WATER SCARCITY

A project report
As part of the requirement of the course
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking

Submitted to:
Asst. Prof. Bharat Prasad Neupane

Submitted by:
Abhilasha Dhital (177026)
Ashansa Mulmi (177065)
Ichchhuk Poudyal (177077)
Richa Adhikari (177002)
Shristi Sotang (177113)
Sofiya Maharjan (177059)
Suman Tamang (177116)
(Section B)
BBA Year III Semester II

Date: July 7th 2020

 Acknowledgement:

First and foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to Kathmandu University School of

Management for incorporating the subject, Critical Thinking and Problem Solving in the third

year of BBA. We would also like to thank our subject facilitator Mr. Bharat Prasad Neupane for

his valuable support, suggestions and continuous guidance. This assignment proved to be a great

help for us to get insight on design thinking and critically solving the problem looking at wider

perspective.

Similarly, we are elated to thank all the youths, representatives of all districts and our experts

who did provide us with the information regarding the topic with their time and efforts.

Last but not the least, we would also like to sincerely thank all the authors of the journals and

research papers that we went through which helped us in understanding the topics more clearly

due to which we were able to put the pieces together.

Thank you.

Abhilasha Dhital (177026)

Ashansa Mulmi (177065)
Ichchhuk Poudyal (177077)
Richa Adhikari (177002)
Shristi Sotang (177113)
Sofiya Maharjan (177059)
Suman Tamang (177116)
 Table of Contents:
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM ................................................................................. 4
1.2. CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY .......................................................................................... 6
1.3. IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY ........................................................................................ 10
1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................... 12
1.5. BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE REPORT ................................................................................... 13
1.6. THESIS OF THE STATEMENT ............................................................................................ 13
2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Research Design .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 Unit of analysis: ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.1.2 Population and Sample ............................................................................................................ 14
2.1.3 Sampling Design: ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.1.4 Administration of questionnaire ............................................................................................. 15
2.2 Data collection and Analysis Procedure: ...................................................................................... 15
2.3 Designed Thinking Process ............................................................................................................ 18
i. Empathize: ................................................................................................................................. 18
ii. Defining the Problem:............................................................................................................... 18
iii. Ideate:..................................................................................................................................... 19
iv. Prototype: .............................................................................................................................. 20
v. Testing:....................................................................................................................................... 20
3. ANALYSIS OF THE ISSUE ............................................................................................................ 21
WATER SCARCITY IN TERMS OF GEOGRAPHY (Public Responses) .................................... 21
A. Hills and mountain regions: ..................................................................................................... 21
B. Terai plains:............................................................................................................................... 27
YOUTH OPINION ............................................................................................................................... 30
EXPERT OPINION .............................................................................................................................. 32
HYDROPOWER: ................................................................................................................................. 36
FORESTRY: ......................................................................................................................................... 38
4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: ........................................................................ 40
4.1. RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................. 40
4.2. IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 43
REFERENCES: ........................................................................................................................................ 47
ANNEXURE .............................................................................................................................................. 50
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM

Our country‟s water resource stands at billions of cubic metres and Nepali has among the

highest amount of water per person in the world however it is just not available in their taps.

Approximately 224 billion cubic metres flows through Nepal, from the mountains to the Bay of

Bengal. That would approximate to 9,000 cubic metres (9 million litres) for every one of the

30 million people living in the country (The Water Project). Mainly the problem spiked in the

1990s, Nepal went through a civil war from 1996 to 2006 and by 2000 there was a serious water

crisis. Now it has become a matter of emergency as for about 70% of households in

Kathmandu valley tap water are the primary source of water but it is severely inadequate to

fulfil daily needs (The Rising Nepal). According to the Department of Water Supply and

Sewerage in Nepal, even though an estimated 80% of the total population has access to drinking

water, it is not safe. The lack of infrastructures and the high level of pollution due to agricultural

pesticides, fertilizers and wastewater are seen to be the main causes of the problems of lack of

water. On the other hand, Nepal´s climatology generally depends on the monsoon season, from

June to September, whose winds determine as well the thaw in the Himalayas. For this reason,

climate change is a serious menace to the country. Nepalese hydrologists and climate experts

agree on the need to gather more and better information about water with the aim of designing

management policies based on scientific data.

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 Water supply services and present context:

The Government of Nepal has instituted the Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation on

24th December, 2015 (Ministry of Nepal). As per the revised Work Division rules (BS 2072) of

Government of Nepal, the scope of works vested in the Ministry is as follows:

1.Water supply and sanitation related policy, formulation of plans and programs,

implementation, monitoring, regulation and evaluation;

2.Water supply, sanitation and sewerage;

3.Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board;

4.Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani (Valley Water Supply) Ltd.

5.Kathmandu Valley Water Supply & Sanitation Project Implementation Directorate

6.Nepal Water Supply Corporation

7.Melamchi Water Supply Development Board and Melamchi WS Project

8.Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission

9.Administration of Sanitary Sub-Group/Civil Group of Nepal Engineering Services

The Ministry also managed in finalizing a "15-year Development Plan of Nepal WASH

Sector'' aligning it with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as declared by the United

Nations General Assembly for the coming next 15-year period. Moreover, the establishment of

the new Ministry helped the ongoing WASH sector to be more vibrant day by day and Nepal is

achieving and committed to put due efforts to achieve many national and international set goals

and targets in water, sanitation and hygiene, intended towards betterments of peoples' living

standards. (WASH)

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 In May of this year the residents of Nepal‟s capital Kathmandu formally established a

forum and staged a protest in demanding drinking water supply to their taps. The current water

supply from the government utility is about one fifth of total demand in winter and less than one

third during the wet season. “For years, our taps have been fetching air instead of water and we

are forced to live a terrible life. It‟s our right to get clean water and we must fight for that. For

long, politicians and bureaucrats took advantage of our silence,” said Prakash Amatya, a member

of Valley Drinking Water Victims‟ Struggle Committee (The Rising Nepal). About 15% of

people now depend on water tankers that supply water privately. “We are bound to pay a

premium price of around 15% to tanker-water as compared to tap-water source,” said Suman

Shakya, Managing Director of Smartpaani, a company that focuses on rainwater harvesting. In

August this year the government again selected another Chinese company, Sinohydro, to

complete the tunnel but there is no surety as to when it will be completed. Melamchi‟s water has

been a long tale wait for nothing says the general public (The Kathmandu Post).

1.2. CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY

Water use has been growing globally at more than twice the rate of population increases

in the last century (UN water). According to the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

in Nepal, even though an estimated 80% of the total population has access to drinking water,

it is not safe. In present context, many of the water systems that keep ecosystems thriving and

feed a growing human population have become stressed.

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 The major cause for elevating the problem of water scarcity are global warming,

overpopulation, pollution, illegal dumping, corrupt political system, poor management of

water resources, extreme exploitation of forest and river beds, excess use of pesticides and

fertilizers, climate change such as altered weather patterns including droughts or floods,

increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water (WWF).

The growing population along with economic development and industrialization

implies an increase in overall waste production and pollution. Moreover, it also implies an

increase in emission of greenhouse gases which will contribute to the acceleration of global

warming which will lead to increase in air temperature resulting in the disappearance of water

sources (Axelsen, W. 2014). Meanwhile, human activities have exerted great impacts on water

resources (Deng, X. 2015). With continuous population growth and urbanization progresses,

the availability of water with sufficient quantity and quality is one of the anticipated future

problems.

The effects of increasing water scarcity will be made even worse by climate change. As

the growing population implies an increase in emission of greenhouse gases and carbon

dioxide, the pattern of whether and water will change which will result in natural calamities such

as flood, landslides and droughts in some places. Glaciers and snow packs will disappear in some

areas, affecting the freshwater supplies to those downstream communities (WWF). These

changes will combine to make less water available for agriculture, energy generation, and

ecosystems around the world.

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 Another significant cause of water shortage is illegal dumping as most of the industries

dispose of their industrial garbage in the nearby rivers or any other source of water as it is the

easiest way to get rid of them.

However, this may in turn lead to serious water pollution, which may result in severe

water scarcity. This is one of the reasons why the surface and groundwater in the Kathmandu

Valley is deteriorating by natural and anthropogenic contaminants. The surface water is polluted

by industry and domestic waste along with discharge of untreated sewage from tightly packed

residential neighborhoods (Suwal, S). The capital city of Nepal, Kathmandu is estimated to

produce150 tons of waste daily and almost half of this is dumped into rivers and 80 percent of

the wastewater is generated by households (The water project). Furthermore, excessive use of

fertilizers and pesticides by farmers in order to maximize their crop yields may pollute the soil

and in turn may also pollute the groundwater, which may lead to serious water shortages for the

local population in the long run (Kakonge, J. 2012).

Brazil being the richest country in water resources also has to face water scarcity due to

poor planning and mismanagement. The massive volume of water wasted in the Brazilian water

system is a consequence of years of infrastructure neglect and mismanagement (slater, D. 2019).

Likewise, in case of Nepal, Nepal receives abundant precipitation annually, but it is

distributed very unevenly which is mainly due to poor management. Despite its large water

potential, many people are unable to access sufficient water to meet their domestic, agricultural

and industrial needs. It is because of the financial constraints limit of government investment

in new surface irrigation projects and the upkeep of existing projects (Neupane & Pandey. 2019).

8
 Nepal also has Trans-boundary water conflict with India, due to its dependence on India

for imports, many water rich areas are unavailable for Nepali citizens (volunteer‟s initiatives

Nepal). Likewise, each year Nepal faces a huge flooding problem due to five-dozen

embankments and dams built by India obstructing the natural flow of the river (The Kathmandu

Post). These natural calamities cause water pollution resulting in scarcity of water.

In a country like Nepal where corruption is one of the leading problems, the bribing of

the government officials may contribute to water scarcity to the local people. For instance, if

there is water scarcity, locals may have to pay a fee to government officials in order to get

enough drinking water. However, this means that the poor part of the local population may not

be able to get sufficient water since rural households do not have the financial capacity to pay for

water resources and hence water scarcity is more persistent in rural mountain regions than

anywhere else in Nepal (Gurung & Rijal, 2019).

Most of the water projects such as Melamchi drinking water project, Mahakali irrigation

projects are delayed due to bureaucrats and corruption. Melamchi drinking water project which

was started in December 2000 to solve the chronic drinking water shortage in the valley in a

sustainable manner which was supposed to complete years ago is still under construction

(Melamchi Water Supply Development Board). Many times, the investors have withdrawn from

the funding of the project because of corruption issues (Wikipedia).

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 1.3. IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY

According to the WWF, on a global scale, more than one billion people worldwide suffer

from serious water shortages all over the year. 2.7 billion People suffer from water scarcity for at

least one month a year. Nearly 5 million inhabitants of Nepal, 18% of the population, do not

have access to safe sources of drinking water according to data of the United Nations

Development Program (UNDP). A global water scarcity trend-plot reveals that the population

under water shortage, has increased rapidly since the 1960s. However, there are difference in

regional trajectories. Meanwhile, in many parts of the world, the groundwater supplies are being

depleted faster than natural processes can replenish them (Mashru, R. 2014).

Water scarcity can majorly impact the loss of biodiversity, damaged ecosystem, and

destruction of habitat and endangerment of spices, disappearing wetlands, agriculture, energy

and human health (WWF).

Water scarcity often leads to significant drops in crop yields, which in turn may lead to

the loss of livelihood for many farmers. (Leal, G). If water scarcity is persistent over a longer

period of time, it may also lead to the destruction of whole habitats. Water scarcity may also

cause some serious loss of biodiversity as many plants may no longer be able to grow and

reproduce in a sufficient manner to sustain due to lack of water (WWF).

The sustainability of ecosystems has been severely impacted by increased exploitation of

underground aquifers and contamination of water by waste and discharges from industry as well

as from household and human waste. Many of the Seas with freshwater lake has now turned as

salty as an ocean due to the excessive pollution and the diversion of water for irrigation and

power generation. As the sea has retracted, it has left polluted land.

10
 This ecological catastrophe has created food shortages and resulted in a rise in infant

mortality and a decrease in life expectancy for the nearby population (WWF).

Moreover, water is essential for human health and is important for bodily function, so

water shortage can adversely affect the human health and can contribute in the spread of

diseases. Water scarcity can also impact the industries and energy as hydropower plants will also

be at risk if river flows are reduced which could result in concerns for energy security, depending

on the importance of these sources for national power generation (UNEP).

In case of Nepal, the people in many villages located north of the East-West Highway in

Siraha district are facing an acute shortage of water after all the wells, tube wells, canals and

other water sources dried up owing to the long spell of drought in the area (the rising Nepal).

Likewise, one of the major concerns in terai region is groundwater contamination from arsenic as

most of the communities there still rely on getting their drinking waters from tube well (The

Water Project).

Due to globally climate change, rapid melting of glaciers, decreasing snowfall and

dwindling ground water stores are some of the challenges being faced in Nepal. The Nepalese

economy largely depends on agriculture which makes up 40% of its GDP (FNCCI). Due to an

inability to harness water for irrigation, agricultural production has been adversely affected.

Meanwhile arable land is affected extremely due to weather patterns, as a result of climate

change. With current predictions, average precipitation over Nepal is decreasing at the rate of

9.8mm/decade which hampers the irrigation and operation of hydro-power and mills as a whole.

(Water & Energy Commission Secretariat).

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 In Nepal only 27% of total population has access to basic sanitation and the

establishment of water treatment facilities throughout the urban and rural areas are

limited. As a result, Nepal faces a high number of water-borne diseases such as diarrhea,

dysentery, typhoid, gastroenteritis and cholera with an estimated 44000 children dying every

year from waterborne diseases (The Water Project).The unplanned urbanization and increasing

population inflow to city areas especially Kathmandu have exerted further pressures on water

resources (Thakur, 2017). Kathmandu has been experiencing a dire situation regarding water,

both availability and quality, for more than 30 years. In addition, most of the rural populations

are engage in subsistence farming without having proper irrigation facilities.

Although, there lies other factors responsible for drying up of water sources, earthquake

is equally responsible for impacts on water sources (We are Water Foundation, 2017). The

problems of water access and sanitation worsened on April 25th, 2015 with an earthquake

measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale. Most of the ponds, stone spouts and springs were damaged

which affected water quality and quantity. In addition, it affected the local hydrological cycle of

the area changing the hydrology for short to long term. (Jalsrot Vikash Sanstha).

1.4. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

As mentioned earlier, this project gives us an idea about how water scarcity is affecting

both human population and natural eco system regardless of the cause and makes it easier to

understand the in-depth problem of water scarcity. The main objective of this paper is to assess

the water crisis in Nepal by conducting surveys and interviews with the local people and

government officials. Also, this report tends to evaluate the natural and human factors

contributing to the water crisis in Nepal.

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 1.5. BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

First the introduction part of the report sets a general overview of the topic along with the

goals and objectives of the project. Similarly, methodology includes how we carried out the

survey and collected the required data.

The analysis part basically elucidates how the problem is perceived by the general people

and the authorized ones. In the similar manner, the critical analysis and the review that we

obtained from the survey along with the design thinking process has been incorporated in this

section as well.

The recommendations and implication part incorporates the recommendation from the

survey of youth, authorized entities and from our own general perception to address the issues,

along with the implications of the recommendations provided.

1.6. THESIS OF THE STATEMENT

For this report, we accumulated youth and authorized people‟s perception and tried to

comprehend their problems related to water scarcity, critically analyzed the given information,

and propounded some recommendations that might be helpful in solving the problems.

2. METHODOLOGY

Under the methodology segment of our report, we will firstly be discussing about the data

collection process. The data collection process which we have gone with in this report is

inclusive of both Primary and Secondary sources. We have collected data relevant to the purpose

of this paper which is to narrow down the causes of the Water Scarcity in context of Nepal and to

propose a sustainable solution to this one.

13
 For this, we have referred to various segments under data collection which includes

Expert‟s Opinion, Youth‟s Opinion, Public‟s Opinion and we have compared these data sources

with the published reliable researches which are included in the reference section. Likewise, the

link of questionnaires along with the responses have been attached in the Annexure at the end of

the report.

In order to find similar or contrasting grounds among the responses of various categories,

we have reviewed various reports and other relevant literatures which have been analyzed to

better address the problem of Water Scarcity in context of Nepal. The detailed information

regarding the samples and their recorded information is attached at the end of the report and the

basic information of our data source has been attached herewith.

2.1 Research Design:

We have incorporated descriptive research design with combination of qualitative and

quantitative responses.

2.1.1 Unit of analysis:

In our study, the units of analysis are individuals representing their districts and their

organizations.

2.1.2 Population and Sample:

The population would cover the 26 different districts where samples have been taken from each

district.

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 2.1.3 Sampling Design:

The respondents under public opinion were from 26 districts and were systematically considered

and analyzed. The list is attached in the annexure section.

2.1.4 Administration of questionnaire:

The questionnaire has been prepared complying with an inverted funnel approach where we

have stated with closed ended generic questions moving on to the open-ended ones. The

questionnaires of each segment have been attached in the annexure section. The responses were

collected using Google forms and telephone calls.

2.2 Data collection and Analysis Procedure:

Initially, talking about the “Public Opinion “segment of our data collection, we have

collected the information through a questionnaire for 10 representatives of 10 different districts.

Similarly, we did it through a phone call for the other 16 representatives. Thus, this gives us

representatives from 26 different districts for our data sources which helped us to understand the

problem in various areas and their perspectives with regards to the problem. Furthermore, in

order to understand the youth‟s perspective regarding the future of Water Scarcity in Nepal, the

samples were limited to five responses with quality and selected answers which provided input to

our research.

15
 Meanwhile, in the process of collecting information from the experts, we reached out to

the Chief Operating Officer (COO) of Smart Paani, Ms. Anisha Karn. Smart Paani is an

organization providing sustainable water management solution using the concepts of rainwater

harvesting, water filtration and wastewater treatment/recycling solutions which they consider to

be eco-friendly and more cost-effective than other alternatives. Similarly, we interviewed Senior

Engineer working under Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP), Mr. Rajendra Pant.

Moreover, we also reached out to Ms. Prativa Neupane who was associated to Melamchi Water

Supply Project as a senior legal officer for a long span of seven years. She is now associated with

Department of Water Supply of Nepal. In similar lines, we collected response from Ms. Priya

Sigdel who is the president of Hatti Hatti Nepal. It is an organization which works for

marginalized community women embracing sustainable fashion by up cycling sarees to make

other products and to provide income to those women from the sale of those products. The

organization has been advocating women empowerment by training and making women

economically independent. They also go with environmental friendly approach with up cycling

by not wasting a single piece of cloth and by working for social, economic and environmental

contribution to the country.

Furthermore, getting to learn about the interruption of hydropower projects in the Water

Supply of some Districts, we interviewed an engineer working in the same sector to establish and

understand a relation between hydropower and Water Supply in the area. In similar lines, as

forest is considered to be the sources of water supply in various districts as per our response, we

talked with two students of Forestry who are done with their bachelors.

16
Sources Information

Public Opinion 26 responses, from 26 different districts as

mentioned in the annexure.

Qualifications: Bachelors to Masters

Age group ranging from: 20-65

Youth Opinion 5 responses, Age group 16-24, 2 females and 3

males.

Expert Opinion: i. COO of Smart Paani (Ms. Anisha Karn)

ii.Professional Working in Department of

Water Supply (Ms. Prativa Neupane)

iii. Mr. Rajendra Pant Senior Engineer

working in Melamchi Water Supply Project

iv. Ms. Priya Sigdel (Miss Nepal Earth

2018, President of Hatti Hatti Nepal)

Forestry Students Bal Krishna Pandit and Ram Thapa : Students

who have completed their bachelors and have

been exposed to field knowledge.

Hydropower Related Information Er. Uttam Dhital who has been associated with

hydropower avenue.

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 2.3 Designed Thinking Process

The inclusion of the Designed Thinking Process in our project methodology has been crucial.

It revolved around our data collection and gathering procedures which depicts the steps taken for

us to meet our project objective. As we are well introduced with the fact that Designed thinking

provides us grounds to tackle complex of problems, the existence of Water Scarcity in water rich

country itself speaks for the complexity of the problem. We have taken this approach to reframe

the problem in a solvable manner. Thus, we have incorporated the five steps of the designed

thinking process which are elucidated below:

i. Empathize: While collecting responses from 26 different districts, we did put in efforts

to be on their shoes and to understand each respondent‟s perception regarding the problem. We

collected 10 of our responses using Google Docs and further collected other responses via

phone call. We also collected the other 5 youth responses using Google Docs. While collecting

data through Docs, we ensured that the questionnaire was designed in accordance to the

probable impact of the problem in their lifestyle and their basic household chores. This helped

us to understand the user needs being on their side rather than by questioning what they had to

say. Eventually, we were acquainted with basics of the responses reflecting their problem, due

to which we moved on to identify the core problem.

ii. Defining the Problem: With the grounds of the data collected and with the inputs of the

group members, we tried to find common grounds of the problem. The responses which we

have collected kindled light upon the problem, which still persists in 18 out of the 26 districts

on the basis of the information given by our representatives.

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 Out of 9 districts reached in the Terai, 6 districts face the problem of water scarcity and

out of 17 districts from hilly or mountain region, 12 reflected the problem of water

scarcity. The thing which caught our attention was that even though we are known for the

water resources, why is it that people in our country have to “afford” water. In some regions

in Terai people waste water recklessly and in geographically difficult places they wait for the

water to drop down their taps. People rely on forests, limited reservoirs, contaminated tube

wells, and other sources. We contemplated upon to understand the situation which led us

think about the infrastructural issues and lack of non-traditional water management

techniques being used in Nepal.

iii. Ideate: Looking upon the problem comprehensively and as per geography, we got

to know that there are manifold causes which range from something as basic as economic use

of water, waste management to national problems like urbanization, deforestation, and

corruption. It‟s obvious that some problems require policy level changes, but we can introduce

solutions which can be encouraged by government or private sectors to solve the Water

Scarcity problem in Nepal. The ideas were solely based on the grounds where we could

address problems in rural and urban levels.

The few ideas to be introduced in the urban level are: plumbing designed to ensure least

use of water, Leakage detectors at national level, and individual household‟s approach to

economic use of water. With the alternatives required to be found in terms of ground

water in the Capital City, government can ensure the practice going on in developed

countries which includes the check in the use of water.

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 Any household can be given certain level of water supply with a digital record system

being fitted during the plumbing itself or in the process, where they would learn to use

the water economically and to dwindle the wastage in both rural and urban areas.

iv. Prototype: Along with above solutions being recommended to be incorporated in

individual level to schools, colleges, industries to the governmental level, we have suggested

the approach of rain water harvesting and other sustainable water supply solutions which are

discussed in the sections below.

v. Testing: After collection of the public response and after realizing their

expectations, we researched the approaches taken in other nations which helped us demonstrate

our proposed solution to the experts. Our solution seemed to be applicable and was being given

an applicable signal. Although we shortly don‟t have enough infrastructural resources to make

our cities a sponge one, we can always take few sustainable initiatives like water recycling,

water filtration, rain water harvesting and water recharging. In the process, we pondered again

upon the variety of situations and recommended the solutions as per their feasibility in places.

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 3. ANALYSIS OF THE ISSUE

WATER SCARCITY IN TERMS OF GEOGRAPHY (Public Responses)

A. Hills and mountain regions:

Nepal experiences both natural and human-induced disasters of great frequency and

intensity due to its rugged and fragile geophysical structure. Thus, the harsh mountainous

topography is a major reason for prevailing water scarcity in the hills and mountain regions of

the country (Schwartz et al., 2001). Landslides, floods, droughts, storms, avalanches, hailstorms,

epidemics, and ecological hazards are common natural disasters in the mountainous regions of

Nepal. The rural households have little or no access to basic services and facilities as compared

to urban areas (Thakur et al., 2017). In addition, most of the rural populations engage in

subsistence farming without having proper irrigation facilities (MOF, 2017). Besides, most of the

rural households do not have the financial capacity to pay for water resources, and hence, water

scarcity is more persistent in rural mountain regions than anywhere else in Nepal (Palmer et al.,

2008).

Sample studies of different rural watersheds from hills and mountain regions of Nepal.

Our survey done with 18 respondents from the hilly and mountain regions revealed that

most of the rural communities of Nepal have an unreliable water supply. As per the local

stakeholders, around 20-25% of water resources have dried up relatively to that of 20 years ago.

Although the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage in Nepal claims that an estimated 80%

of total population has access to drinking water, most of the sample villages of our survey do not

have access to piped water for drinking purpose. Even in the places with piped water, most of the

taps do not function well and are not delivering the expected services at full scale.

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 Additionally, in recent years, the local government authorities have invested a huge

portion of their budget in expansion of the rural road network which has been constructed

without consideration of the environmental impacts on water and other natural resources. Such

unplanned rural road construction, in most cases has led to the destruction of existing drinking

water pipe networks along the roads and has disturbed water spouts and has also led to the

spring sources being dried up.

Case study 1: Madaani VDC, Ward Number 4, Gulmi

We conducted a Telephone Survey among the people of various regions all over the

Nepal. Mr. Prem Bohora, one of those respondents who represented the Madaani VDC of Gulmi

that lies in hilly region of western Nepal, states that even though water in his community is

brought directly from the nearby river Lupsi through pipes, the available water is not sufficient

enough for basic chores, agriculture, irrigation, and cattle-feeding as well. The drinking water

supply is there only for two hours per day for the whole community and is divided between 15

houses; each household gets the chance to fill their tanks for 8 minutes per day only. He is also

an MA, is well aware about the upcoming projects in his village. He says the government has

planned to make water supply available within two years. Till then, they are relying on water

from River Lupsi and they have been drinking the same by boiling it. Although there has been no

such significant damage to the watersheds from the Earthquake in 2015, the government and

local authorities are expected to protect the major sources so that other harmful particles do not

get mixed with water and also, some alternative to the source should be found for the long run.

This situation of Madaani VDC refelects the situation of water security in almost every part of

mid-hills in Nepal.

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Case Study 2: Sisne VDC, Rukumkot, Rukum

The situation of Sisne VDC of Rukum is almost similar to that of Madaane VDC of

Gulmi. As per Ms. Sushila Dahal, one of our respondents from Sisne, the piped water is available

only for 2 times a day for 2 hours for the whole village and the time is divided between 5-6

houses as they have same water source to rely on. The villagers have to deal with landslides and

floods often which break down the pipelines and create a shortage of water required for basic

needs and hygiene. Though the government promised to give access of one tap to each house (Ek

ghar-Ek Dhara) through solar energy based lifting process, however, the process has been in the

pipeline since 2045 BS and got delayed due to the infiltration of different vested groups and

people from different political backgrounds in the local levels.

Case Study 3: Molung, Okhaldhunga

According to Bimala Khatiwada, one of our participants from Molung, most of the

springs and other nearby sources of water dried up after the earthquake of 2015. There is a

community water supply project operated by the villagers where 4-5 houses are given one source

and water is supplied for 5 hours per a day. However, the water provided by such source is not

safe for drinking as it is distributed only after sedimentation and decantation which makes the

water muddy during the rainy season as there is no means of filtration applied.

Case Study 4: Chandanath Municipality-3, Jumla

In our interview with Mr. Rupesh Upadhyaya, a 24-year-old Health Assistant in

Chandanath Municipality-3, Jumla, we got to know that nearly 2000 litres of water is provided to

each household everyday which has been managed by local committees by getting water from

Karnali river and storing in a tank.

23
 However, the situation is not similar in the remote areas within the Chandanath

Municipality as well; there is a single tap as a source for 20-30 houses and people have to walk

far to fetch water for basic needs, irrigation, and cattle-feeding purposes. The problem worsens

when nearby sources dries up in dry season. The major water source for the residents in Jumla is

Karnali.

Case Study 5: Besishahar-3, Lamjung

In conversation with Mr. Deepak Raj Baral from Besishahar-3, Lamjung we found out

that the level of water in various sources around Besisahar lowered due to the quake which

caused difficulties for years. However, the problem has been solved to some extent now as there

is one tap in one household in the main roads. But, the situation is still the same in nearby rural

villages where people have to walk all the way to the sources to fetch drinking water. Also, the

major sources have dried up during the construction of Middle-Marsyangdi Hydropower Project

with the construction of dam and changes in the route of the river.

Case Study 6: Mangalsen Municipality -5, Achham

According to Mr. Keshar Singh Bishwokarma from Mangalsen, Achham, the piped water

facility has been provided in the municipality with an active participation of District

Development Committee. However, the sources from forest dry up during the summer, causing

them to wait for alternate days to get water for around one or one and half hour a day. Also, only

a single tap is available for people who can afford the cost associated; but for those who cannot

afford, they share with others.

24
Case Study 7: Bandipur, Tanahaun

The response given as per a group member‟s experience who studied in Bandipur for two

years; there is scarcity in dry season and people who can afford resources, buy jars for drinking,

washing clothes and bathing purpose.

The people who cannot afford go to the jungle for the available source by walking for

more than an hour. This shows that disparities in the income among the households have a severe

impact in the accessibility of sufficient water supply.

Evaluation:

After analyzing the above mentioned situations of hilly region we can notice that one of

the major aspects of water scarcity that is specific to mountainous countries like Nepal is

verticality-induced scarcity. Nepalese residential areas in hills or Hill hamlets, also called

„gaons‟ in Nepali, are situated at elevations higher than the river valley bottoms (besi), often

several hours‟ walking-distance away from the riverside rice-growing agricultural lands

(Gyawali, Sharma, & Pokharel, 2019).

This pattern of habitat exists mainly because the latter are often subjected to flash floods

and also such areas near to water sources or the river valley bottoms were malaria-prone back in

the days when health facilities were not easily accessible; the situation is still the same in rural

areas where sanitation is not given much priority. These higher settlements thus have to depend

upon handful of nearby springs for their daily water need because the energy cost of lifting that

water from the rivers in besi to where it is needed either by human/animal muscle power or by

modern means of diesel/electrical pumping is unsustainable for the normal mountain village

economy.

25
 The public utilities are therefore unable to provide piped water to whole populations

because of their inability to recover costs, low tariffs, management inefficiencies, and

unresponsiveness to the needs of the underprivileged (Bakker, 2010). This, on the other hand

also indicates that the wealth plays a significant role in determining access and wealthier

households consistently have greater access to government water connections as compared to

poorer households, even while controlling for other mediating factors (Gurung, Raina & Suwal,

2019).

Moreover, the aforementioned case studies clearly reveal that springs are the principal

source of domestic water supply for rural communities in the hills and mountain regions of

Nepal. In recent years, the process of drying springs in the mid-hills induced by climate change

and different human-behavior has become a major threat. At present, the households collect

water from a range of sources like springs, community tube wells, privately dug swallow wells,

water carried by pipe from distant spring, streams, and rainwater harvesting. Although tap water

is the preferred source, the majority of the households or communities rarely have this type of

supply. Even if the villagers have a tap water supply, it becomes dysfunctional after a couple of

years due to lack of maintenance and supervision.

And in most cases where water is carried by pipe from a distant source a whole

community requires to depend on a same single tap creating scarcity. Therefore, the most reliable

source of water for villagers is the natural spring. During dry periods, when water in the springs

reduces, or in times of scarcity, villagers rely on streams directly to meet their water demand

(Singh et al., 2019).

26
 B. Terai plains:

Terai belt of Nepal also known as Madhesh lays in the North-Ganga basin. It holds about

50.27% of total population with about 1.35 per annum annual growth rates and almost all the

densely populated and developing cities of the country are located in the southern plains of the

country. This shows a significant pressure in the water resources available in the region that has

being neglected constantly. The degree to which urban water resources are equitably distributed

in developing cities has serious implications on the health and socio-economic development of

the people (Kulinkina et al. 2016). However, public water supply in Terai regions especially in

the urban areas is still deficient in terms of availability, accessibility, quality, and equity

(Jacquet, Pachauri, & Tubiana, 2010). Addressing this lack of universal access to urban water

supply, especially for marginalized communities, has been high on the agenda of the government

and local authorities, time and often. Yet, despite the sustained and significant investment by

bilateral and multilateral aid and financial agencies, the issues of poor water supply coverage,

decrease in the quantity of water, as well as deterioration in the quality of water in terms of

microbial contamination and hazardous levels of chemicals, such as arsenic and fluoride have

persistent (WHO & UNICEF, 2000).

Sample studies of different rural and urban watersheds from Terai regions of Nepal.

Case Study 1: Yamunamai VDC Ward no.-2, Rautahat

Mr. Sitaram Yadav from Yaamunamai VDC of Rautahat district discussed about the

scarcity of potable water sources in his village. The major sources of water in Rautahat are tube-

wells but because of lack of testing people are exposed to arsenic contaminated water

leading to skin diseases and various water-borne diseases like diarrhea and dysentery.

27
 Similarly because of low priority given to cleanliness and sanitation, the areas around the

sources of water are more of a breeding area for harmful mosquitoes that are responsible of

spreading malaria and dengue in the community. He adds proper monitoring and supervision on

projects which are on pipelines are obstructed due to the corrupt system due to which people are

deprived of safe water facility.

Case Study 2: Dashrathchanda Municipality, Ward Number 5, Baitadi

One of our respondents from Dasharathchanda Municipality of Baitadi district, Mr.

Rajesh Prasad Lekhak portrayed how the active involvement of local people in developmental

activities in the municipality has minimized the problem of water scarcity by the formation of

Local Consumer‟s Committee. He mentioned, drinking water is supplied from the tank built by

the locals for 2 hours, (two times in a day) while for other daily chores, irrigation, and other

purposes, direct water from a nearby river is supplied. However, sometimes problems occur due

to calamities like landslides and floods in the area which causes the water pipes to crack and

leak. In such cases, people have to go the sources which are located relatively far in order to

fetch water. And during the winter, the sources often get frozen and blocked which reduces the

water supply even more.

The major problem in his area however is, people who are enjoying the water facility are

exploiting the resources excessively. Also the excessive extraction of rocks, sands and other

minerals around the river side has led to frequent flash floods in the village and pollutes the

water resources. Government is expected to manage and renovate the water supply pipes and

should connect the motor to effectively manage the water supply problem. And the government

interference in minimizing the exploitation and irrational extraction of sand and rocks from the

rivers is a must.

28
 Mr. Lekhak who is also an MA suggests to maintain a monitoring mechanism for

monthly bills. He adds currently people are paying 150 per month to the Local Consumer

Committee but if the meter is connected and if the people pay according to their usage they will

learn the economic use of water and the resources will not be wasted like it is wasted now.

Evaluation:

From the above, we can now understand that the other type of verticality-induced scarcity

of water is specifically prevalent in the Terai plains as well. The humid soil of Terai is the bread-

basket of the country and thus the highest punter of water happens in the agricultural land for

irrigation purpose through the means of ground water pumping. The impact of over pumping of

groundwater in agricultural lands of Terai regions over the last century is severe, with the water

table in the Nepali part of the north Ganga basin having dropped by over 50m from the sea level

at some places in the last decade or decade and a half (Gyawali et al., 2019). This groundwater

drawdown has made it practically impossible for the rural Terai dwellers, especially the vast

majority who are not large farmers, to pump it using traditional manual pumps even for general

households. The condition gets worse especially in the winter and dry season. Moreover, proper

emphasis on chemical testing for detecting arsenic, phosphates and other harmful chemical is a

necessity of time so as to ensure the water security or safe consumption of water.

Additionally, the discussion above underscored the highly promising but yet under-

realized role of comparison even across water sub-fields within a country. The hills, mountains

and plains or even Rural and urban conservation practices are not simply comparable, they are

interlinked with one another in a gradient of conditions from wild lands to dense urban cores,

and in historical processes of innovation and adaptation.

29
 Different search terms, perhaps ones that are method-specific could shed light on

these similarities, differences and interactions.

YOUTH OPINION

As a kid we are taught the quote “Water Water everywhere water but not a drop to

drink” in our social studies lessons to tell us that there is scarcity and along with it we are also

told to remember that our country is the second richest country in water resources after Brazil.

What kind of richness is this when people are not getting water to drink? We can say that there is

scarcity of “accessible clean water” in Nepal as we don‟t have plans, projects and enough

infrastructural restructuring funds to make use of the resources.

Therefore, as we consider the youths to be the pillar of future and also the ones facing the

consequences of prolonged water scarcity, we decided to reach out to few youths to learn more

about the problem. When we look upon the Youth Responses, our respondents considered the

municipals, government and the water companies to be responsible for the problem of Water

Scarcity in Nepal. It was a striking factor which got us thinking that the youths don’t really

consider ourselves to be responsible for the problem. According to our experts and the

literatures, we got to know that the problem if understood by us individuals can also play a vital

role. The respondents suggested applicable solutions like the installation of vending machine in

India where people get 5 liters of water for only 2 rupee. Also, the problem was attributed to

unmanaged deforestation of forests and heavy exploitation of river beds. The government is

expected to regulate and monitor deforestation and exploitation of water bed by incentivizing

companies to behave ethically. The need to improve the sewer system was underlined which

directly pollutes possible water sources.

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 The bottom line was that government should increase its spending in exploration of new

water sources, construction of water pipelines by redirecting from rivers. The other measures

suggested to possibly rejuvenate the sources were plantations of trees, rainwater harvesting

and percolation pit (Suwal, n.d.).

It was said that most people in Himalayan Region still rely on natural springs and gravity-

flow water supply systems. However, discharge from springs is declining which is possibly as a

result of population growth as well as changes in use of land and the climate. Other alternative

water sources, such as groundwater, fog, and rainfall, must be accessed to the Himalayan Region

to tackle the existing water scarcity (Gurung et al., 2019).

One of the respondent underlined that major problem in Kathmandu is exploitation of

underground water sources. While many believe that the individuals are at fault here it‟s

actually the government who is at fault. As the government is unable to provide to its citizens,

they are looking at other alternatives at their disposals and construction of wells, deep

underground borings which are fairly cheap if done collectively. This is why people often opt for

these options. The situation of Kathmandu is worsened sue to over population and

mismanagement (Shrestha et al., 2013).

Besides this, the problem was aligned with lack of technology, infrastructure and

investment and that is where the government should increase its focus. There are many

entrepreneurs in Nepal who have different creative solutions to address the problems.

Producing these people, keeping these people, investing and encouraging people who drive can

forward the entire economy should be the focus. Problems like scarcity of water would naturally

go away if we could harness the power of our resources through innovation and opportunities

creation.

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 As our nation gets richer issues like these will hopefully turn into the problem of the past.

We can say that the youth which is complaining about the governmental efficiency also has hope

that the country will become better someday.

Also, youths being exposed to the innovative solutions are more focused towards private

sectors and support the idea of entrepreneurship as a solution. Nevertheless, three of our

respondents discussed the impact of Waste Management which is really crucial factor to be

addressed by our future generation. We also got to know that even the youths are hopeful about

the Melamchi Water Supply Project which is actually not going to fulfill the demand of

Kathmandu Valley, even if it‟s completed.

EXPERT OPINION

Delay of Melamchi Water Supply Project

According to Mr. Rajendra Pant (Senior Divisional Engineer at MWSP) and Mrs.

Prativa Neupane (former Senior Legal Officer at MWSP), the major factor of multiple delays in

the project is because of the Managerial Inefficiency within the project team and with the

affiliated associations; besides the managerial incompatibility, Political Interference and Local

Dissatisfaction, are some of the other factors that contribute to this costly delay; due to the delay

of safe potable water, the residents have resorted to unsafe measures to fuel their demand for

drinking water.

A deeper observation of this matter shows that residents are compromising on the quality

as long as they have access to a water source. Be it in Urban areas or Rural areas, there is an

increasing number of people who depend on Tube Wells for water. According to

wilsonweb.com, the current estimates show that there are about 200,000 tube wells for 11

million people; this source of drinking water is the most susceptible to Arsenic Contamination.

32
The longer this project delays, the longer the residents are prone to health issues (as well as

Living standard issues) due to exposure to consistent arsenic contamination in their drinking

water. However, the completion of this project does not also mean that the entire population‟s

demand will be fulfilled; this is because it was initially developed to meet the demand for the

population in 2013, however, in the present context the population has increased exponentially

and so has the demand for safe potable water. This situation can be termed as “the evacuation of

the near future” according to Jane Guyer (2007) because the promise of this project has still not

been achieved. Not only that, but it is also further contributing to other issues such as to opt for

alternatives or not since it may be unnecessary in terms of cost and time if the project completes.

As per Mr. Rajendra Pant and Mrs. Prativa Neupane, both of whom are affiliated

with the large scale project, the causes of water scarcity in Nepal are mainly at the Government

level (besides the Exponential Population Growth and Global Warming); there is an obvious lack

of funding and planning for building water-related infrastructures and major lags in management

of water conservation projects and measures. This highlights the root problem that such high-

scale project is not updated to adjust the lags and then make the accurate forecast; in other words,

the project was initially created to satisfy the demand of the 2013 population, yet even after it

was not finished in 2015, the project has not been adjusted to the future forecasts of demand.

Further, this can be traced back to an even larger problem, that is, the state of management of

different development projects in Nepal; be it Managerial Inconsistency or Incompatibility,

Local Disputes, or Political Instability, there is always a reason for costly lags in such projects.

33
 State of Availability: Urban and Rural Context

As per the words of Ms. Anisha Karn, one of the contributors to this ever-growing water

scarcity in our country is the lack of awareness in individuals, especially in the rural areas of

the valley. She adds on to the discussion even though residents in urban areas have limited

access to water sources, the majority still has resources to buy water from tanks, or filter water

through effective equipment even if they only have access to water from tube wells. However,

for residents in rural areas, despite having greater access (comparatively) to water sources, they

are not aware of the dangers of contamination and the importance of filtration. Further,

individuals also seem to lack awareness of the evident alternatives of Rainwater Harvesting,

which Smart Paani also emphasizes on. Residents tend to wait for the MWSP completion,

which results in compromising the quantity of water than its quality; but, they have an efficient

alternative of implementing rainwater harvesting solutions; of course, this argument isn‟t

applicable during the Dry season.

Here, we can understand that individuals also have the responsibility to search for

efficient alternatives until the project ends, at least in order to make significant changes in their

own lives. However, Ms. Priya Sigdel argues that until the government does not actively

support and manage the different projects, the public will not be motivated to do anything, and

instead will be stuck on the hopes and promises that such projects give. She further emphasizes

that the government announces different projects and goals such as the different SDGs, yet it

does not put the necessary effort and support into completing them. She further moves on to state

that all these inconsistencies boil down to the existing Decentralized Corruption at all levels.

34
Additionally, to this point, Ms. Karn also brings attention to the current condition of Sewage and

Leaking, which appears to be the repercussion of poor performance at the policy level. The

drinking water pipes often have a leakage problem, which cumulatively loses a significant

amount of water. Similarly, inefficient Sewage Management also adds to this problem; mostly,

Domestic and industrial wastes are dumped into the rivers of the valley, which is the main

source of drinking water for residents. Not only does this stress the fact that people

underestimate the availability of water, not realizing the cost of its value, but it also indicates

poor regulation of the Environmental Policies for Industries in Nepal. The Environment

Protection Act 2076, states that project developers must submit the Environmental Study

Report before initiating a proposal, Environmental Management Plan before project

implementation, and Environmental assessment report in two years from initiation. But, as we

know the MWSP has contributed tremendously to pollution in the country and the health

repercussions it brings along with it; likewise, industries are constantly dumping wastes into the

very source of our drinking water. This raises questions as to why industries are given such

leniency when they are one of the main contributors to Pollution and Water Scarcity in the

country, as well as why the Regulatory bodies are not doing their job efficiently. Almost all of

our interviewees have responded to this in a similar manner, and which is the costly Power

Game between the government and industries; with corruption, industries are able to gain large

access to water sources, receive leniency in costs (including social costs) for Polluting the

environment. And to argue otherwise would further raise the question of why the current

scenario of Pollution and Water Scarcity has not improved in the past few decades. Even if

individuals fulfill their responsibility to conserve water, the improper Sewage Management

continues to pollute the source, making any efforts made by individuals be in vain.

35
 As we know, 80% of the population in Nepal has access to drinking water but it is not

safe and only 27% of the population has access to basic sanitation; due to this, the remaining

population depends on the water on the surface water sources such as rivers. But, our rivers are

polluted to the greatest extent to inefficient Waste and Sewage Management. Many have raised

the question of how many people are using the water, but the actual question we need to ask is

how is the water being used. Nepal is a country, rich in water sources, yet the majority of its

people are facing the health repercussions of the unsafe limited drinking water that is available.

Despite the availability of water, it is not reaching the individuals for consumption; how does

this gap exist? According to the World Bank report of 2018, only 8% of fresh-water is

consumed by individuals (drinking, toiletry, washing, etc), and the remaining is used in

Agriculture and Industries. So, it is important to observe how such corporations are utilizing

water, and how the government plans the Water supply along with Waste Management.

HYDROPOWER:

When we heard responses from few districts saying that the construction of

Hydropower in their respective places have also been causing impact on their water supply

system. We decided to know the other side of story and we talked to Mr. Uttam Kumar Dhital

who is an engineer and is associated with hydropower sector for last 10 years.

According to him, when any hydropower project is proposed for its proceeding to start

the construction, they have to sign the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA). Under the

agreement, they have clause related to the social cost incurred to the surrounding and impacts of

the project on the residential area around.

36
 Moreover, for water supply sources being interrupted, the person signing the PPA should

ensure that they construct a reservoir in order to meet the water demand of all the people using

that river as a source of their water supply. This cost is also a part of project cost and it‟s

included in their tender itself. In rarest cases there can be situations where the water layer is

lowered and problem of water being muddy. But all the contingent factors are considered few

years prior to the project initiation. The trio consisting of a representative from Nepal Electricity

Authority (NEA), consultant of the entire project and the Contractor (promoter) sign the

Power Purchase Agreement where the entire social cost and compensations are taken care of

by establishing other alternatives for sanitation, water supply for agriculture and so on. The

scoping notice is published 45 days prior to the locals by the contractor before which he/she

have to pass the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) which is an ongoing process of

around three years of prior check .

Now the question arises, is the procedure followed systematically as per the PPA and

the Water Resources Act 2049 or is there corruption in here due to which the locals are facing

clean water problems. Also, another possibility might be that the procedures are followed

manually but the locals are not aware about the actual cause and are blaming the hydropower

contractors.

37
 FORESTRY:

According to our interviewees, trees absorb water through capillary action between

runoff to ground water due to which greenery can lead to sustainable conservation of water

resources which can be used for irrigation. A tree absorbs water and is stored in ground which is

then circulated via pipelines.

With a number of benefits like less number of landslides, flood and soil erosion, trees

ensure good ecosystem and can act as anecdote to global warming. Forest acts as a source in

various places in Nepal where the source is either running water or rain water which is

conserved. The students follow scientific management of tree cutting rather than deforestation

and also support projects like plating four trees if one has to be cut down.

Withstanding to the Forest Act 2049, and in lights of all the advantages mentioned

above we should have been conserving forest for the betterment of the quality of life.

Nevertheless, the scenario is highly corrupted and politicized as per our respondents. According

to the Deforestation rate published in Wikipedia, we get to see that the rate has been increasing

each year. Looking upon what has been said by our respondents, while cutting trees there is an

Environmental Impact Assessment for huge projects as per the Forest Act 2019 which leads

to punishments as mentioned in Section 49 and 50, but they are skeptical if those procedures

are checked and followed. The assessment is given to be conducted by field related technicians

and is approved with single signature of a government official. When we look upon the

possibility of corruption scandal in such cases, it is worth millions as any case related to forests

in Nepal is considered to be most expensive in courts. A highly politicized environment is

reflected where even a ranger can replace a District Forest Officer.

38
 It has been said that the government officials working in this avenue run private

companies in the name of others. They have the power and monopoly, but they cover their

actions which are aligned with the corrupt system. The forest land bidding process is that

conducted where the private company gains the land with political power of the official.

Also, when we look upon the depletion of community forests (which are taken care by

the locals), the laws have been taken care of but what would a poor man do if a resourceful one

comes to him and offers some bucks just to cut few trees. In Nepal, we see actions being taken

upon the poor villagers whereas the ones in power seem to be manipulating them. It also arises as

the poor villagers are not aware about the importance of forest as the source of their water

supply, oxygen, timber wood, and long term protector of the environment they live in.

All our experts have given their opinion within their specific area of knowledge which

somehow limits the dimension of their inputs.

39
 4. RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS:

4.1. RECOMMENDATION

1. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has been the norm as well as mandatory in many places in

the world. Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater in storage

tanks, surface or subsurface aquifers

before it is lost as surface runoff.

According to Wikipedia, Tamil Nadu

was the first state to make rainwater

harvesting compulsory for every

building with an aim to solve water

problems.

Figure: Model of rain water harvesting

As a result, it gave excellent results within 5 years of implementation, and gradually every state

took it as a role model. Since its implementation, Chennai had a 50% rise in water level in five

years and the water quality significantly improved. So, the government of Nepal can bring a new

project of Rainwater harvesting.

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While implementing this project, the government can run campaigns for its awareness in both

urban and rural areas having water scarcity. Similarly, the government can also make a policy

that mandates the rainwater harvesting structure in all new buildings as this policy was also

implemented by the government of Tamil Nadu. On the basis of the government of Tamil Nadu,

one of the techniques of rainwater harvesting is storage of rainwater.

It is a traditional method of rainwater harvesting where rain water is stored on a surface for

future use. In this technique, different kinds of structures can be used such as underground tanks,

ponds, check dams, weirs, etc. This technique can be very useful in rural areas as well as urban

areas of Nepal. As we‟ve come to know from our respondents, one of the major problems related

to water is that there is a lack of water supply, storage of rainwater would be very appropriate

options.

2. Another solution for the water problem would be an atmospheric water generator

(AWG). As per Wikipedia, AWG is a device that extracts water from humid ambient air. One

Dutch company named „Rainmaker‟ is being

able to produce 7000 liters of water per day on

average from the air (Financial Times, 2014).

The government of Nepal can use this

technology where water resources are very

scarce. This technology can be powered by

solar, wind, or grid electricity, or a

combination. The turbine forces air through

41
heat exchangers, where the air is cooled by ammonia compressors, a little like those in a

household fridge. As the water in the air condenses, it forms droplets that are collected in a

storage tank. Thus, the government of Nepal can use technology where drinking water is very

difficult or impossible to obtain.

3. Singapore has developed from being a water-scarce developing nation into a world leader

in water management within a few decades. The major reasons behind their success are

due to emphasis on supply & demand management of both conventional & non-

conventional sources of water and wastewater management. Therefore, the government

of Nepal can use pricing and non-pricing mechanisms for demand & supply management

of water and try to control the wastage of water.

42
 4.2. IMPLICATIONS

According to Salary Explorer (2020) in our country, some studies found that a family earning

360,000 NPR per year will consume twice as much water as the average earning family. This

shows that population increase is leading our country to the water crisis. What we are not seeing

is that there is an increase in competition between people and industry (H. Schreier and P. B.

Shah, 1996) regarding the water supply which is leading to the rise in the water crisis.

Similarly, to preserve the rainwater through rainwater harvesting, there‟s a need for technology

and people should have the knowledge to use the technology in the field to preserve the water.

Likewise, technology should also be at a reasonable price which can be affordable by all the

people. Since urban, as well as rural areas, have rainwater mostly between June and September

(M.L. Jat, O.P. Gill, B.S. Deora, Vivek Kumar, 2017) all over the country. After getting the

knowledge, they can store the water in many ways like storing water on the terrace and transfer

from the pipe into the well, tanks, etc. Similarly, the industries should utilize rainwater

harvesting so that they will consume less water than they usually do and that will help to

preserve the water.

43
Similarly, there must be water recharge awareness especially to the Himalayan and Terai region

of the country because the Terai region needs lots of water while harvesting but has a low supply

of water and in the Himalayan region, there is hard to reach for the water resource (tandfonline).

According to Shrestha et al. (2018), he has estimated that current groundwater extraction of 1.9

BCM/y in the Terai for irrigation, domestic and industrial use, compared to annual recharge of

8.8 BCM – an annual groundwater balance of +6.9 BCM/y.

This suggests that Terai has a huge renewable ground reserve. While doing water recharge,

people should do a lot of tree plantation as shown in the above diagram because trees help to

store water in their roots, and from the ground, water will pass to different rivers, streams, ponds,

etc.which can be used later.

This system not only helps to preserve the water but also helps to make fertile soil for the

cultivation as well as helps to prevent the landslide and other various natural disasters

(Department of Plant Resources, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Thapathali,

Kathmandu, Nepal).

44
There can be water recycle, this helps to preserve the water as well as water can be used in an

effective manner. Here, every household uses water to clean their vegetables and fruits, the water

used for cleaning the vegetables can be used for gardening or can be used in the toilet (the

Himalayan times, 2016).

Not only that, rather than bathing every day, we can also bath thrice or twice a week. In Nepal,

there is Smart Paani, 2013 that teaches to utilize the water properly and due to which many

people are getting aware of water recycling. This process will help to save water and mostly in

the hilly region, many people don‟t have to spend 4000 rupees (Smart Paani, 2013) in water

every month and maintenance is not needed.

45
As shown in the above figure, we people can use various types of water purifier if the water is

unsafe to drink. There are various types of water purifiers that have a different price range for

various types of customers (Digital). Similarly, most of the people in the rural area are also using

the bio sand water filter (BSF) which has many layers of sand used to purify the water. This

system helps to clean the water if the water is from direct rainwater, rivers, wells, ponds, etc.

(Mangoua-Allali et al., 2012). The government can install digital taps to allow economic use,

economic plumbing in houses and also the procedure of water recycling and water recharge can

be incorporated at individual, industrial, businesses, schools/ collages and with other functional

entities.

Thus, if the implication of the recommended process and solution are taken more seriously than

within the short period of time Nepal will have a lesser water scarcity than before.

This will help the people to get a better life and the economic condition of the country will rise

(The Water Project). For this, we can have our younger generations at schools to be taught about

these implications within the surrounding they live in regarding the importance of trees, waste

management, economic use of water so that it can have a chain effect in the future.

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 REFERENCES:

Bond, N. (2019|). Water scarcity. Retrieved from

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Slater, D. (February 2019). Water Scarcity in Brazil. Retrieved from

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MCUP-digital-journal/Water-Scarcity-in-Brazil/

Gurung, A & Adhikari, N. (2019). Water crises in a water-rich country: case studies from rural

watersheds of Nepal's mid-hills. Retrieved from

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case-studies

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abundance_283221#:~:text=The%20lack%20of%20infrastructures%20and,problems%20

of%20lack%20of%20water.

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Mandal, C. (March 2019). Nepali bureaucrats regularly asked for „their cut‟ from Melamchi

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asked-for-their-cut-from-melamchi-contractor-italian-officials-say

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crisis/?fbclid=IwAR329JG2CXruTtxsHXSGzdvTzLgasWjWuwEOeyx2kx9hlaqol5fD3p

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UNICEF. Water and Sanitation (WASH). Retrieved from

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Dahal, Water: A Scarce Resource in Rural Watersheds of Nepal‟s Middle Mountains. Journal

published on Mountain Research and Development. Volume 23(1). 41-49.

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 ANNEXURE

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1IHMAAACfBoHwoQILdNdNoKLWJHGO-
1JuceI7GuZ7X0M/edit?usp=sharing

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