade Law

There are many forms, and the degree of binding force and scope of each form are different,
which constitutes an important feature of the sources of international trade law. The sources of
international trade law are:

International treaty

Is the main source of origin, effective between the contracting states. The treaties that contain
the norms of international trade law are worldwide, regional and bilateral. Worldwide, such as the
1980 United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, the 1974
Convention on the Limitation Period for the International Sale of Goods, the 1964 Uniform Law
Convention on the International Sale of Goods, and the 1964 Uniform Law Convention on the
Conclusion of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods ", 1924 "International Convention for the
Unification of Certain Legal Rules on Bills of Lading" (" Hague Rules "), 1978 "United Nations
Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea" (" Hamburg Rules "), 1929 " Convention for the
Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air " (" Warsaw Convention "), etc. Such
conventions have a large scope of action and are the development direction of the sources of
international trade law. Regional, such as the common delivery conditions of the European
Economic Mutual Aid Committee in 1980, have a limited scope of action. Bilateral, such as the
"Common Conditions of Delivery of Foreign Trade Organizations between the People's Republic of
China and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea," adjust the commodity sales relationship
between the two countries.

International trade practices

Refers to trade practices that have certain content and are repeatedly used internationally,
such as foreign trade price conditions , which take effect when they are quoted or approved by the
parties. In the international sale of goods, such as the "Warsaw-Oxford Rules" formulated by
the International Law Association in 1932 and the " International General Rules for the Interpretation
of Trade Terms" formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce in 1936 and revised in 1953
(later supplemented three times in 1967, 1976, and 1980), It uniformly explains the international
trading practices of goods and is widely adopted internationally. In the payment of international
goods sales, such as the " Uniform Rules for Commercial Document Collection " (revised in 1978
and renamed "Uniform Rules for Collection") drafted by the International Chamber of Commerce in
1958 and promulgated in 1967, and drafted in 1930 and promulgated in 1933, And the " Uniform
Customs and Practices for Commercial Documentary Credits " revised in 1951 (revised in 1962,
renamed "Uniform Practices for Documentary Credits", revised again in 1974), in the payment
methods of international collections and documentary credits , The rights and obligations of the
parties concerned have made deterministic and unified regulations, which will have a binding effect
on all parties after the relevant banks have recognized them.

Standard contract and standard clause

It is a contract or clause stipulated by an international organization, professional company or
association for the parties to use when signing a contract. It contains the rights and obligations of
both parties, and the content generally refers to internationally accepted methods. Standard
contracts and standard clauses are widely used in international goods trading, transportation and
insurance, and they have become a habit. For example, China’s import and export
companies, China Ocean Shipping Company, and the People’s Insurance Company of China have
formulated their own standard contracts, bills of lading, insurance policies and insurance
clauses . Both parties can modify or supplement the provisions in the contract, but generally do not
make changes in practice. After both parties have signed or signed by one party, it means that the
two parties have reached an agreement on the provisions, which will take effect between the two
parties, and can be used as the basis for determining the relationship between the rights and
obligations of the parties. This has been recognized internationally, so standard contracts and
standard clauses constitute a unique source of international trade law.

The laws or regulations in domestic laws that directly adjust the relationship between
international trade laws. Due to the development of international trade and the growth of its
important role, a country often makes reference to international practices or regulations in order to
facilitate foreign trade and formulates special adjustments in its own country. Laws on foreign trade
relations, such as the International Trade Law of the German Democratic Republic, are effective in
their country.

Related books

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Title: International Trade Law

Author: Chen Zhidong

Publisher: Higher Education Press

Publication time: April 2009

ISBN : 9787040254648

Format: 16 open

Price: 34.00 yuan

brief introduction
"International Trade Law ("Eleventh Five-Year" National Planning Textbook for General Higher
Education)" is a national planning textbook for the "Eleventh Five-Year Plan" for general higher
education. It is also the author of more than 20 years of international trade law teaching and
research results and international arbitration practice experience Summary. The content and space
arrangement of the whole book need to be specially explained that the second chapter "International
Goods Sale Contract System" and Chapter 5 "International Trade Payment and Financing System"
are the core of the entire international trade law, so they are written in the most detailed and in-depth
manner. , The space is the largest. Chapter 4 " International Cargo Transportation and
Transportation Insurance System" is relatively abbreviated, and the notes and cases are relatively
abbreviated. In addition, transportation and insurance are listed as one chapter, and air
transportation insurance and railway transportation insurance will not be introduced except
for marine cargo transportation insurance. In addition, marine cargo transportation insurance is the
origin of the modern insurance system, and air and rail transportation insurance has no particularity.

"International Trade Law ("Eleventh Five-Year" National Planning Textbook for General Higher
Education)" can be used not only for undergraduate and postgraduate teaching of law, but also for
legal services, judicial departments and international trade practitioners.

Book catalog
Chapter One Overview of International Trade Law

Chapter II International Goods Sale Contract System

Chapter III international trade practices

Chapter IV international transport of goods and transport insurance

Chapter V International Trade Payment and Financing System

Chapter VI International Goods Sales Agency System

Chapter VII of the International Commercial Arbitration System

main reference

New edition book

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Author: Wang Chuanli Editor-in-Chief
 Publisher : China University of Political Science and Law Press

Publication time: 2009-10-1

Format: 16 open

ISBN : 9787562035473

Price: ￥46.00

brief introduction
China University of Political Science and Law Press is a major university law publishing
organization sponsored by China University of Political Science and Law, a key university directly
under the Ministry of Education . Its purpose is to serve Chinese legal education and legal
research. Over the years, our agency has always put the construction of legal textbooks in the first
place, and has provided readers with various levels and series of high-quality legal textbooks for
postgraduates, undergraduates, junior colleges, vocational schools, and technical secondary
schools. Many of these textbooks have been awarded by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry
of Justice The Excellent Textbook Award from the Ministry , General Administration of Press and
Publication and other ministries and commissions is one of China’s important legal textbook
publishing bases.

China University of Political Science and Law Press has repeatedly won the honorary titles of
National Good Publishing House and Advanced University Publishing House. In the new era, we will,
as always, serve our readers sincerely and strive to contribute to China's legal education .

About the Author

Wang Chuanli , Doctor of Laws, International Law, China University of Politics and former dean,
professor, doctoral tutor , International Economic Law Research Center of China University of
Political Science Director. Visiting scholar at Columbia University School of Law, New York,
USA. Part-time Chinese Society of International Law , vice president of China Law Society , vice
president of the International Institute of Law, China Law Society WTO research vice
president, Beijing Institute of International Law , vice president of China Society of International
Law , executive director of CNCA Certification and Accreditation Member of the Expert Advisory
Committee, expert consultant of Beijing Municipal Government, arbitrator of China International
Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission, arbitrator of Beijing Arbitration Commission , etc. The
main research direction is international economic law and international trade law. The monographs
and editor-in-chief results mainly include: "Legal Validity of Foreign Economic Contracts",
" Interpretation of Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement Provisions ", "Public Interests
in Anti-dumping Investigations", "International Technology and Trade Law", "International Trade
Law-Goods "Trade Law", "International Trade Law-Government Management of Trade Legal
System", "International Trade Law-International Protection of Intellectual Property", "International
Economic Law", "International Trade Law", "Chinese Contract Law", etc. The main papers published
include: the contribution of the judicial independence of the European Court of Justice to European
integration , the debt and development rights of developing countries , the China-Korea bilateral
trade agreement concept, the China-ASEAN Free Trade Area dispute settlement
mechanismDiscuss the social responsibility of multinational companies, several legal issues
recognized and enforced by courts across the Taiwan Strait, international economic law and public
interests, reform and opening up and the development of international economic law, market
access and anti-unfair competition , and trade-related issues Intellectual Property
Issues- Trademark Rights and Gray Market , Legal Issues of Allocation, WTO Agreements
and Judicial Review , WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism -Also Comment on Trade Retaliation ,
Retrospect and Prospect of China's Anti-dumping Law, WTO-a self-sufficient legal system ——Also
comment on the new developments in the economic and trade relations between the two sides of
the strait and the new developments in international trade law in the post-WTO era . The scientific
research projects being hosted include: research on the rights of WTO and international labor core
standards, WTO agreements on agricultural products and agricultural trade rules , the role of judicial
independence of the European Court of Justice in European integration , etc.

TRADE IS UNTOUCHABLE

The astonishing increase in international trade, after the end of the second "world" war (1939-1945)

and with the advent of the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) reign, became so

integrated into our culture that we are not even used to thinking about the global meaning of the

phenomenon, in terms of the determinant impacts of social conditions, quality of life and other

essential parameters. Commerce is not considered for what it can represent as a means of doing

something, but as a value in itself, an absolute reference with positive or negative connotations

based on the phenomenon itself. Under these conditions, the normal attitude of most analysts is to

postulate the necessity of the inevitable worldwide commercial expansion, as an undeniable

objective, beyond any possibility of serious criticism.

From a critical and ecological point of view, for example, there is no doubt that phenomena such as

continued economic growth, generalization of living standards of populations in the northern

hemisphere and socio-environmental well-being (or: quality of life of a type North-western/G7, for all

inhabitants of the planet) are incompatible goals, even if the population remains stable; which is not

yet the case. Against this type of critical evidence, scientifically proven and therefore insusceptible to

refutation, the necessary primacy of commerce can only be placed on the condition of dogma:

commerce is untouchable, the rest must adjust and the whole can only improve.

The dominant ideology induces this kind of consideration, even when it pretends to be reflective or

inquisitive. In this sense, reference will be made to a paradigmatic work, edited by the São Paulo

State Secretariat for the Environment: Comércio e Meio Ambiente. law, economics and

politics(1996), edited with the support of the CIEL -Center for International Environmental Law. As it

is the work of an agency dedicated to environmental defense and protection, with the support of an

NGO concerned with the defense of the environment, it could be to think that a certain emphasis

would be given to the environment, in the sense of making it be considered as a reference to which

the demands of commerce should bend. However, the consensus embedded in this collection

operates in exactly the opposite way: the quasi-unanimity of its eighteen authors takes pains to

demonstrate that considerations relating to the environment must not have the effect of harming

trade or economic growth; or that these have no significant impact on environmental issues; or that

all phenomena are compatible;

According to Jagdish Bhagwati, self-portraited as a "good liberal intellectual", "the conflicts between

both groups [the environmentalists and the trade liberalization supporters] are vastly exaggerated"

(p. 58 sg.). In fact, as "obviously no generic conclusion should be based on other cases of pollution,

it can be said that economic growth is not intrinsically linked, either to degradation or to the

improvement of environmental conditions" (p.59).

Isolated thought, that one? Sigrid Shreeve, in presenting a vision of the European Commission's

policies, shows how easy it is to rhetorically combine the various issues: "By giving equal importance

to the goals relating to trade and the environment, the Commission recognizes that sustainable

development is a prerequisite for ensure that liberalization is accompanied by environmental

benefits. Likewise, it admits that environmentally sustainable development will hardly be achieved in

the long term without economic growth." In this example of contradiction, what is the real position of

the European Union? The answer must be found in facts and practices. In particular, the answers

are found in the standardization of conduct, carried out under the aegis of jurisdictional

decisions. These have no doubt, in the intra-European scope:

Spokespersons for developing countries defend the same ideological position: "economic growth,

trade liberalization and environmental protection are compatible and complementary objectives",

says Brazilian ambassador Rubens Antônio Barbosa (p. 143). The biggest problem is not "how" to

guarantee the sustainability of the set of relationships involved, based on the sustaining capacities of

the various subsystems. What "we cannot admit [is that] the possibilities of restricting trade are

unduly expanded, or that trade measures with environmental objectives may come to prevail over

WTO rules. It would be a regrettable setback."

it is at the source of the process of elaboration of international practices that the maximum

expression of dogmas related to trade must be sought. Tom Wathen summarizes the terms of the

equation, in a few pages that need no further comment (p.26 sg.): "Historically, the GATT has seen

environmental protection only in terms of barriers to trade." The author recalls that the last project

approved in the Round of negotiations of the GATT (Uruguay Round), under the coordination of the

then Director General of the institution, Arthur Dunkel, "has the purpose of controlling environmental

laws in the member countries of the Agreement, aligning the standards of national and international

environmental law with the GATT international trade principles". No wonder, therefore, that the

project classifies environmental standards as "

Are there international treaties that intend to incorporate trade sanctions as a way to ensure their

own compliance? They exist! This is the case, among others, of the Montreal Protocol and the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora - CITES. What will be

the implementation of its provisions (normatives, as incorporated, by ratification, into the domestic

law of the signatories), if "the GATT negotiators intend to subject any environmental legislation that

has an impact on international trade to the approval of the GATT Council, a body subsidiary of the

contracting parties to this agreement. At least 24 international environmental agreements could

require authorization by the majority of foreign trade ministers worldwide,

The Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development itself establishes, in its Principle

12: "Economic policies aimed at environmental protection must not serve to discriminate or restrict

international trade. Measures to control transboundary or global environmental problems must

always as possible, be based on consensus among countries".

More recently, another dimension began to intensify the positions of supporters of commerce, or of

its control, in the name of demands that are not just for profit. This is the problem of Genetically

Modified Organisms - GMO's. When the European Union confirmed its decision not to allow the

importation of North American meat, which incorporated growth hormones due to the nutritional

conditions for raising cattle, the United States began, as trade reprisals, to apply tariffs of one

hundred percent on many goods of European origin. The alleged legal basis was the disrespect that

the European decision showed, by ignoring the decision of the World Trade Organization - WTO,

that the ban was an unfair barrier to North American and Canadian meat exports.

In this way, in the name of the freedom of commerce (that is, in the name of the freedom to make a

profit), it is possible to ignore any type of problem or requirement resulting from collective

imperatives. There is no doubt about the order of priority that should guide behavior. It is possible,

strictly speaking, to sign texts to protect animal or plant species, to preserve certain national or

regional spaces, or even almost universal ones, as long as they do not interfere in the free game of
commerce. This type of position ends up favoring a distorted and deeply dysfunctional perception of

realities, as it promotes an image of commerce as an autonomous phenomenon, separate from the

context in which it operates. It so happens, however, that the study of this context reveals the extent

of the damage that is taking place everywhere,

THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY

No one can pretend that they are unaware of the most elementary realities of international relations

since 1945, to the point of not realizing that an astonishing increase in the numbers related to trade

has been accompanied by a tragic increase in the degradation of the living conditions of the majority

of the Earth's population. This statement is not meant to posit, in a simplistic way, that increased

trade is the direct cause of degradation. it is in a complex way, on the contrary, that trade is

structurally linked to the increase in planetary misery, to which it contributes, along with other

structural factors, in various ways: pressure on resources through the exploitation of "comparative

advantages"; transfer of human and natural resources; appropriation of resources by increasingly

sophisticated means (biopiracy; biogenetics; patenting of substances from living beings); production

of capital gains transferred to other countries; unbridled exploitation of natural resources, renewable

or not; continued deterioration of terms of trade; relocation of activities and speculative investments

of high risk capital, among others.

Le Monde Diplomatique (Nov. 1997, p. 1) provides a synthesis of the observable results of the

current model. "Six million hectares of arable land disappear annually, due to desertification.

Everywhere, erosion and overexploitation are devouring, at an accelerated rate, the surface of

arable land [...] 800 million people suffer from malnutrition.

"In 2010, the world's forest cover will have decreased by more than 40%, compared to 1990.[...]

Between 10 and 17 million hectares disappear annually. Four times that of Switzerland.

Deforestation destroys a biological heritage unique: tropical rainforests are home to 70% of
species.According to the IUCN [International Union for Conservation of Nature], 20% of all existing

species will have disappeared within ten years.

''The hardest hit forests are tropical forests. Thus, in Indonesia, about 80% of the rainforest on the

island of Sumatra has disappeared since the 1970s. And in Borneo, the number of trees cut down

has almost qui-tupled in sixteen years. Certainly, these destructions come from the rapid growth of

the population, which uses firewood as fuel and land for agriculture, but above all from forestry

exploitation in favor of rich countries."

In the (third) world, along with the loss of land due to desertification and erosion, there is a

continuous movement of opening agricultural frontiers, for the production of foodstuffs and primary

products destined for export. In the last ten years, soy has conquered millions of hectares in Brazil,

from Rio Grande do Sul to Acre. In 1992, 86% of production was exported to make foodstuffs,

essentially for the benefit of cattle in European countries (Galinkin, 1996:34). Native forests are cut

down in conditions of total unsustainability. They are often replaced by more economically profitable

exotic species, to the detriment of soil quality, subsistence crops and hydrological cycles,

The increase in entropy manifests itself in our daily routine, without provoking many reactions that

are not ones of satisfaction or real enthusiasm. The example of the installation of new automobile

industries in Brazil, as of April 1996, is paradigmatic and deserves some comments.

Automotive entropy

The launch of the "world car" (Palio model) by the Italian company FIAT, in Belo Horizonte, in April

1996, was highly symbolic. Since then, several car manufacturers (including trucks and buses) have

announced their intention to expand its factories in Brazil, or to create new production units. So it

happened with: General Motors, Honda, Mercedes Benz, Renault, Honda, Volvo, Volkswagen and

Skoda. "According to Dorothéa Werneck, 70 companies want to invest in Brazil, and have signed up

for the automotive program of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce. The planned investments in
this area are in the order of R$ 16 billion. At least three automakers have already shown interest in

promoting direct investments in the country: Hyundai, Asia/Kia and Honda" ( Diário do

Comércio,Belo Horizonte, 4/19/96, p.3).

To define the location of these new industries, there were intense negotiations and real interstate

auctions of offers of benefits to automakers. In the case of the installation of GM in the Porto Alegre

region, one of the rare instances in which there was some dissonance in the choir of the project's

laudators, the State of Rio Grande do Sul offered the company the following advantages: financing

of the entire ICMS (Circulation Tax of Goods and Services) for the acquisition of imported machinery

and equipment, even with similar national ones; compensation for any change in state or federal tax

legislation; installation of a natural gas connection to the automotive complex; guarantee of

preferential supply of electricity and fiber optic telephony; installation of sanitary and industrial

effluent lines, treatment of solid waste effluents; construction of a complete river terminal for GM's

preferential use in Greater Porto Alegre; construction or modernization, in an area close to the port

of Rio Grande, of a complete private maritime terminal; installation of skillful means to allow

automatic browsing; improvement of highways and accesses to the complex; earthworks and

urbanization of the land where the factory will be installed. Not counting the opening of direct

financial credits, in the amount of BRL 243 million ( earthworks and urbanization of the land where

the factory will be installed. Not counting the opening of direct financial credits, in the amount of BRL

243 million ( earthworks and urbanization of the land where the factory will be installed. Not counting

the opening of direct financial credits, in the amount of BRL 243 million (O Estado, Florianópolis, 19

and 20/4/97, p.2).

In addition to harming national sovereignty itself (in the case of possible compensation for changes

in federal tax legislation, for example), these provisions also harm the WTO precepts on free

competition or the non-intervention of the State in the market. The protests manifested, on this basis,

by eventual victims or by the planetary guardians of the dogma of trade liberalization, are far from

having reached the reprisals that occurred in the aforementioned case of North American meat
exports. Simultaneously, the construction companies' new industrial facilities configure a worldwide

redistribution of the location of their production units, based on strategic criteria not discussed with

anyone else. Within these criteria, where the main objective is to maximize profit, we can

mention: lower labor and resource costs; operating facilities; prizes offered by public authorities; lack

of administrative structures to control eventual requirements in the environmental area...

In the absence of a public transport policy aimed at minimizing the impact of the "all-by-private-car-

powered-on-gasoline" model, Brazil is simply planting the seeds of immense problems in the

medium and long term, whatever it is in relation to its energy matrix, traffic in urban areas, the

depredation of natural resources, renewable or not, the treatment of waste and effluents and the

living conditions of millions of people.

Renault's installation conditions, in Curitiba (PR), are a challenge to common sense and to any

attempt to minimally preserve the quality of life. The French factory demanded a pollution-free

area. Received the Industrial District of São José dos Pinhais, "within the Alto Iguaçu Basin, the

main source of supply of the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba, [a fact that] puts at risk all the

investments made so far to protect it. Including programs financed by the BIRD, such as Prosam,

where US$ 245 million are being invested [...] The risk arises from several factors: the total use, by

the industry, of one of the rivers defined as a future source; a very large number of suppliers who will

also install themselves in the source, as an industrial district has already been created for this; the

precedent that will lead all municipalities in the spring region to want their industrial park as well; the

occupation and densification of the surrounding area, by the population that will come after the

thousands of jobs advertised" (Teresa Urban, 12/04/96). Extensive list of legal provisions were

disregarded to achieve the goal of installing the factory, which has already is operating.

It would be interesting to compare the environmental legislation requirements of the automakers'

countries of origin, with those of the country receiving their investments and with the clauses of

various international treaties, within the 24 that might have to request authorization from ministers of
commerce around the world, to that its provisions relating to commercial penalties be implemented,

in order to protect the environment.

Other dimensions of entropy increase are of considerable importance, but cannot be studied in detail

in this text. One can mention, for example, the issue of the world production of residues and, in

particular, of toxic and dangerous waste. Tens of millions of tons of these products have an

uncertain final destination, starting with the industrialized countries. A European official found that

"three quarters of European hazardous waste (estimated at thirty million tons) is of unknown origin

and composition, that Luxembourg and Germany did not provide any figures on their total

production, that Belgium made no difference between the hazardous waste and others and that their

data on exports of industrial waste include domestic waste,

Under these conditions, it seems unrealistic to think that the Basel Convention (signed in March

1989), on the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and its final disposal, can

help in the global and effective resolution of the problem. Everyone is interested in getting rid of all

kinds of waste, as long as NIMBY syndrome (Not in my backyard) is properly considered; everything

is sold or bought; there is always the possibility of finding someone interested in receiving payment

to host any type of waste...

The definition, interpretation and application conditions of Public International Law, in general, reveal

other aspects of the extension of environmental defense problems.

TREATIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

In a non-exhaustive list, the document Environmental Treaties and Organizations in Environmental

Matters, prepared by the Secretary of the Environment of the State of São Paulo (1997), indicates

58 international instruments signed between 1959 (Antarctic Treaty- Protocol 91-) and 1993

(Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Storage and Use of Chemical

Weapons and on their Destruction). The texts of some of these international instruments were also
edited: 1) Ramsar Convention (1971) on wetlands of international importance, especially as habitatof

waterfowl; 2) Vienna Convention (1985) for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal

Protocol (1987) on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; 3) Convention on climate change

(Rio, 1992); 4) Convention on biodiversity (Rio, 1992); 5) Basel Convention (1989) on the Control of

Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Final Disposal and 6) Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, known as the CITES

Convention (1973).

Since it is impossible to review and comment on all these texts, it remains to make macroanalytic

considerations about their existence and meaning.

First, there is nothing to prevent, in light of principles endorsed by the community of civilized nations

(source of Public International Law, according to article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of

Justice), the international consensus around basic norms may be incorporated. to the requirements

formulated by the WTO. There is nothing more logical than noting the existing consensus around

fundamental principles, in order to format norms, with due precautions, within the scope of the WTO

itself. this démarcheelemental and essential, however, has not received the slightest support, to

date, by any organ of the organization. Thus, among others, the principles adopted by "civilized

nations" at the Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992) on the Environment and Human Development

remain without practical consequence. Citing just a few of the principles adopted, it appears that

there would be an international consensus around the most relevant issues:

"Principle 8: States should reduce and eliminate patterns of consumption and production considered

unsustainable." Comparing with the installation conditions of car assemblers...

"Principle 10: Public participation in environmental decision-making should be promoted and access

to information facilitated." In comparison with Tom Wathen's remarks (op.cit., p.29): "(...) like other

international institutions, GATT deliberations continue to take place without the participation of

society. All GATT procedures, including those negotiations, disputes and deliberations of the
councils are carried out in closed meetings. Even the decisions of the dispute panels remain

confidential.[...]. This secrecy is explained by the need to isolate diplomacy from the internal

pressures of public opinion." .

"Principle 13: The adoption of international laws and treaties aimed at accountability and

compensation for damage caused to the environment should be promoted." (As long as these laws

and treaties do not interfere with the needs of commerce?)

"Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary principle should be widely

applied by States, according to their own conditions."

The formulation of the precautionary principle asserts: "In case of serious or irreversible damage, the

absence of absolute scientific certainty should not serve as a pretext for postponing the adoption of

effective measures to prevent environmental degradation".

"Principle 16:.Local authorities should promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use

of economic instruments, taking into account that the polluter must bear the costs of pollution." The

internalization of environmental costs (see below) is exactly what the WTO tends to reject by all

means at its disposal.

"Principle 27: States and individuals shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership for the

fulfillment of the principles contained in this Declaration and for the development of international law

in the field of sustainable development".

Within a globalized world, these principles seem like truisms. But they remain rhetorical truisms. Its

implementation clashes with concrete interests, which tend to provide solutions in the sense of

increasing, more and more, the entropy of the set; based on the secrecy of decisions and the

refusal, therefore, of the participation of the majority of interested parties, based on the

most technology intensive solutions that can be found, in the seemingly endless spiral of income

concentration in the hands of less and less and exclusion of the majority.
Among many examples, and to remain within the scope of the aforementioned conventions,

reference can be made to the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance,

especially as habitat for aquatic species.

Brazil ratified the Ramsar Convention (in 1992) and designated the Pantanal Matogrossense as one

of the five areas to be specially protected in its territory. This implies assuming certain obligations

and responsibilities, specified by the Convention, both in relation to its territory and in relations with

neighboring States and in undertakings subsequent to its ratification. However, it is without worrying

about these obligations that other international agreements were signed, with the countries of the La

Plata basin, to idealize a most controversial undertaking: the works on the Paraguay-Paraná

Waterway. The magnitude and foreseeable impacts of the works could lead to breaches of some

obligations of the Ramsar convention, such as: promoting the rational use of wetlands; carry out

consultations on the performance of the obligations of the convention, in particular in the case of a

wetland or a shared watershed; create wetland reserves. From 1989 onwards, a set of precise

questions was put into practice, formulated by NGOs that organized an international coordination,

called Coalizão Rios Vivos, to try to change the conditions for carrying out the project.

With regard to informing public opinion, the participation of the populations directly involved, the

assessment of impacts and other issues involved, opinions vary considerably, depending on the

positions held by the various protagonists. According to ambassador Rubens Antônio Barbosa, the

waterway is "one of the most striking examples of regional cooperation in a large-scale project with

extensive environmental implications. What stands out, in this case, is the success of the dialogue

between governments and civil society, due to intermediary of non-governmental

organizations". Among the points of consensus, "it is worth emphasizing the commitment to ensure

that environmental impact assessment studies are open to public knowledge and that there is

effective participation of all sectors interested in the project (...)"(op. cit. p. 146-147).
Other authors (Caubet, 1996; Vior, 1996, p.55) show the difficulties in relation to these

issues. Eduardo Vior recalls that the Coalizão, formed in 1994, had among its objectives to request

from the Intergovernmental Committee Coordinating the Hidrovia "transparent information and

effective participation of the population about and in the works to be carried out, its economic

viability and forecasts of environmental impact and However, despite the abundant public promises

of information and consultation, the governments of Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay have started

some partial works, without waiting for the completion of the feasibility and environmental impact

studies." This is because "the governments involved consider the requirement for popular

participation to be satisfied, with the simple public information about the plans to be carried out"

(p.56).

These divergences lead to another dimension of the problem of the relationship between trade and

the environment; that of legal practitioners ...and other rule-makers. Indeed, there are norms that are

already having a greater effect than legal norms, even though they are not rules of law. This is the

case for the standards of the ISO 9 000 and ISO 14 000 series, the relevance of which requires

some comments.

TRADE IS UNTOUCHABLE

The astonishing increase in international trade, after the end of the second "world" war (1939-1945)

and with the advent of the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) reign, became so

integrated into our culture that we are not even used to thinking about the global meaning of the

phenomenon, in terms of the determinant impacts of social conditions, quality of life and other

essential parameters. Commerce is not considered for what it can represent as a means of doing

something, but as a value in itself, an absolute reference with positive or negative connotations

based on the phenomenon itself. Under these conditions, the normal attitude of most analysts is to
postulate the necessity of the inevitable worldwide commercial expansion, as an undeniable

objective, beyond any possibility of serious criticism.

From a critical and ecological point of view, for example, there is no doubt that phenomena such as

continued economic growth, generalization of living standards of populations in the northern

hemisphere and socio-environmental well-being (or: quality of life of a type North-western/G7, for all

inhabitants of the planet) are incompatible goals, even if the population remains stable; which is not

yet the case. Against this type of critical evidence, scientifically proven and therefore insusceptible to

refutation, the necessary primacy of commerce can only be placed on the condition of dogma:

commerce is untouchable, the rest must adjust and the whole can only improve.

The dominant ideology induces this kind of consideration, even when it pretends to be reflective or

inquisitive. In this sense, reference will be made to a paradigmatic work, edited by the São Paulo

State Secretariat for the Environment: Comércio e Meio Ambiente. law, economics and

politics(1996), edited with the support of the CIEL -Center for International Environmental Law. As it

is the work of an agency dedicated to environmental defense and protection, with the support of an

NGO concerned with the defense of the environment, it could be to think that a certain emphasis

would be given to the environment, in the sense of making it be considered as a reference to which

the demands of commerce should bend. However, the consensus embedded in this collection

operates in exactly the opposite way: the quasi-unanimity of its eighteen authors takes pains to

demonstrate that considerations relating to the environment must not have the effect of harming

trade or economic growth; or that these have no significant impact on environmental issues; or that

all phenomena are compatible;

According to Jagdish Bhagwati, self-portraited as a "good liberal intellectual", "the conflicts between

both groups [the environmentalists and the trade liberalization supporters] are vastly exaggerated"

(p. 58 sg.). In fact, as "obviously no generic conclusion should be based on other cases of pollution,
it can be said that economic growth is not intrinsically linked, either to degradation or to the

improvement of environmental conditions" (p.59).

Isolated thought, that one? Sigrid Shreeve, in presenting a vision of the European Commission's

policies, shows how easy it is to rhetorically combine the various issues: "By giving equal importance

to the goals relating to trade and the environment, the Commission recognizes that sustainable

development is a prerequisite for ensure that liberalization is accompanied by environmental

benefits. Likewise, it admits that environmentally sustainable development will hardly be achieved in

the long term without economic growth." In this example of contradiction, what is the real position of

the European Union? The answer must be found in facts and practices. In particular, the answers

are found in the standardization of conduct, carried out under the aegis of jurisdictional

decisions. These have no doubt, in the intra-European scope:

Spokespersons for developing countries defend the same ideological position: "economic growth,

trade liberalization and environmental protection are compatible and complementary objectives",

says Brazilian ambassador Rubens Antônio Barbosa (p. 143). The biggest problem is not "how" to

guarantee the sustainability of the set of relationships involved, based on the sustaining capacities of

the various subsystems. What "we cannot admit [is that] the possibilities of restricting trade are

unduly expanded, or that trade measures with environmental objectives may come to prevail over

WTO rules. It would be a regrettable setback."

it is at the source of the process of elaboration of international practices that the maximum

expression of dogmas related to trade must be sought. Tom Wathen summarizes the terms of the

equation, in a few pages that need no further comment (p.26 sg.): "Historically, the GATT has seen

environmental protection only in terms of barriers to trade." The author recalls that the last project

approved in the Round of negotiations of the GATT (Uruguay Round), under the coordination of the

then Director General of the institution, Arthur Dunkel, "has the purpose of controlling environmental

laws in the member countries of the Agreement, aligning the standards of national and international
environmental law with the GATT international trade principles". No wonder, therefore, that the

project classifies environmental standards as "

Are there international treaties that intend to incorporate trade sanctions as a way to ensure their

own compliance? They exist! This is the case, among others, of the Montreal Protocol and the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora - CITES. What will be

the implementation of its provisions (normatives, as incorporated, by ratification, into the domestic

law of the signatories), if "the GATT negotiators intend to subject any environmental legislation that

has an impact on international trade to the approval of the GATT Council, a body subsidiary of the

contracting parties to this agreement. At least 24 international environmental agreements could

require authorization by the majority of foreign trade ministers worldwide,

The Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development itself establishes, in its Principle

12: "Economic policies aimed at environmental protection must not serve to discriminate or restrict

international trade. Measures to control transboundary or global environmental problems must

always as possible, be based on consensus among countries".

More recently, another dimension began to intensify the positions of supporters of commerce, or of

its control, in the name of demands that are not just for profit. This is the problem of Genetically

Modified Organisms - GMO's. When the European Union confirmed its decision not to allow the

importation of North American meat, which incorporated growth hormones due to the nutritional

conditions for raising cattle, the United States began, as trade reprisals, to apply tariffs of one

hundred percent on many goods of European origin. The alleged legal basis was the disrespect that

the European decision showed, by ignoring the decision of the World Trade Organization - WTO,

that the ban was an unfair barrier to North American and Canadian meat exports.

In this way, in the name of the freedom of commerce (that is, in the name of the freedom to make a

profit), it is possible to ignore any type of problem or requirement resulting from collective

imperatives. There is no doubt about the order of priority that should guide behavior. It is possible,
strictly speaking, to sign texts to protect animal or plant species, to preserve certain national or

regional spaces, or even almost universal ones, as long as they do not interfere in the free game of

commerce. This type of position ends up favoring a distorted and deeply dysfunctional perception of

realities, as it promotes an image of commerce as an autonomous phenomenon, separate from the

context in which it operates. It so happens, however, that the study of this context reveals the extent

of the damage that is taking place everywhere,

THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY

No one can pretend that they are unaware of the most elementary realities of international relations

since 1945, to the point of not realizing that an astonishing increase in the numbers related to trade

has been accompanied by a tragic increase in the degradation of the living conditions of the majority

of the Earth's population. This statement is not meant to posit, in a simplistic way, that increased

trade is the direct cause of degradation. it is in a complex way, on the contrary, that trade is

structurally linked to the increase in planetary misery, to which it contributes, along with other

structural factors, in various ways: pressure on resources through the exploitation of "comparative

advantages"; transfer of human and natural resources; appropriation of resources by increasingly

sophisticated means (biopiracy; biogenetics; patenting of substances from living beings); production

of capital gains transferred to other countries; unbridled exploitation of natural resources, renewable

or not; continued deterioration of terms of trade; relocation of activities and speculative investments

of high risk capital, among others.

Le Monde Diplomatique (Nov. 1997, p. 1) provides a synthesis of the observable results of the

current model. "Six million hectares of arable land disappear annually, due to desertification.

Everywhere, erosion and overexploitation are devouring, at an accelerated rate, the surface of

arable land [...] 800 million people suffer from malnutrition.

"In 2010, the world's forest cover will have decreased by more than 40%, compared to 1990.[...]

Between 10 and 17 million hectares disappear annually. Four times that of Switzerland.
Deforestation destroys a biological heritage unique: tropical rainforests are home to 70% of

species.According to the IUCN [International Union for Conservation of Nature], 20% of all existing

species will have disappeared within ten years.

''The hardest hit forests are tropical forests. Thus, in Indonesia, about 80% of the rainforest on the

island of Sumatra has disappeared since the 1970s. And in Borneo, the number of trees cut down

has almost qui-tupled in sixteen years. Certainly, these destructions come from the rapid growth of

the population, which uses firewood as fuel and land for agriculture, but above all from forestry

exploitation in favor of rich countries."

In the (third) world, along with the loss of land due to desertification and erosion, there is a

continuous movement of opening agricultural frontiers, for the production of foodstuffs and primary

products destined for export. In the last ten years, soy has conquered millions of hectares in Brazil,

from Rio Grande do Sul to Acre. In 1992, 86% of production was exported to make foodstuffs,

essentially for the benefit of cattle in European countries (Galinkin, 1996:34). Native forests are cut

down in conditions of total unsustainability. They are often replaced by more economically profitable

exotic species, to the detriment of soil quality, subsistence crops and hydrological cycles,

The increase in entropy manifests itself in our daily routine, without provoking many reactions that

are not ones of satisfaction or real enthusiasm. The example of the installation of new automobile

industries in Brazil, as of April 1996, is paradigmatic and deserves some comments.

Automotive entropy

The launch of the "world car" (Palio model) by the Italian company FIAT, in Belo Horizonte, in April

1996, was highly symbolic. Since then, several car manufacturers (including trucks and buses) have

announced their intention to expand its factories in Brazil, or to create new production units. So it

happened with: General Motors, Honda, Mercedes Benz, Renault, Honda, Volvo, Volkswagen and

Skoda. "According to Dorothéa Werneck, 70 companies want to invest in Brazil, and have signed up
for the automotive program of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce. The planned investments in

this area are in the order of R$ 16 billion. At least three automakers have already shown interest in

promoting direct investments in the country: Hyundai, Asia/Kia and Honda" ( Diário do

Comércio,Belo Horizonte, 4/19/96, p.3).

To define the location of these new industries, there were intense negotiations and real interstate

auctions of offers of benefits to automakers. In the case of the installation of GM in the Porto Alegre

region, one of the rare instances in which there was some dissonance in the choir of the project's

laudators, the State of Rio Grande do Sul offered the company the following advantages: financing

of the entire ICMS (Circulation Tax of Goods and Services) for the acquisition of imported machinery

and equipment, even with similar national ones; compensation for any change in state or federal tax

legislation; installation of a natural gas connection to the automotive complex; guarantee of

preferential supply of electricity and fiber optic telephony; installation of sanitary and industrial

effluent lines, treatment of solid waste effluents; construction of a complete river terminal for GM's

preferential use in Greater Porto Alegre; construction or modernization, in an area close to the port

of Rio Grande, of a complete private maritime terminal; installation of skillful means to allow

automatic browsing; improvement of highways and accesses to the complex; earthworks and

urbanization of the land where the factory will be installed. Not counting the opening of direct

financial credits, in the amount of BRL 243 million ( earthworks and urbanization of the land where

the factory will be installed. Not counting the opening of direct financial credits, in the amount of BRL

243 million ( earthworks and urbanization of the land where the factory will be installed. Not counting

the opening of direct financial credits, in the amount of BRL 243 million (O Estado, Florianópolis, 19

and 20/4/97, p.2).

In addition to harming national sovereignty itself (in the case of possible compensation for changes

in federal tax legislation, for example), these provisions also harm the WTO precepts on free

competition or the non-intervention of the State in the market. The protests manifested, on this basis,

by eventual victims or by the planetary guardians of the dogma of trade liberalization, are far from
having reached the reprisals that occurred in the aforementioned case of North American meat

exports. Simultaneously, the construction companies' new industrial facilities configure a worldwide

redistribution of the location of their production units, based on strategic criteria not discussed with

anyone else. Within these criteria, where the main objective is to maximize profit, we can

mention: lower labor and resource costs; operating facilities; prizes offered by public authorities; lack

of administrative structures to control eventual requirements in the environmental area...

In the absence of a public transport policy aimed at minimizing the impact of the "all-by-private-car-

powered-on-gasoline" model, Brazil is simply planting the seeds of immense problems in the

medium and long term, whatever it is in relation to its energy matrix, traffic in urban areas, the

depredation of natural resources, renewable or not, the treatment of waste and effluents and the

living conditions of millions of people.

Renault's installation conditions, in Curitiba (PR), are a challenge to common sense and to any

attempt to minimally preserve the quality of life. The French factory demanded a pollution-free

area. Received the Industrial District of São José dos Pinhais, "within the Alto Iguaçu Basin, the

main source of supply of the Metropolitan Region of Curitiba, [a fact that] puts at risk all the

investments made so far to protect it. Including programs financed by the BIRD, such as Prosam,

where US$ 245 million are being invested [...] The risk arises from several factors: the total use, by

the industry, of one of the rivers defined as a future source; a very large number of suppliers who will

also install themselves in the source, as an industrial district has already been created for this; the

precedent that will lead all municipalities in the spring region to want their industrial park as well; the

occupation and densification of the surrounding area, by the population that will come after the

thousands of jobs advertised" (Teresa Urban, 12/04/96). Extensive list of legal provisions were

disregarded to achieve the goal of installing the factory, which has already is operating.

It would be interesting to compare the environmental legislation requirements of the automakers'

countries of origin, with those of the country receiving their investments and with the clauses of
various international treaties, within the 24 that might have to request authorization from ministers of

commerce around the world, to that its provisions relating to commercial penalties be implemented,

in order to protect the environment.

Other dimensions of entropy increase are of considerable importance, but cannot be studied in detail

in this text. One can mention, for example, the issue of the world production of residues and, in

particular, of toxic and dangerous waste. Tens of millions of tons of these products have an

uncertain final destination, starting with the industrialized countries. A European official found that

"three quarters of European hazardous waste (estimated at thirty million tons) is of unknown origin

and composition, that Luxembourg and Germany did not provide any figures on their total

production, that Belgium made no difference between the hazardous waste and others and that their

data on exports of industrial waste include domestic waste,

Under these conditions, it seems unrealistic to think that the Basel Convention (signed in March

1989), on the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and its final disposal, can

help in the global and effective resolution of the problem. Everyone is interested in getting rid of all

kinds of waste, as long as NIMBY syndrome (Not in my backyard) is properly considered; everything

is sold or bought; there is always the possibility of finding someone interested in receiving payment

to host any type of waste...

The definition, interpretation and application conditions of Public International Law, in general, reveal

other aspects of the extension of environmental defense problems.

TREATIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

In a non-exhaustive list, the document Environmental Treaties and Organizations in Environmental

Matters, prepared by the Secretary of the Environment of the State of São Paulo (1997), indicates

58 international instruments signed between 1959 (Antarctic Treaty- Protocol 91-) and 1993

(Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Storage and Use of Chemical
Weapons and on their Destruction). The texts of some of these international instruments were also

edited: 1) Ramsar Convention (1971) on wetlands of international importance, especially as habitatof

waterfowl; 2) Vienna Convention (1985) for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal

Protocol (1987) on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; 3) Convention on climate change

(Rio, 1992); 4) Convention on biodiversity (Rio, 1992); 5) Basel Convention (1989) on the Control of

Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Final Disposal and 6) Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, known as the CITES

Convention (1973).

Since it is impossible to review and comment on all these texts, it remains to make macroanalytic

considerations about their existence and meaning.

First, there is nothing to prevent, in light of principles endorsed by the community of civilized nations

(source of Public International Law, according to article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of

Justice), the international consensus around basic norms may be incorporated. to the requirements

formulated by the WTO. There is nothing more logical than noting the existing consensus around

fundamental principles, in order to format norms, with due precautions, within the scope of the WTO

itself. this démarcheelemental and essential, however, has not received the slightest support, to

date, by any organ of the organization. Thus, among others, the principles adopted by "civilized

nations" at the Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992) on the Environment and Human Development

remain without practical consequence. Citing just a few of the principles adopted, it appears that

there would be an international consensus around the most relevant issues:

"Principle 8: States should reduce and eliminate patterns of consumption and production considered

unsustainable." Comparing with the installation conditions of car assemblers...

"Principle 10: Public participation in environmental decision-making should be promoted and access

to information facilitated." In comparison with Tom Wathen's remarks (op.cit., p.29): "(...) like other

international institutions, GATT deliberations continue to take place without the participation of
society. All GATT procedures, including those negotiations, disputes and deliberations of the

councils are carried out in closed meetings. Even the decisions of the dispute panels remain

confidential.[...]. This secrecy is explained by the need to isolate diplomacy from the internal

pressures of public opinion." .

"Principle 13: The adoption of international laws and treaties aimed at accountability and

compensation for damage caused to the environment should be promoted." (As long as these laws

and treaties do not interfere with the needs of commerce?)

"Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary principle should be widely

applied by States, according to their own conditions."

The formulation of the precautionary principle asserts: "In case of serious or irreversible damage, the

absence of absolute scientific certainty should not serve as a pretext for postponing the adoption of

effective measures to prevent environmental degradation".

"Principle 16:.Local authorities should promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use

of economic instruments, taking into account that the polluter must bear the costs of pollution." The

internalization of environmental costs (see below) is exactly what the WTO tends to reject by all

means at its disposal.

"Principle 27: States and individuals shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership for the

fulfillment of the principles contained in this Declaration and for the development of international law

in the field of sustainable development".

Within a globalized world, these principles seem like truisms. But they remain rhetorical truisms. Its

implementation clashes with concrete interests, which tend to provide solutions in the sense of

increasing, more and more, the entropy of the set; based on the secrecy of decisions and the

refusal, therefore, of the participation of the majority of interested parties, based on the
most technology intensive solutions that can be found, in the seemingly endless spiral of income

concentration in the hands of less and less and exclusion of the majority.

Among many examples, and to remain within the scope of the aforementioned conventions,

reference can be made to the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance,

especially as habitat for aquatic species.

Brazil ratified the Ramsar Convention (in 1992) and designated the Pantanal Matogrossense as one

of the five areas to be specially protected in its territory. This implies assuming certain obligations

and responsibilities, specified by the Convention, both in relation to its territory and in relations with

neighboring States and in undertakings subsequent to its ratification. However, it is without worrying

about these obligations that other international agreements were signed, with the countries of the La

Plata basin, to idealize a most controversial undertaking: the works on the Paraguay-Paraná

Waterway. The magnitude and foreseeable impacts of the works could lead to breaches of some

obligations of the Ramsar convention, such as: promoting the rational use of wetlands; carry out

consultations on the performance of the obligations of the convention, in particular in the case of a

wetland or a shared watershed; create wetland reserves. From 1989 onwards, a set of precise

questions was put into practice, formulated by NGOs that organized an international coordination,

called Coalizão Rios Vivos, to try to change the conditions for carrying out the project.

With regard to informing public opinion, the participation of the populations directly involved, the

assessment of impacts and other issues involved, opinions vary considerably, depending on the

positions held by the various protagonists. According to ambassador Rubens Antônio Barbosa, the

waterway is "one of the most striking examples of regional cooperation in a large-scale project with

extensive environmental implications. What stands out, in this case, is the success of the dialogue

between governments and civil society, due to intermediary of non-governmental

organizations". Among the points of consensus, "it is worth emphasizing the commitment to ensure
that environmental impact assessment studies are open to public knowledge and that there is

effective participation of all sectors interested in the project (...)"(op. cit. p. 146-147).

Other authors (Caubet, 1996; Vior, 1996, p.55) show the difficulties in relation to these

issues. Eduardo Vior recalls that the Coalizão, formed in 1994, had among its objectives to request

from the Intergovernmental Committee Coordinating the Hidrovia "transparent information and

effective participation of the population about and in the works to be carried out, its economic

viability and forecasts of environmental impact and However, despite the abundant public promises

of information and consultation, the governments of Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay have started

some partial works, without waiting for the completion of the feasibility and environmental impact

studies." This is because "the governments involved consider the requirement for popular

participation to be satisfied, with the simple public information about the plans to be carried out"

(p.56).

These divergences lead to another dimension of the problem of the relationship between trade and

the environment; that of legal practitioners ...and other rule-makers. Indeed, there are norms that are

already having a greater effect than legal norms, even though they are not rules of law. This is the

case for the standards of the ISO 9 000 and ISO 14 000 series, the relevance of which requires

some comments.

TREATIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

In a non-exhaustive list, the document Environmental Treaties and Organizations in Environmental

Matters, prepared by the Secretary of the Environment of the State of São Paulo (1997), indicates

58 international instruments signed between 1959 (Antarctic Treaty- Protocol 91-) and 1993

(Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Storage and Use of Chemical

Weapons and on their Destruction). The texts of some of these international instruments were also

edited: 1) Ramsar Convention (1971) on wetlands of international importance, especially as habitatof

waterfowl; 2) Vienna Convention (1985) for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal
Protocol (1987) on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; 3) Convention on climate change

(Rio, 1992); 4) Convention on biodiversity (Rio, 1992); 5) Basel Convention (1989) on the Control of

Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Final Disposal and 6) Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, known as the CITES

Convention (1973).

Since it is impossible to review and comment on all these texts, it remains to make macroanalytic

considerations about their existence and meaning.

First, there is nothing to prevent, in light of principles endorsed by the community of civilized nations

(source of Public International Law, according to article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of

Justice), the international consensus around basic norms may be incorporated. to the requirements

formulated by the WTO. There is nothing more logical than noting the existing consensus around

fundamental principles, in order to format norms, with due precautions, within the scope of the WTO

itself. this démarcheelemental and essential, however, has not received the slightest support, to

date, by any organ of the organization. Thus, among others, the principles adopted by "civilized

nations" at the Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992) on the Environment and Human Development

remain without practical consequence. Citing just a few of the principles adopted, it appears that

there would be an international consensus around the most relevant issues:

"Principle 8: States should reduce and eliminate patterns of consumption and production considered

unsustainable." Comparing with the installation conditions of car assemblers...

"Principle 10: Public participation in environmental decision-making should be promoted and access

to information facilitated." In comparison with Tom Wathen's remarks (op.cit., p.29): "(...) like other

international institutions, GATT deliberations continue to take place without the participation of

society. All GATT procedures, including those negotiations, disputes and deliberations of the

councils are carried out in closed meetings. Even the decisions of the dispute panels remain
confidential.[...]. This secrecy is explained by the need to isolate diplomacy from the internal

pressures of public opinion." .

"Principle 13: The adoption of international laws and treaties aimed at accountability and

compensation for damage caused to the environment should be promoted." (As long as these laws

and treaties do not interfere with the needs of commerce?)

"Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary principle should be widely

applied by States, according to their own conditions."

The formulation of the precautionary principle asserts: "In case of serious or irreversible damage, the

absence of absolute scientific certainty should not serve as a pretext for postponing the adoption of

effective measures to prevent environmental degradation".

"Principle 16:.Local authorities should promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use

of economic instruments, taking into account that the polluter must bear the costs of pollution." The

internalization of environmental costs (see below) is exactly what the WTO tends to reject by all

means at its disposal.

"Principle 27: States and individuals shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership for the

fulfillment of the principles contained in this Declaration and for the development of international law

in the field of sustainable development".

Within a globalized world, these principles seem like truisms. But they remain rhetorical truisms. Its

implementation clashes with concrete interests, which tend to provide solutions in the sense of

increasing, more and more, the entropy of the set; based on the secrecy of decisions and the

refusal, therefore, of the participation of the majority of interested parties, based on the

most technology intensive solutions that can be found, in the seemingly endless spiral of income

concentration in the hands of less and less and exclusion of the majority.
Among many examples, and to remain within the scope of the aforementioned conventions,

reference can be made to the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance,

especially as habitat for aquatic species.

Brazil ratified the Ramsar Convention (in 1992) and designated the Pantanal Matogrossense as one

of the five areas to be specially protected in its territory. This implies assuming certain obligations

and responsibilities, specified by the Convention, both in relation to its territory and in relations with

neighboring States and in undertakings subsequent to its ratification. However, it is without worrying

about these obligations that other international agreements were signed, with the countries of the La

Plata basin, to idealize a most controversial undertaking: the works on the Paraguay-Paraná

Waterway. The magnitude and foreseeable impacts of the works could lead to breaches of some

obligations of the Ramsar convention, such as: promoting the rational use of wetlands; carry out

consultations on the performance of the obligations of the convention, in particular in the case of a

wetland or a shared watershed; create wetland reserves. From 1989 onwards, a set of precise

questions was put into practice, formulated by NGOs that organized an international coordination,

called Coalizão Rios Vivos, to try to change the conditions for carrying out the project.

With regard to informing public opinion, the participation of the populations directly involved, the

assessment of impacts and other issues involved, opinions vary considerably, depending on the

positions held by the various protagonists. According to ambassador Rubens Antônio Barbosa, the

waterway is "one of the most striking examples of regional cooperation in a large-scale project with

extensive environmental implications. What stands out, in this case, is the success of the dialogue

between governments and civil society, due to intermediary of non-governmental

organizations". Among the points of consensus, "it is worth emphasizing the commitment to ensure

that environmental impact assessment studies are open to public knowledge and that there is

effective participation of all sectors interested in the project (...)"(op. cit. p. 146-147).
Other authors (Caubet, 1996; Vior, 1996, p.55) show the difficulties in relation to these

issues. Eduardo Vior recalls that the Coalizão, formed in 1994, had among its objectives to request

from the Intergovernmental Committee Coordinating the Hidrovia "transparent information and

effective participation of the population about and in the works to be carried out, its economic

viability and forecasts of environmental impact and However, despite the abundant public promises

of information and consultation, the governments of Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay have started

some partial works, without waiting for the completion of the feasibility and environmental impact

studies." This is because "the governments involved consider the requirement for popular

participation to be satisfied, with the simple public information about the plans to be carried out"

(p.56).

These divergences lead to another dimension of the problem of the relationship between trade and

the environment; that of legal practitioners ...and other rule-makers. Indeed, there are norms that are

already having a greater effect than legal norms, even though they are not rules of law. This is the

case for the standards of the ISO 9 000 and ISO 14 000 series, the relevance of which requires

some comments.

Are there international treaties that intend to incorporate trade sanctions as a way to ensure their

own compliance? They exist! This is the case, among others, of the Montreal Protocol and the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora - CITES. What will be

the implementation of its provisions (normatives, as incorporated, by ratification, into the domestic

law of the signatories), if "the GATT negotiators intend to subject any environmental legislation that

has an impact on international trade to the approval of the GATT Council, a body subsidiary of the

contracting parties to this agreement. At least 24 international environmental agreements could

require authorization by the majority of foreign trade ministers worldwide,

The Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development itself establishes, in its Principle

12: "Economic policies aimed at environmental protection must not serve to discriminate or restrict
international trade. Measures to control transboundary or global environmental problems must

always as possible, be based on consensus among countries".

More recently, another dimension began to intensify the positions of supporters of commerce, or of

its control, in the name of demands that are not just for profit. This is the problem of Genetically

Modified Organisms - GMO's. When the European Union confirmed its decision not to allow the

importation of North American meat, which incorporated growth hormones due to the nutritional

conditions for raising cattle, the United States began, as trade reprisals, to apply tariffs of one

hundred percent on many goods of European origin. The alleged legal basis was the disrespect that

the European decision showed, by ignoring the decision of the World Trade Organization - WTO,

that the ban was an unfair barrier to North American and Canadian meat exports.

In this way, in the name of the freedom of commerce (that is, in the name of the freedom to make a

profit), it is possible to ignore any type of problem or requirement resulting from collective

imperatives. There is no doubt about the order of priority that should guide behavior. It is possible,

strictly speaking, to sign texts to protect animal or plant species, to preserve certain national or

regional spaces, or even almost universal ones, as long as they do not interfere in the free game of

commerce. This type of position ends up favoring a distorted and deeply dysfunctional perception of

realities, as it promotes an image of commerce as an autonomous phenomenon, separate from the

context in which it operates. It so happens, however, that the study of this context reveals the extent

of the damage that is taking place everywhere,

one of the leading ideologues of liberalism and the creators of the current
reforms, correctly notes, “Russia's integration into the world economy
has a peculiar character: the state has almost completely opened the
economy“ to exit, ”while retaining significant restrictions on“ entry. ” to
the fact that capital and brains can freely leave the country, and their
inflow from the world economy to Russia encounters numerous
obstacles.This situation leads to the fact that Russia is unable to take
advantage of all the advantages of globalization, fully feeling its
disadvantages. . "...
Speaking of globalization, first of all, they mean economic integration,
internationalization of goods, capital, people and information to ensure high rates of
growth in the production of material goods, create a single world economic and
information space, exchange cultural values, and manage crisis development. Ecology
is a powerful factor in the forced unity of the world, forcing to reconsider the attitude to
traditional forms (technologies) of industrial production development.
All these factors, taken together, should and, in principle, can ensure a safe life and
sustainable economic, social, cultural development of all countries and continents. But
the general harmony, alas, is not visible. And, apparently, for this reason, even in the
prosperous West, millions of people believe that globalization does more harm than
good, and hundreds of thousands are actively protesting against the "good" life imposed
on the whole world.
The fact is that globalization is initiated, directed and implemented by quite definite
transnational circles of North America, Europe and Japan, realizing in this process their
economic and geopolitical interests, which are far from coinciding with the national
interests of other countries and regions. The United States participates most
consistently and toughly in the process of globalization, actively using people,
information, capital and all its military power to undermine the national security of
"disobedient" countries, conducting a massive psychological treatment of their
population, organizing economic blockades, creating and financing influential fifth
columns, etc. and if these measures do not help, then they resort to direct military
intervention. All this, of course, in the name of freedom, market economy and
democracy.
Thus, globalization in today's world turns out to be a process that ensures the well-being
of the strong at the expense of the weak. The strong use all the advantages of this
process, integrating their economies [1], while the weak remain the unenviable role of
raw materials appendages and markets for cheap labor. As a result, even investments
directed by TNCs in poor countries with low wages turn into a form of "milking" them,
since goods produced at significantly lower costs (differences in payment for the same
work sometimes reach 20 or more times) are realized in rich countries at prices that
provide high profits to the manufacturer, while remaining highly competitive compared to
the prices of similar products manufactured by local enterprises,
What has brought and is bringing globalization for Russia?
First, these are incommensurable sociocultural losses.
The rift in the vast Eurasian space, cemented by the Russian language and Russian
culture, is counterproductive for Russia and for the newly independent states that have
formed on its outskirts. The loss of the cultural component, the displacement of Pushkin,
Tolstoy, Dostoevsky is a sign of the impoverishment and degradation of national
cultures, including the Russian one. Cultural diversity is a wealth, and Russian culture
has always "appropriated" it, absorbing the culture and traditions of many peoples in a
"filmed" form. The main ones are the traditions of tolerance and mutual respect,
characteristic of the entire centuries-old history of the Russian state. The rift in the
Eurasian cultural space undoubtedly undermined the solidarity of most of the peoples
inhabiting it, and together with their cultural migration to Western Europe, America,
China, Iraq,
Even more catastrophic in its consequences is the modernization "breakthrough" of the
Soviet way of life, which essentially means a civilizational cataclysm, the collapse of the
paradigm of human existence, which has already led to global changes.
Inside the country, the transformation of monostylistic culture into a polystylistic one is
underway, accompanied by a devaluation of the cultural and moral tradition, and the
dehumanization of almost all social relations. It is paradoxical, but true: the so desired
and seemingly already acquired freedom has turned into a new anti-utopia of violence
and corruption that has affected all spheres of life in Russian society. Freedom of
conscience turned into freedom from conscience, from spiritual traditions: freedom of
entrepreneurship - freedom from all laws: state and moral.
All the reins have been released in Russia today. The primacy of law (there is nothing
above the law), we both did not have, and do not. But the feeling of "duty" to the
Motherland, which once united people of various convictions, has also
disappeared. The system of moral regulation has also disintegrated - in fact, there is no
generally accepted or even widespread system of ideas about good and evil, about
moral and immoral, about the norm and deviation from it.
But morality is divine in man, that which is given only to him, that which distinguishes
him from any other creation of the Lord. Hence, its priority importance for the
preservation of the human in man, the normal functioning of society and the state. And
hence - powerful attacks on the best qualities and forces of the nation, in whose soul
the voice of conscience, truth and justice always sounded loudly. Today these concepts
are practically excluded from the lexicon, and if they are used by the media, then, as a
rule, in an ironic sense. The basic civilizational qualities of the Russian people are
indulged in ridicule and derogatory criticism: "universal responsiveness" (in the words of
FM Dostoevsky), non-covetousness, longsuffering, patriotism, the primacy of the public
over the personal, - which allowed him to adequately survive the tragic and unbearable
historical trials for any other nation. The same qualities play an important role in the
revival of Russia on the principles natural for it - overcoming the gap between the
spiritual and the material, morality and freedom.
That is why a lot of money and efforts are directed at making people stupid with the help
of informational consumer goods, outright indecency and defamation.
The short-term freedom of speech is again squeezed by the most severe censorship -
now the owners of controlling stakes in television and radio channels or publications. As
a result, a society deprived of a full-fledged discussion goes numb.
As experience shows, Western values, which are intensely implanted by many leading
mass media (mass media), when dissected there, undergo strange mutations. So,
instead of ethical, the Russian people are imposed on extra-ethical individualism,
actively promoted by the media, as well as by the personal example of politicians and
businessmen. Moreover, the corresponding attitudes are formed not on the basis of
reflection, but by influencing the feelings and the subconscious through video
sequences, cinema illusions, music, singing, etc. With the help of these means, as well
as American propaganda (including advertising) carried out through our media, a
counterculture is actually being formed youth, characterized by the adoption of
extremely individualistic principles and patterns of behavior (selfishness, the desire to
live at the expense of others, violence, xenophobia, etc.)
As a result, the sins of acquisitiveness, greed, and deception have reared in our
lives. Following the example of the ruling class, which does not burden itself with the
observance of laws and moral norms, more and more ordinary people are being drawn
into the orbit of criminal and asocial behavior.
The sad experience of the depreciation of savings, voucher privatization, financial
pyramids, default have taught us that theft and deception even by the state are
common, natural and ineradicable phenomena, as is the massive corruption associated
with them. These are, as it were, the main features of the new national way of life.
In such a society and state, a normal law-abiding person is always a victim of an armed
raider, before whom he is unarmed in the literal sense of the word - an arrogant or
corrupt official with real power, before whom an ordinary person, even if he is a
thousand times right, is still defenseless. In fact, he is defenseless in any conflict with
any villain, since the current government does not protect him.
Finally, he is defenseless in front of himself, because in this situation any normal person
cannot but feel shame both for himself and for the society in which he lives and cannot
change anything. The Russian person is offended not only for himself, but also for the
state.
And shame is anger, turned inward, which, without breaking free for the time being,
causes stress, depression, psychological distress, which is the main reason for the
excess mortality that has sharply increased over the years of "reforms", mainly among
men of reproductive and working age.
And there is nothing to be surprised at how surprised the whole world is about this,
equating the characteristics of the Russian process of depopulation with a unique
phenomenon of the end of the 20th century, which requires deep analysis and
comprehension, there is nothing. Suffice it to say that over the past two decades, the
quality of life in Russia has completely changed its face. Thus, according to the Russian
Monitoring of the Economic Situation and Health of the Population of the Institute of
Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Nutrition of the Russian
Academy of Medical Sciences, the Population Center of the University of North Carolina
and the Demoscope Research Center, today only 17% of adult Russians are satisfied
with their lives, while 60% are not satisfied with it. ... According to the data of
representative all-Union studies of the way of life in 1980-1981, 54% of Soviet people
had a "good" life, 44% had "satisfactory" and only 2% "
Thus, not alcohol, not smoking, not physical inactivity, but a sharp long-term
deterioration of the social situation, which led to a general depletion of the nation's
vitality, plays a decisive role here. In the course of unnatural social selection, its
strongest link is knocked out. People with a moral core are pushed to the economic
margins, to the brink of survival, or even to the "bottom" of society, who are capable of
giving up personal gain if it is detrimental to society as a whole. The purposefully
centralized collapse of Russian fundamental science and culture, their miserable
existence make a significant contribution to this process. But on the other hand, all
conditions are created for the prosperity of persons with socio-cultural pathology, at all
times and in all countries that call themselves civilized, under the vigilant control of law
enforcement agencies.
Only economic losses are comparable to these negative sociocultural transformations
and processes. Only economic disintegration has reduced Russia's share in world
production by 8 times, and the structure of the economy of the former superpower has
acquired a clearly dependent peripheral character.
As you know, its foundations were laid in the course of the brilliant implementation of
the largest scam of the 20th century, as a result of which about 150 million people were
overnight "freed" from the property created by them and their ancestors, which, in turn,
was transferred to hands of a very narrow nomenklatura-criminal-democratic
"stratum". Capturing the most profitable basic sectors of the modern Russian economy:
the extraction and processing of oil and gas, precious, non-ferrous metals and
aluminum, the electric power industry, telecommunications, air and land transport, and
later the most competitive and promising enterprises, the military-industrial complex, is
this layer in which business qualities have always played a secondary role. actively
began to enrich herself. The main results of this really tumultuous activity are fairly well
known.
An oligarchic structure of the economy has taken shape: "at least 70% of the gross
product produced is controlled by two or three dozen business structures, decisions in
which are made by several hundred individuals who make up the business and
administrative elite of Russia."
The economy became criminalized. This process was initiated by the voucher
privatization, followed by the expansion of criminals into practically all spheres of our
life, capable of providing it with a respectable bourgeois existence.
The size of the shadow economy itself is today, according to officials' estimates, about
60%, and in the Caucasus - about 80%. It is therefore natural that the bulk of small and
medium-sized businesses are, by their own admission, at odds with the law, not to
mention morality.
According to some expert estimates, about 90% of the economic structures and
institutions of the Russian civil society are criminal. Moreover, 45% of them are "purely"
criminal, and the other 45%, using legal methods, nevertheless function in the economy
as a destructive beginning, stimulating the development of "exclusively speculative
forms of trade, intermediary and financial capital; initiate the processes of de-
industrialization of the national economy ; transformation of its structure into a colonial-
raw material; put the country in a strategic dependence on imports. "
Boldly and aggressively, often pirately (threats, bribery and violence), quite prosperous
enterprises are seized for the purpose of re-profiling, speculative resale, or, as in
Moscow, for the privatization of the priceless capital land.
When the market is identified with an all-encompassing desire for profit, and its general
subjects are groups, and in fact clans that have long rejected common human "simple"
moral norms, then speculative financial and speculative trading capital, mass corruption
and crime flourish against the background of paralysis of production, material and
spiritual impoverishment of the population. A kind of state-antisocial criminal freak
appears, giving rise to an equally ugly business, since he is simply not able to generate
another (civilized or not very wild).
A characteristic feature of this wild capitalism is the predatory nature of the exploitation
of fixed assets and natural resources, threatening man-made, environmental and social
explosions. So, the main problem of the electric power industry, like many other
industries, is the catastrophic aging of its assets. Over the past 10 years, the equipment
has "aged" by another third of its standard service life. By 2000, the maximum standard
operating time reached 55% of the installed capacity. According to the forecasts of
specialists, the output of capacities from work will grow like an avalanche. If we take into
account that the construction time for new power plants is at least 5 years, the issue of
investments in the electric power industry arises in all its acuteness.
A striking fact: during the existence of RAO "UES of Russia", only the state has invested
in the existing energy system (by presidential decree, all dividends of the state block of
shares are fully channeled into investments). If we consider that more than 40% of
shareholders are private organizations and individuals, it turns out that at our expense,
for our money, the future income of private investors is provided.
And investments are really sorely lacking to ensure the growth of the economy and the
well-being of the population, to prevent more frequent emergencies (terrorist attacks,
aircraft deaths, forest fires, glaciers, floods, fires in children's institutions, etc.), which,
due to their persistence they are no longer perceived as such. According to expert
estimates, Russia needs $ 12 billion a year, while foreign direct investment in its
economy over the years of reforms totaled only $ 10-15 billion, which is approximately
equal to the annual export of capital from our country. the lion's share of which belongs
to the entire Russian people, since it consists of unclaimed natural rent.
There are no rental payment decisions in our legislation. That is, the world's richest
subsoil, the national heritage is used today mainly for personal enrichment. The fact that
neither the Law "On Subsoil" nor the recently adopted Tax Code of the Russian
Federation even mentions the collection of funds for the reproduction of the mineral
resource base, due to and in connection with the exploitation of which the ruling
class. The Russian people, who are the only ones that rightfully own these subsoil, get
only crumbs, sufficient to live on the brink or below the poverty line, although it is
obvious that establishing proper order in this area would greatly increase real incomes
and qualitatively improve the lives of ordinary citizens.
As E. Yasin, one of the leading ideologues of liberalism and the creators of the current
reforms, correctly notes, “Russia's integration into the world economy has a peculiar
character: the state has almost completely opened the economy“ for the exit, ”while
retaining significant restrictions on“ entry. ” that capital and brains can freely leave the
country, and their inflow from the economy of the whole world to Russia encounters
numerous obstacles. This situation leads to the fact that Russia is unable to take
advantage of all the advantages of globalization, fully feeling its disadvantages ... "
The concentration of national wealth in the hands of a narrow circle of "friends" who
ignore national interests and "effectively" use it for personal enrichment due to the
obviously paid the low level of well-being of the bulk of people is "combined" with their
fairly high general cultural and professional qualities, as well as with the world's richest
natural resource potential.
However, the answer to the sacramental question: why are we so poor, if so rich? -
inevitably leads us into the corridors of power, since the current anti-national criminal
Russian economy was created by quite definite political forces and needed a quite
definite form of government, based on interpenetration, fusion of business and
power. Naturally, already by virtue of this circumstance, it was initially corrupt.
The data presented indicate a deep split in Russian society: economic, social, political,
mental, moral as a result of its short-term "liberal" reform. However, it is very difficult to
detect the main liberal tendency in the actions of the ruling class - an interest in
overcoming this split on the basis of synthesis, consensus, development of new
common meanings and initiatives, restoration of the universally significant spiritual and
moral content and integrity of the way of life, ensuring stability and continuity in the
development of society.
So, summing up, it can be noted that the results of economic, political and cultural
expansion into our country are quite comprehensive and can undermine the foundations
of the existence and development of any independent state, and even more so such as
the Russian one, which has always played its special role in the world. Seem to
be. theorists and practitioners of globalization have nevertheless developed and
launched mechanisms for the weakening and self-destruction of Russia as a leading
power.
It is a dependent, trade and speculative economy with a raw material orientation, which
lacks internally built-in growth mechanisms. The economy is irrational, criminalized,
where the owner reigns supreme, "effectively" working only for his own egoistic
benefit. And therefore, apparently, it is not able to provide (with the world's richest
natural resource potential and huge super-profits derived from it) the necessary
investments either in production or in humans: improving the level and quality of life,
developing culture, science, education.
This is a society to which the term "civil" is inapplicable, since an ordinary citizen is
powerless and defenseless in it and cannot rely on the norms of the law that do not
work for him, or on generally accepted norms of morality,
This is a formally democratic state that ignores the vital interests of the bulk of the
population and is unable to ensure the adoption and implementation of laws that protect
the individual and national property from selfish use.
The elimination of the main bulwarks of the communist ideology and the system of like-
mindedness cultivated by it - which the liberals are very proud of - amid the collapse of
the system of legal, social and moral regulation. led not to spiritual freedom, but to a
new enslavement of the masses with alien ideals and values, which are based on
aggressive lack of spirituality, greed, hatred and violence.
As a result of the action of all the above mechanisms of collapse, a situation of
guaranteed danger has been created in Russia, in which borders are not defined and,
accordingly, are not enshrined either in legislation, or in morality, or in corporate ethics,
beyond which certain phenomena cause damage to vital interests of the individual,
society and the state in the present and can be applied in the future.
Today, however, hardly anyone would call all three components (levels) of national
security protected from internal and external threats. If only because these are divided
subjects, whose interests in a real situation are often directly opposite.
Accordingly to this extremely painful state, there is a sharp weakening of Russia's
positions in the international arena and the formation of an essentially unipolar
(monopoly) world dominated by the United States and the American way of life, the
protection of which, along with the protection of the people and territory, is traditionally
the main task and constitutional obligation of the presidential administration. of this
country in ensuring national security.
We were left alone with ourselves: "there are strangers all around, but where ours are
unknown." But never before had a new "allied" ring closed so closely on Russia's
throat. In the east and south, now even in the Caucasus, American troops are
stationed. And after the war in Iraq, the United States moved its bases from Germany to
Poland, to the very border of the former Soviet Union.
Alas, the world has not become safer. How influential forces of the West have not
ceased to develop and implement scenarios of weakening Russia and even
dismembering it into a number of independent state formations.
Of course, everything cannot be reduced to "the intrigues of the enemies." We
ourselves were unable to maintain a non-force defense after the defeat in the Cold War
and the collapse of the Soviet Union.
True, we ourselves, not without the active "help" of the newly-minted "allies", allowed
people who tried to make someone else's past our present and future to the supreme
power.
We ourselves were unable to "push" people into the economic and political elite who
were not tainted by cooperation with clans that selfishly rejected the public good from
those who were not part of them or did not serve them "faithfully." As a result, the
society was left without a real elite, visionary, courageous and selfless. As, in essence,
it remained without justified economic and social guidelines.
We ourselves are ready to sacrifice our basic civil rights in exchange for solving urgent
social problems.
This is our centuries-old atrophy of the ability to independently assert oneself in life,
inherent in both the "lower" and "upper classes", led us instead of liberalization to the
primatization of the reform process - the uncritical borrowing of fragments of someone
else's cultural experience, reproduced in an alien socio-cultural environment, which
leads to disorganization and other devastating consequences. There is a steady,
although sometimes not so obvious, growth of a tangle of painful, gradually becoming
insoluble problems, to which they adapt and get used to, but which do not solve. The
inability of the ruling class, which is in a complete communication gap with society, to
resolve them is obvious.
Contrary to the opinion of B.A. Grushin, that "only dishonest people could lead the
transition to a new life," I believe that the decade of Russian "reforms" at the end of the
20th century. clearly demonstrates: the transition from an authoritarian-totalitarian
model of society to a democratic one is impossible without changes in basic moral
principles, without a kind of moral reformation, with which all economic, political, social,
etc. ideas must be correlated.
Yu.N. Davydov in his monograph "History and Rationality", published back in 1991, very
accurately noted that the most beautiful ideas of our economists and publicists break
against the same stumbling block - the absence of an "economic man" with labor
motivation, focused not so much on consumerism. how much productive. And speaking
on behalf of M. Weber, relying on his thoughts, he made a very accurate prediction
without any additional research: reforms will stall until the "simple" norms of morality
that determine the motivation and social behavior of people are restored to their age-old
rights. ...
This is, in fact, the most important condition for civilized market relations, which
desperately need people not with sociocultural pathology, but those who live and work,
realizing, knowing and recognizing the intrinsic value of other people, and not just their
instrumental qualities. Outside of morality, neither culture nor civilization simply does not
exist. And only relying on a solid moral foundation, it is possible to equip our life on the
principles of conciliarity, spirituality, unity with nature, personal freedom and personal
responsibility before God and people, genetically characteristic of Russia.
Nothing worthwhile can be built on rot, even if Putin is at the head.
Newly born Russian capitalism is very lucky with a people whose sacrifice exceeds the
rational mental boundaries and whose best qualities are used to their detriment.
Everything has its time. The new quasi-liberal turmoil will also end. The people will
shake off those who "milk" them, and those who "hold by the horns." It is good if with
the help of the necessary reforms and democratic procedures, without bloodshed. And if
it does spill, but God forbid it will flow like streams, then we will certainly be
"helped". How they "helped" Yugoslavia, in the recent past the most powerful and
strongest power in the Balkans, the generally recognized leader of the "third" world.
Therefore, we will not find out who is to blame. It is better to unite in search of a way out
of a very difficult, but not yet hopeless situation.
1. According to the Greek political scientist Christo Gionis, "foreign direct investments
are mainly directed today from developed countries to developed ones. And not to
developing ones. One third of world trade turnover falls on transnational companies.
They belong to five countries - France, Germany, Great Britain. Japan and the US This
"five" accumulates three quarters of all foreign direct investment. "

 Fleish International Communications Consulting appoints a new head of human

resources and development in the Asia-Pacific region

The localization of management personnel is the key to the company's outstanding

performance in 2016 Fleet International Communications Consulting (hereinafter referred
to as Fleet) announced today that it has appointed senior vice president and partner Yu Li
as the new head of human resources and development in the Asia-Pacific region. Lynne
Anne Davis, President and Senior Partner of Fleet International Communication
Consulting Asia Pacific, said: "Yu Li has used her own hard work and work to interpret
Fleet’s collaborative spirit and corporate culture. She fully understands talents. It is the
center of the company’s business and corporate culture.” She also emphasized: “Yu Li is
honest and fair, diligent, humorous and kind, and thus is recognized and respected by her
 colleagues. As a team leader, she not only strengthens Foley’s Values and teamwork
methods can inspire every colleague to maximize their abilities and potentials." Yu Li
was previously the head of human resources and development in Fleet Greater
China. During the 12 years of working with Fry, she worked for 8 months at the
company's headquarters in the United States. She will take up this position in the Asia-
Pacific region immediately. Before joining Fleet in 2005, she worked for a leading
logistics company in Beijing for three years. Her professional career started at JPMorgan
Chase Group in Paris. Fly Asia Pacific is known for its low turnover rate, high retention
rate of long-term employees, and gender equality from senior management to ordinary
employees. After taking up his new position, Yu Li will continue to build a talent team
for Fly Asia Pacific, and lead the performance management, leadership development, and
talent incentive and retention projects in the Asia Pacific region. Yu Li takes over as
Sally Woo, Senior Partner and Senior Vice President of Human Resources and
Development in the Asia Pacific Region. She has served at Frye for five years and will
immigrate to Canada after she leaves. Shi Yingyan said: "Sally has done a lot of work in
an important position in our leadership team. We are very grateful to Sally for her
contributions, including assisting Yu Li to take over her position." "Fair International
Communications The performance of Consulting Asia Pacific reached a new high in
2016, mainly due to the ability and enthusiasm of Fulai's talents," Shi Yingyan
added. "Of the 17 offices in the Fly Asia Pacific region, 16 are led by local leaders. This
is our leadership localization model. It will continue to be one of our most unique and
competitive advantages in the Asia Pacific region. "Yu Li will continue the localization
model of Fleish’s leaders, which is also one of the reasons for Fleish’s success in the
Asia-Pacific region. Fleet Asia Pacific employees come from 16 countries and speak 13
different languages, 93% of which are from the Asia Pacific region. ...

 Fly International Communications Consulting and Vriens & Partners sign an

Asia-Pacific alliance agreement

The government affairs consulting company Vriens & Partners and the global strategic
communication consulting service company Fry International Communication Consulting
announced today an alliance partnership. Combining the strong advantages of both
parties in strategic consulting, it will strengthen business cooperation in the Asian
market. Fleet Asia Pacific is headquartered in Hong Kong, China, and provides a full
range of communications consulting services for many of the world's top companies in
Asia Pacific business development. Vriens & Partners, headquartered in Singapore, has
been providing professional government affairs, public policy and policy risk analysis
and assessment services for its clients in its Southeast Asia service network. This new
partnership will integrate Fry’s advantages in providing integrated communications
services in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as Vriens & Partners’ expertise in local
market policies, to provide customers with one-stop public affairs consulting, and to help
customers in the changing Asia Grasp the opportunities brought about by the booming
development in the market. Shi Yingyan, President and Senior Partner of Fleet
International Communications Consulting Asia-Pacific, said: “The Asia-Pacific market is
full of complexity. Providing strategic consulting for high-risk decision-making is
currently one of Fleet’s largest and fastest-growing businesses in this region. 1. Our
 cooperation can fully combine the strong advantages of Fry’s global public affairs
network with the in-depth expertise of Vriens & Partners in the policy formulation of
Southeast Asian countries. For customers seeking breakthroughs in market expansion and
market access, this time Strong alliance is able to provide the best quality and unmatched
consulting services for the series of problems they face." Hans Vriens, managing partner
of Vriens & Partners, said: "We are very pleased to formally expand the cooperative
relationship with Fly Years of uninterrupted cooperation. Both of us recognize that we
need deeper and broader expertise to help our customers deal with key issues in the Asian
market. This partnership expands our expertise and capabilities, and thus helps Southeast
Asia and the wider region Customers provide integrated communications consulting
services and government affairs solutions." This partnership will focus on creating new
business opportunities and expanding the expertise and capabilities of both parties. This
includes the development of regional policy and regulatory monitoring services, and
enabling Vriens & Partners can access Foley's experts outside of Asia through Foley's
global public affairs service network. Shi Yingyan added: "We have always been full of
respect for the Vriens team. We look forward to working closely with Vriens, whether in
the markets where we are already operating, or in Cambodia, Myanmar and Laos."...

 Awarded in 2016

Silver Award in the Public Welfare Communication Category of the 12th China Public
Relations Association Best Public Relations Case Competition: Master Kong Innovation
Challenge

 Foley International Communication Consulting Strengthens Shanghai

Management Team

Shanghai, China, September 13, 2016-Fleet International Communications Consulting

strengthened its management team in Shanghai, appointing Zhao Jie (Suki Zhao) as the
vice president, she will lead the brand and lifestyle team in Shanghai, responsible for the
management of Fleet The communication and marketing business of a number of major
global clients in China. Zhao Jie has more than ten years of working experience in an
international public relations company, and her outstanding brand and consumer
communication and marketing capabilities will be a boost for Foley. Before joining Fly,
she worked in Weida Public Relations and served many international clients in different
industries, including tourism, high-end lifestyle, sports and entertainment, fashion, luxury
goods, finance, etc. “As a professional in the communications industry with rich
experience, Zhao Jie is innovative and has fresh and unique perspectives when facing the
demands of different customers,” said Li Hong, chairman of Fleet International
Communications Consulting China. “She will pass Her deep insights for Chinese
consumers, broad contacts and strong business capabilities have helped us seize the
various opportunities in Shanghai's booming development. We are very happy that she
can join our team." Zhao Jie has been responsible for a number of successful brand
promotion And large-scale events, including Tourism New Zealand, Air New Zealand,
Costa Cruises, InterContinental Hotels Group, Burberry, ENZO Jewelry, Singapore
Media Festival, IMG, WWE, Oakley, multiple venues for the 2010 Shanghai World
 Expo, brand South Africa, JPMorgan Chase and HSBC, etc. In addition, Miranda Cai,
General Manager of Fleish Shanghai Office, is about to leave due to personal career
planning reasons. She joined the company in January 2012. Under her leadership, Fleet
Shanghai's business has improved significantly. Li Hong said: "As one of the core forces
of the company's sustainable development in Shanghai, Cai Minrong has provided strong
support to our various business groups through her leadership ability. We are deeply
grateful for her contribution." Fry International Communications Lichi Hsueh, managing
director of customer service in China, will take over the management of the Shanghai
office with the assistance of Lewis, the deputy general manager of the Shanghai
office. Xue Liqi has more than 18 years of leadership experience, not only has extensive
customer and business expansion experience in the PR industry in Greater China, but also
has a full range of professional capabilities. She has worked with a number of leading
brands in the technology and financial services industry, and has profound professional
insights in managing sensitive issues, mergers and acquisitions, and corporate affairs. Li
Hong believes: "Xue Liqi's long-term understanding of the Chinese market and her
ability to focus on promoting business growth through high-quality customer service will
allow us to occupy a favorable position in the Chinese market and seize more new
opportunities. " Yisi Liu, the deputy general manager of the Shanghai office in charge of
Fleish's Shanghai-related corporate and public affairs team, will assist Xue Liqi in
various tasks in Shanghai. Lewis joined Fleet Shanghai in 2012. He has extensive
experience in helping companies maintain stakeholder relationships, government policy
analysis, corporate reputation management, and crisis management. In addition, he has
extensive experience in handling corporate reputation matters in various industries such
as tourism, healthcare, agriculture, B2B, and finance. Lewis worked for the China
National Tourism Administration for five years. Li Hong believes: "Lewis has an in-
depth understanding of Chinese enterprises and institutions. As a popular public relations
consultant, Lewis knows how to manage China's complex business ecology." "Xue Liqi
and Lewis, and Zhao Jie formed a wealthy company. Energetic management team. Under
their leadership, Fleish Shanghai office will take advantage of its existing business
advantages and enter the next stage of growth with its strong client portfolio and deep
talent pool." Rachel Catanach, President and Senior Partner of China Region, said, “We
are very pleased to see various opportunities in the market. This energetic team will
definitely lead Fleet Shanghai to another peak of development.”...

 Social media: moving from content marketing to driving discussion

"Content marketing" is a new hot word in the field of social media, but
it is just like "social enterprise" and "liquid marketing" (liquid
marketing, which is like flowing water, penetrating, anytime, anywhere
fragmented marketing). , The term does not touch the essence of social
media. There is no doubt that when people publish any content, they
must have the meaning of "marketing", whether it is for selling
products or sharing personal opinions and issues. However, the word
"content marketing" sounds temperatureless and can't feel human
emotions. I hope that social media communication can return to its true
nature and not forget the original intention, so that it will be
interesting. Recall that the fundamental reason why people thought of
using social media at the beginning was that they wanted to get better
connections: to connect with people, with favorite brands, and with
admired opinion leaders. When I started using social media a few years
ago, it was simply because it was a new way to connect with people,
whether they were acquaintances or people who had never met but had
the same goals. In the early days of the development of social media,
no one regarded a post as "content." Posting merely initiated a
conversation. The problem is that there are so many data to support the
effects of word-of-mouth marketing, but in essence they are all based
on dialogue: a person sees or experiences something that he thinks is
cool, so he meets face-to-face or socialize Share to another person in
the media. This is a dialogue. So why did the conversation gradually
move towards "content marketing"? To some extent, the reason why
some brands use the term "content marketing" is because this term
emphasizes "content" itself and has nothing to do with interaction, so
they don't need to spend their energy to truly connect with their
audience on social media platforms. Start the conversation. In my
opinion, when evaluating the value of content on social media, the
criterion should be whether the content can trigger dialogue and
discussion, not how many "likes" it has. Don't misunderstand what I
mean. I agree with the importance of content itself, but I think the most
important thing is the concept. What do you think is the role of social
media content? What is the role in marketing strategy? Is it to increase
brand awareness? Is it a collection of "likes"? Or sell things? It may be
all of the above, depending on the company's business and products,
but the core should be how to continue to promote dialogue and
discussion, and get the audience's long-term attention. Therefore,
Foley’s content strategy has always been based on stimulating dialogue
and discussion, and is committed to creating fascinating content,
inspiring users to share, @朋友 and other actions on social platforms,
so as to continue to promote discussions and gain good word-of-mouth
and communication effects. The difference between "content
marketing" and "promoting discussion" is actually very subtle, but this
difference is crucial. When writing content, PR people should think
 about whether this can promote discussion, rather than thinking about
how many "likes" they can get. Once you successfully push the
audience to talk about your content, product or brand story, it will
actually open up another new world of "Word of Mouth Marketing",
which will further promote the dialogue, stimulate the attention of more
people in the user’s social media circle of friends, and ultimately affect
Audience behavior or purchase decision to achieve the original purpose
of communication. ...

ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this paper is to expose the conception of involved people (entrepreneur and
managers) having about science, technology, innovation and their relations in the social context,
with the development process of technological innovations inside the Incubators of Companies of
Technological Base ( IEBT) of Paraná. The methodological approach used was interpretative
qualitative research. The data collection was individual semi-structuralized interviews. The sample
had 29 participants. The results showed that the great majority of the participants of the research still
have an unformed vision about science, technology and their relations.

Keywords: CTS. Technological and scientific literacy. Technological education. Incubators of

companies of technological base. Technology.

Introduction

Technology has been presented as the main factor for progress and development. In the current
economic paradigm, it is assumed as a social good and, together with science, it is the means for
adding value to the most diverse products, becoming the key to strategic competitiveness and to the
social and economic development of a region.

To maintain technological and economic competitiveness, companies are better structuring

themselves, and government policies are being developed to support technological innovation
processes. In addition, public and private universities are creating mechanisms to enable relations
between academia and industry, aiming to guarantee future technological development. Among the
various means to encourage the development of technological innovations existing in Brazil, we
highlight the Technology-Based Business Incubators (IEBTs), which have been created with the
purpose of monitoring technological changes, seeking to meet the new demands of the work
process and beat unemployment. This type of incubator is intended to provide entrepreneurial
people,

We have noticed that a lot has been said about technological innovation in the media, in academia,
business and in the IEBTs. Incentives are being created for the development of technological
innovations. However, it seems that little has been done to bring reflections on issues involving
science, technology and innovations with the social context, both for academic circles (universities,
colleges, etc.) and for IEBTs.

In this context, as teachers who have been working with technological education and who have
experienced this whole process of transformation, we ask: will the people involved in the process of
generating technological innovations within technology-based business incubators (IEBT) have
concerned with the social issues of scientific and technological development?

Thus, this article aims to present the conception of these people in relation to science, technology
and their relationship with the social context. We clarify that the data presented are partial results of
the doctoral thesis that is being developed at the PPGECT (Postgraduate Program in Scientific and
Technological Education) at UFSC (Federal University of Santa Catarina), whose theme is:
"Technological innovation in the view of managers and entrepreneurs of IEBTs in Paraná:
challenges and perspectives for technological education".

Technology: some thoughts

Analogous to the history of science in modernity, technology twosuffers and causes profound political,
economic, social and philosophical changes in the history of the 20th century. XVII
onwards. Therefore, Miranda (2002) states that modern technology cannot be considered a mere
study of technique. It represents more than that, as it was born when science, from the
Renaissance, allied with technique, in order to promote the junction between knowledge and doing
(theory and practice). According to the author:

Technology is the result of the alliance between science and technique, which
produced instrumental reason , as in the Frankfurt School's Critical Theory. This alliance provided
the rational-acting-with-respect-for-purposes , as Habermas points out, at the service of the
political and economic power of society based on the capitalist mode of production (18th century)
which has profit as its driving force, arising from production and expropriation of nature. So, if before
reason had a contemplative character, with the advent of modernity, it became instrumental. It is in
this context that modern technology must be considered; it cannot be analyzed outside the mode of
production, as Marx observed. (MIRANDA, 2002, p. 51, emphasis added)

In this sense, Bastos (1998) corroborates by stating that technology is a mode of production, which
uses all instruments, inventions and artifices and that, therefore, it is also a way to organize and
perpetuate social bonds in the field of forces. productive. In this way, technology is time, space, cost
and sale, as it is not only manufactured in the precincts of laboratories and plants, but recreated by
the way it is applied and methodologically organized.

This shows that, if we consider that modern technology is inserted and produced in a determined
social, political and economic context, then our view on technology and its role in society should be
different from that which preaches that technology is an "evil necessary", because, if we understand
that it arose in a certain historical period, it is not inherent to the human condition, that is, it is not as
old as the technique.

Therefore, it is necessary to make a critical assessment of technology, its historical constitution and
its social function, in the sense of not only understanding the meaning of technology, but also of
rethinking and resizing its role in society. According to Miranda (2002), according to the evaluation of
the Frankfurtians, it is necessary to direct reason (thinking) towards the emancipation of man, and
not towards his slavery, as occurs in instrumental reason, and also to lead reason to emancipation,
with a greater autonomy of science, which in modern times has become the slave of technology, to
redefine the social function of science, technique and technology.

More than three centuries later, the history of technological development gives us sufficient
conditions to assess the meanings of modern technology that has shaped society as an industrial,
post-industrial and, finally, a computer society. Miranda (2002) mentions that, according to some
current thinkers, such as Robert Kurz, Ramonet, Boaventura Santos, we are currently experiencing
the "collapse of modernization", starting with the absolute confidence in science that would
emancipate man from all slavery, obscurantism and fear. Fact that did not occur. What we see today
is the slavery of man himself for his inventions and technological discoveries, only possible thanks to
the alliance between science and technology. The cited authors also add that in the history of
mankind, never have so many people died of hunger, in misery or by violence, a statement whose
data are pointed out by Boaventura Santos (2000). Miranda (2002) also exposes Hobsbawn's (1995)
opinion about the history of the 20th century, when he considers that we live init was one of the
extremes , due to the paradoxes that present themselves to us. Starting with the very technological
advance on the one hand and the extermination of cultures and peoples (whether through misery or
war) on the other.

Arocena (2004) adds that technology has multiplied and qualitatively transformed the power to
produce and destroy, to heal and deprecate, to expand the culture of human beings and to generate
risks to life, and this power, associated with dangers, is distributed socially and regionally very
unevenly. In this way, science and technology have made power settle in the hands of some human
beings.

Pinto (2005, p. 706) reinforces this idea by stating that:

Scientific knowledge would eventually absorb into itself the fate of humanity, something that makes
domestic philosophers of the dominant groups very happy, because they believe that this 'superior
phase' means the total and definitive command of working humanity by the privileged minority.

We live in a world where technology represents society's way of life, in which cybernetics,
automation, genetic engineering, electronic computing are some of the icons of the technological
society that surrounds us daily. Hence, the need to reflect on the nature of technology, its need and
social function.

For Bazzo, Von Linsingen and Pereira (2003), the conventional image of technology is that it would
always result in industrial products of a material nature, manifested in technological artifacts
(machines), whose elaboration has followed fixed rules linked to the laws of physical sciences.
chemical; that is, technology, in a conventional view, would be applied science. This implies that
technology is reducible to science and that it is supported by the philosophical posture of logical
positivism of an important academic tradition, for which scientific theories are value-neutral, that is,
scientists are not responsible for the application of science (technology) , but the responsibility
should lie with those who make use of technology (applied science). This image contributed to
support the idea that if science is neutral,

Saying that technology is an applied science, for López and Cerezo (2004), suggests that its
application is subsequent to the acquisition of reliable knowledge about its possible effects, that is,
technological application takes place under the protection of theoretical knowledge. Thus, there is
little possibility of producing unpleasant surprises, since prior scientific knowledge is the best tool to
control the consequences of a technological application, as it is not a blind trial and error process,
but an intervention in the world, based on theoretical knowledge and the experimental method of
modern science.

Consequences of scientific and technological development

The world seems to depend more and more on scientific and technological knowledge. The classic
conception of the relations between science, technology and society, often present in different areas
of the academic world and in the media, is an essentialist and triumphalist conception, in which it is
assumed that more science produces more technology that generates more wealth and,
consequently, more social welfare. Authors such as Echeverría (1995), Garcia, Cerezo and López
(1996) and López and Cerezo (1996) complement that science and technology are presented as
autonomous forms of culture, as value-neutral activities, as a heroic alliance to conquer nature.
Cerezo (2002) argues that the political expression of this autonomy, whose management of
scientific-technological change should be left in the hands of specialists themselves, began after
World War II, a time when there was intense optimism about the possibilities of science/technology
and unconditional support for its expansion. The doctrinal elaboration of this manifesto of autonomy
in relation to society owes its origin to Vannevar Bush, an American scientist involved in the
Manhattan Project for the construction of the first atomic bomb. During this same period, the scientist
also delivers the Science - The Endless Frontier report to then-president Truman("Science: the
infinite frontier"). In this report, the main lines of future North American scientific-technological policy
are defined, highlighting the linear model of development, that is, that national well-being depends
on the financing of basic science and development without interference from technology, arguing
that , for the model to work, it is necessary to maintain the autonomy of science.

In this way, technological development and social progress would come naturally. On this issue,
Garcia, Cerezo and López (1996) argue that science, only insofar as the search for truth, was
conceived as a lever for technological development, a development that was supposed to be the
basis of the Industrial Revolution and, ultimately, of realization the ideals of the Franco-American
political revolution. Critical authors such as Marcuse, Habermas or Feyerabend claim that the reason
of the state is the scientific reason, so that what prevails is the instrumental tradition of science with
its language of undeniable facts and irrefutable reasons. They also criticize that democracy was
conceived within the limits marked by the population's ignorance about most important issues;

Despite all the euphoria surrounding scientific-technological development, authors such as Garcia,
Cerezo and López (1996) and Sanmartín et al. (1992) state that, in the mid-1950s, evidence
indicated that the unidirectional linear model was not as promising as it appeared to be, as Russia,
in 1957, placed Sputnik in orbit around the Earth., a small ball-sized satellite, remaining at the
forefront of science and technology, confirming evidence that the linear model of Western scientific-
technological development was failing. These suspicions were confirmed in the following decades
when disasters linked to scientific-technological development occur: leaks of polluting waste, nuclear
accidents in civil reactors and military transport, poisoning by pharmaceutical products, oil spills,
etc., which served to confirm the need to review the scientific-technological policy.

The Manhattan project and its application in Hiroshima, in addition to other cases of technological

developments linked to war and military use, in the opinion of Garcia, Cerezo and López (1996),
represented the first inflection point of the optimistic conception of the benefactor character of
science. technology, along with concerns about environmental problems. Publications such as Silent
Spring , by Rachael Carson (1962), which raised the risks associated with DDT insecticides,
and Structure of Scientific Revolutions, by Thomas Kuhn (1962), who introduced social concepts to
explain the dynamics and development of science, influenced the academic reaction, starting to talk
about the negative effects of technologies, as well as questioning their political neutrality, social and
economic that, until now, were seen as benefactors.

For scientific and technological development to be less exclusive, it is necessary to take into account
the real problems of the population, the technical-productive risks and social change. Therefore, it is
necessary to have an interactive and contextualized view of the relationships between science,
technology, innovation and society and, especially, of the most appropriate public policies to manage
the opportunities and dangers that involve a technical change. In other words, the question is not so
much whether science is good or not, but whether it can be improved and how.

The construction of such policies can be fostered through the STS movement (Ciên-cia, Technology
and Society) which, in thein the 1960s and 1970s, it began to manifest itself in the academic
community, whose dissatisfaction with traditional conceptions of science and technology and
concern with political and economic problems arising from scientific-technological development and
with social protest movements, began to seek out analysis and study in the area of STS (Science,
Technology and Society). In Brazil, such studies are very recent and, according to Bazzo (1998, p.
218), this approach positions "a critical social reaction to scientism and technocracy" and seeks to
understand the social dimension of science and technology in relation to the factors of social,
political and economic nature, responsible for scientific and technological change, and also with
regard to the ethical, environmental or cultural repercussions of this change.

methodological strategy

The research had a qualitative approach of interpretive nature. In this type of approach, there is a
search for interpretation instead of measurement, induction is valued and it is assumed that facts
and values are closely related, making a neutral position of the researcher unacceptable. In its
natural occurrence, it defends a holistic view of phenomena, taking into account all the components
of a situation in their interactions and reciprocal influences (ANDRÉ, 1995, p. 17).

For data collection, we used the semi-structured individual interview technique. The interviews lasted
an average of sixty minutes, were recorded and literally transcribed.

The sample was intentionally selected, being chosen managers of IEBTs and entrepreneurs with
incubated companies3 and graduated4 in IEBTs from Paraná, totaling twenty-nine participants, who
have degrees in the following areas: graphic arts, architecture and urbanism, economics, designer,
industrial design, computer engineering, electronic engineering, electrical engineering, physics,
mechanical engineering, chemistry environmental, electrotechnical technology, computer technology
and chemical technology.

In order not to identify the research participants and, consequently, guarantee their anonymity, we
use fictitious names.

Data analysis was carried out after reading all the interviews in an inductive way, whose concern
was to understand how the participants face the issues addressed. Data were grouped and
separated by units of meaning, first in a global perspective - taking into account the convergences of
information - then in a different perspective, highlighting the divergent data, which were presented in
a descriptive way. From this analysis process emerged the results that will be presented below.

Data interpretation

The scientific and technological context and its relationship with society: the perception of
research participants

It was observed that most interviewees showed some discomfort when asked about the relationship
of the scientific and technological context with society, as it was often necessary to repeat the
question in different ways so that the interviewees could make their comments, showing that the The
social issue of scientific and technological development is not always thought of or is present in
entrepreneurs' decisions.

The majority (87%) of research participants see the scientific and technological context as a lever for
economic development and for the structuring of society, as can be seen, for example, in the speech
of Og:

"I think that technology moves society a lot, it is responsible for that. It moves because it makes the
economy rotate, because for you to produce technology you need to generate intellectual capital
and you need people to study, because technology cannot be made by people without education,
which generates knowledge. A new technology generates new technologies on top of those that are
being developed. So, it goes around all the cycles of society, economy, employment."
Respondents also expressed that scientific-technological development is only attractive if it has a
commercial return. They claim that, at the university, it is possible to carry out research, experiments
without looking at the economic side, but at the company, this only matters if it is profitable, if it pays
off economically, which can be observed in Nelson's argument:

that generate revenue in excess of what is necessary to cover their costs to cover research
activities. If research activities do not generate a solution, any product sold, it is an expense factor
for the company, it is a negative factor for the company. In companies, it has to be much more
pragmatic in terms of research in science, in innovation. All this matters, yes, as long as it can have
a commercial return. It is the life of the company that is at stake. The company's multiple social
results, if it doesn't manage to maintain its cash structure, all this will not exist, it will disappear
because it will not be maintained." In companies, it has to be much more pragmatic in terms of
research in science, in innovation. All this matters, yes, as long as it can have a commercial
return. It is the life of the company that is at stake. The company's multiple social results, if it doesn't
manage to maintain its cash structure, all this will not exist, it will disappear because it will not be
maintained." In companies, it has to be much more pragmatic in terms of research in science, in
innovation. All this matters, yes, as long as it can have a commercial return. It is the life of the
company that is at stake. The company's multiple social results, if it doesn't manage to maintain its
cash structure, all this will not exist, it will disappear because it will not be maintained."

From this perspective, scientific and technological development is of interest to companies only if it
is to generate profit, that is, the priority is economic. This fact seems to be a constant among
entrepreneurs. Jonash and Sommerlatte (2001, p.145), cite a survey conducted in the United States,
which found that, although financial analysts believe that new products and creativity are significant
for innovation, the factors that prevail as indicators are the profit and earnings of
shareholders. Reinforcing this posture, Marcovitch (2003, p. 355) states: "innovations generate
greater profits than mere commercial speculation".

It is indisputable that technological innovation is necessary, whether from the point of view of society
as a whole, which needs it to improve their quality of life and the environment, or from the point of
view of companies/industries, which need to survive in the market , also taking profit. The question
is: does technological innovation have to be evil to be profitable? Could it be that a differentiated
training of technology generators (engineers, technologists), which promotes a change in these
professionals' vision, would not be the way to alleviate this evil? After all, there will always be some
kind of impact promoted by technological innovations, whatever they may be. However, it is possible
to soften its interference by taking some precautions, observing the diversity of aspects involved,
expanding the field of vision of all human beings, or even,

For some (13%) of research participants, science, technology and society are intertwined. Let's see,
for example, what Thomas says:

"In fact, science and technology belong to society, it's the question of society itself, you can't
separate it, they are an inherent part of society. Now, as science and technology will contribute to
society, this is a complex path. You there is no way to control this. So, I think that science and
technology within the role of the incubator, or rather, the incubator has an institutional role for you to
improve these relationships, now if science and technology have a functional role, I would say that
no, because it is an inherent part of society, it is an integral part of society, it is inherent."

This type of posture gives us to understand that technology is a necessary evil, however, Miranda
(2002) argues that technology is the result of the alliance between science and technique, producing
the "instrumental reason", which, according to the theory critique of the Frankfurt School, favored
"acting-rationally-with-respect-for-purposes." Habermas clarifies that all this takes place at the
service of the political and economic power of society based on the capitalist production model (18th
century), whose profit is the driving force, arising from the production and expropriation of nature.

If we consider that modern technology is inserted and produced in a determined social, political and
economic context, giving rise to a capitalist society, then our vision of technology and its role in
society should be different from that which preaches that technology is a necessary evil , because if
we understand that it appeared in a certain historical period, it is not as old as the technique, that is,
it is not inherent to the human condition. It can be said, then, that it is a complex, social phenomenon
that guides us to an evaluative position vis-à-vis it. Therefore, there is a need to rethink the direction
given to technology, aiming to minimize risks, without, however, abdicating its benefits to humanity.

Rosana alerts to the need for entrepreneurs to start developing technological innovations taking into
account social issues. It says the following:

"I see that, in reality, they are closely linked depending on scientific and technological advances.
The fact that society will also reap results according to this progress is something that I admire a lot
and, I hope that most entrepreneurs start to really assume it as their business, as part of its strategic
planning. To be assuming social responsibility, which is to be taking a differentiated posture towards
society in order to bring a return to society."

This narrative reinforces that scientific and technological development with social responsibility must
turn to practical tasks, and should not be directed according to the old economic, political and moral
systems. It implies having a much stronger level of individual and collective responsibility than
before.

Jéferson's testimony expands this issue when he says that it is necessary to invest in basic issues
such as food, health and education.

"We have 180 million inhabitants, there are at least four million active in the area in which we
operate. Four million people is still very little! Unfortunately, some countries that worked, at least
that's what we read, or that are working it certainly depended on some attitudes they took 20, 30
years ago. Like India, which started investing more in education, but I'm not seeing that in Brazil.
Unfortunately, if I'm not seeing this investment now, then, in 20 years, 30 years I will not see the
fruits of this form of investment."

Also, for Gustavo, education is the basis for "developing people who are more aware and able to
seek solutions for the needs of the community where they live. At this point, education drives finding
solutions to solve everyday problems."

Rosana adds the importance of technological institutions providing training that shows the
importance of the social relations of science and technology:

"The university of technology that works with research and innovation, which must be directed
towards society, has to take care to see if this innovation will bring benefits or harm to society. I once
wrote an article that talked about technology in information instigating whether it is a good or an evil
for humanity. At the same time that it brings benefits, it can also be harmful in the sense that not
everyone has access to information. Unfortunately, not all society has access to this innovation and
takes a time to adapt to all this technology. Ex. ATMs, as the population took to adapt and even
today many are unable to use self-service services."

The previous reports endorse the reflections in which it is proposed to encourage the development
of technological innovations in a social vision, paying attention to its implications for society in the
sense of realizing whether any technology interests us and starting to make options aimed at
reducing the impacts caused. for its unrestrained use. We agree with the opinion of the survey
participants on the need to seek a broader vision, to rethink the directions and values, without which
technological and economic advances represent little; there is a huge distance between the
evolution of technologies and the evolution in other instances of social reproduction.

Therefore, it is necessary to control the management of technologies, taking stock of the benefit-
harm relationship of scientific and technological development for society and, in this sense, it is
necessary to provide, to the entire population, a critical scientific and technological education,
because the lack of knowledge leads to lack of responsibility. For Bernal (1969), scientific and
technological development must meet, first, what people effectively need and, second, promote the
development of research in order to discover, combat or destroy the as yet unknown evils.

From another perspective, Elvira comments that more consistent education is needed, but in a
technical context, because, according to her, the generation of technology requires professionals to
have more consistent knowledge on the subject. To illustrate this issue, let's look at his narrative:

"We see that in relation to technology, people who have more contact with technology start to worry,
they have better knowledge and intend to invest in this area, when you start studying a little
technology you already want to apply it, you want to teach it to someone and the Brazilian culture is
improving. We see that most people do not have much education, especially basic education is very
weak. So, it ends up not encouraging the generation of technology, there are people who don't even
know how to get close."

Having an academic background at a higher level to generate technology is considered by Elvira as

indispensable. Certainly, this qualification enables the development of research in cutting-edge
technology, but is it only technology-oriented education that humanity needs? And are social issues
unimportant? Many problems that have been happening to society, such as environmental
degradation and unemployment, result from this type of attitude. In this sense, Souza et al. (2003, p.
14) state that state-of-the-art technology often "ends up reproducing the current structure of the labor
market, which increasingly tends to exclude low-skilled professionals and increase employability
requirements".

Authors such as Buarque (1994), Garcia, Cerezo and López (1996), Bazzo (1998), Cerezo (2002),
Bazzo, Von Linsingen and Pereira (2003), Arocena (2004), among others, also warn of the danger of
considering science and technology as a panacea, which only brings benefits, and that fostering
their development could lead to overcoming the technological backwardness in relation to developed
countries. According to them, this radicalism is unfeasible and as dangerous as considering the
development of technological innovations as harmful, serving only to promote underdevelopment.

Therefore, the need for prudence both in the generation of technology and in its use, that is, there
needs to be a change in attitude and behavior that seeks the other world we desire; but for this to
happen, it is essential to provide continuous education for all human beings, in order to enable the
participation in debates on scientific and technological issues. Arocena (2004) presents data from
the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), which show that, in the
countries that make up this organization, out of every ten citizens, at most two would be able to
follow and participate in a discussion that includes scientific or technological issues, or even related
to other topics, such as finance.