MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 1
Egyptians
Pharmacognosy
- Initially known as “Materia Medica”
- Pharmakon “drug”, gnosis “study”
Historical background
- Trial and Error
- Concoct (combining materials to produce
control suffering, eliminates pain, cure disease)
- Plants and animals
Pharmacognosy according to Fluckiger:
- It is an applied science that deals with the biological
(source), biochemical (constituents: pharmaceutically
active and pharmacologically active), and economic
features of drugs of biological origin and their
constituents.
Focuses of Pharmacognosy
1. Identification of plants and animals
2. Chemistry
3. Evaluation, preservation and use or application of
crude drugs
4. Toxicology
5. History, distribution, collection and selection
6. Preparation and commerce
Babylonians
- Made clay models of the human body
- Medicinal effects of a number of plants
- 250 plants
- Wheat and Barley (primary source of food “bread”)
- Embalming the dead
- Possessed an understanding of the human anatomy
- Knowledge of the medicinal uses of plants and animals
according to the Papyrus Ebers
- Believe in after life
- Source of plant “Myrrh” for embalming
o Myrrh
drug- - Al. of Astring-O-Sol (used as a
mouthwash, have antiseptic effect and
astringent effect)
- Expensive man gold, gift to Jesus Christ
o Embalming
- Why? drying of moisture (bacteria, fungi,
worm)
Papyrus Ebers
- Famous document written in 1550 B.C. was found in the
tomb of a mummy and is now preserved at the
University of Leipzig.
- Discovered by George Ebers
- 60 ft. long and 1 foot wide
- One of the most complete and maintained
- Medicinal document
- 800 prescription
- 700 drugs chiefly botanical source
Edwin Papyrus (1600 B.C.)
- Surgical instruction
- Cosmetic procedures
Kahun Medical Papyrus (1900 B.C.)
- Health of women with birthing instructions
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 2

Pedanius Dioscorides - In Greek: Pharmakon “Drug”, Gnosis “Knowledge/

Gignoso= to acquire knowledge”
- A Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist
- Wrote his doctoral thesis “Analectica
- Wrote his “De Materia Medica” in 78 A.D. in which he
Pharmacognostica”
described about 600 plants that were known to have
medicinal properties. Johann Adam Schwidt
- “The Medicinal Material” 600 plants
- German-Austrian surgeon and ophthalmologist
- Father of Pharmacognosy
- 1st to use the term “pharmacognosy” in 1811 “Lerbuch
- Father of Pharmacology
der Materia Medica”
- Father of Medicinal Botany
- Master Herbalist Friedrich August Fluckiger
- Example of Plants in “De Materia Medica plants”
- Described the most comprehensive scope of
Aloe - From aloe vera
pharmacognosy
- For emollient, treatment of burns
Belladonna - atropine “Mydriatic” dilation of pupils - Is the simultaneous application of various scientific
Colchicum - colchicine for acute gout disciplines with the object of acquiring knowledge of
Allopurinol - chronic gout drugs from every point of view
Ergot - migraine treatment, oxytocic
Drug Constituents
Opium - stone of immortality, narcotic analgesic,
Natural Synthetic
antitussive
- Direct obtained from - Manufactured either by total
Premarin - source of estrogen from mare-female horse
plants and animals in synthesis or semi-synthesis
Digitoxin - lanoxin “Cardiac glycosides”
nature. - Total synthesis= synthetic camphor
Digoxin - deathly - Example: Natural from cyclopentadiene
Camphor from Steam - Semi-synthesis= chemical
Distillation of Camphor modification of pinene from pine
Claudius Galen tree. stumps

- Greek Pharmacist-Physician
- Compiled the first list of drugs with similar or identical
action (parallel drugs), which are interchangeable
- “Galenical Pharmacy” the method of preparing
formulas containing plant and animal drugs
- Father of Modern Pharmacy
- Father of Pharmaceutical Compounding
Crr. Anotheus Seydler
- A medical student in Halle/ Saale, Germany in 1815
who introduced the term pharmacognosy
Semi-synthesis
- Modification of plant chemicals into new compound.
Definition of Terms
Crude Any product that has not been advance in value or improved
in condition by shredding, grinding, chipping, crushing,
distilling, evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other
substances or by any other process or treatment beyond what
is essential to its proper packaging and to the prevention of
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 3

decay or deterioration pending manufacture. - Identification

Crude Are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural Collection time
Drugs substances that have undergone only the processes of - part of the plant that constitutes the drug is
collection and drying. highest in its content of API.
Natural Substances found in nature that comprise whole plants and - To isolate the right type and right amount of
Substances herbs and anatomic parts, whole animals and anatomic and constituents. (“Season”- can affect the nature
substances that have not had changes made in their and quantity of the constituents.
molecular structure as found in nature. Pectin in Citrus
Derivatives/ - Chief principle or constituents of crude drugs that are - Unripe: Protopectin, boiling + Diluted Acid
Extraction separated and used in a specific manner. - Ripe: Pectin (use in jellies= increases viscosity of
- Obtained through the process of extraction. jellies)
Solvent/ Any solvent used for extracting medicinal compounds from - Over ripe: Pectin acid
Menstruum plants - ↓ BS, ↓BC
Marc Undissolved portion of a drug that remains after the extraction. Marijuana
Extractive Product of extraction process; mixture of substances. - Young leaves: cannabidiol
Extraction The process of removal of substances that has a solvent/ - Mature leaves: cannabinol= THC
menstruum 2. Harvesting - Large scale
- Mechanical: pickers, steel etc.
- Manual: hand pickers
- If the drug collected is → Manual picking
Appropriate Solvents
3. Drying - Air drying and artificial air drying
Samples Solvents - Removes moisture
Fats Hexane - To ensure good keeping qualities
4. Curing - “Special drying” process and enhances the
Resins Alcohol
property of active ingredient.
Chlorophyll Acetone - Example: Cascara sagrada, Vanilla
Chrysarobin Hot benzene Cascara sagrada
- Laxative
- 1 year with MgO (it oxidizes the irritating
substance).
Methods of Extraction Vanilla
Infusion -
The maceration of crude drug in the solvent for a short - Flavor, perfume
period of time. - Mature green fruit: does not contained the
- Example: Tea aroma
Maceration The soaking of crude drug in the solvent for 24 hours - Undergo fermentation and sweating, to have
Decoction Crude drugs undergo boiling and then filter an aromatic substance.
5. Garbling - Final step in preparation of crude drug.
- Consists of removal of extraneous matter such
Geographic source and habitat as other parts of plant, dirt and added
Indigenous Naturalized adulterants.
Plants growing in their native When they grow in a foreign land or in 6. Packaging, - For protection and marketability of crude drugs.
countries. locality other than their native homes. storage, and - Warehouse should be cool, dark and well
Preservation ventilated with dry air.
- Protection against:
Preparation of Drugs for the Commercial Market o Moisture
1. Collection - Small scale - ↑Weight, ↓A.I, Facilitates bacterial
- To ensure the true natural source of the drugs fungal growth
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 4

o Oxidation o Heparin- Sheep

- Presence of oxygen→Oxidation o Cod liver oil- Rachitic rat
o Insect attack o Parathyroid hormone- Dog
- Simpler method: exposure to 65℃ o Oxytocin- Chicken
- Fumigation: Methyl Bromide Chemical evaluation - Assay of the active ingredients using
- Adding of preservative: chloroform chemicals
and carbon tetrachloride - Best method to determine official
o Animal destruction- mice and rats potency, evaluate, identify the purity of
substance.
Physical evaluation - Use of physical constants
Classification of Drugs - Example: Boiling points, melting points,
Morphologic - Form plant part used solubility
Classification - Drugs are arranged according to their
morphological or external characters of the
plant parts or animal parts, i.e. which part of Chemistry of Natural Drug Product
the plant is used as a drug. Pharmaceutically active Cause a chemical change in the preparation.
Taxonomic Classification Drugs are arranged according to the plants Pharmacologically Responsible for therapeutic activity
from which they are obtained, in kingdom, active
subkingdom, division, class, order, family, genus Inert Constituents - No definite pharmacological activity
and species. - Alter the abnormality and potency of
Pharmacologic or - This classification involves the grouping of the A.I.
Therapeutic drugs according to the pharmacological - Inert Constituents: Extraction,
action of their most important constituent or Crystallization, Purification
their therapeutic use.
- Laxatives: Senna, and Cascara Sagrada
Chemical Classification Crude drugs are classified depending upon the
Family Names
active constituents. Irrespective of the
morphological or taxonomical characters, the
Family Mnemonics Old New
drugs with similar chemical constituents are
grouped together. Sunflower fam. Comp-As Compositae Asteraceae
Anthraquinone glycoside: Senna and Cascara
Sagrada Cabbage fam. Cru-Bra Cruciferaceae Brassicaceae
Grasses Gra-Po Gramineae Poaceae
Trees and shrubs Glutt-Clus Gluttiferae Clusiceae
Evaluation of Crude drugs Celery, carrot, Ump-Api Umbellifurae Apiaceae
Organoleptic evaluation - a.k.a. “Macroscopic examination” parsley
- Use of the senses. Mint (aromatic) La-La Labiatae Lamiaceae
Microscopic Evaluation Use of microscope to determine the purity and Palm trees Pal-Are Palmae Arecaceae
identity of the drug.
Pharmacologic - a.k.a. “Bioassay”,
evaluation - Using living things to indicate the strength
of a drug and pharmacologic activity of
II. Biogenesis or drug biosynthesis
drug
- Examples: - The process of producing secondary metabolites used
o Digoxin- Pigeon as drugs.
o Atropine- Cat Primary Metabolites to Secondary Metabolites
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 5

- �����ℎ������� → ���������� - �����ℎ → ������� → ��������

����������
- �������� ������� - ������ → �������� → ���������
���� �������ℎ����
- ���� �������� ���� �� ����� ���� - Saccharification
- Active constituents- secondary metabolites (responsible - water molecule breaks glycosidic
for the normal growth and development of plant. bond
- Glycoside hydrolases (Cellulase,
Carbohydrates
Lactase)
- Most abundant group of organic molecules in nature. Monosaccharides
- First product formed in photosynthesis Carbon Name Aldose Ketose
- Has polyhydroxy, aldehyde or ketone.
2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde
- Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with an
empiric formula of: C2H2nOn/ Cn (H2O)n/ (CH2O)n 3 Triose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
4 Tetrose Erythrose Erythrulose
- Aldehyde (RCOH), Ketone (RCOR)
5 Pentose Arabinose, Xylose, Ribose Ribulose
- Functions: 6 Hexose Glucose, Galactose Fructose
o Provide energy 7 Heptose Sedoheptose
o Serve as storage of energy 8 Octulose D-glycero-D-manno-octulose

o Cell component (glycoprotein)

o Structural component (Chitin- exoskeleton of
arthropods) Pentose (5C)
- 1 molecule glucose= 30 ATP→Krebs Cycle→ATP, NADH,
- Group of sugar with general formula C5H10O5
FADH2→ETC→ATP (Source of energy of cell)
- Ribose, Ribulose, Xylose
- Plants: Starch, Human: Glycogen, 4 Kcal/ 1gram CHO
- 2 groups of carbohydrates: Ribose Ribulose and Xylose
Xylulose
1. Sugar
- Aldopentose Ketopentose - Absorbed but not
 Monosaccharide- cannot be hydrolysed to - Product of “Gum metabolized
simpler sugar. hydrolysis” - Aldopentose
- Part of the backbone - “wood sugar”
 Disaccharide- yields 2 monosaccharide
RNA - Plant source: corn cobs
molecules upon hydrolysis. and straw
 Oligosaccharide- composed of small - Use: Diagnostic and for
intestinal malabsorption
number of simple sugar. - Xylose in urine: Intestinal
2. Polysaccharides malabsorptions
- High MW, complex - Xylitol/ “Sugar free”-
chewing gum,
- a.k.a. “Glycans” toothpaste
- Usually hydrolysed to a component
hexosan (60 sugar)
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 6

- Plant source: Honey (Apis mellifera)

- Use: Nutrient for DM patients, infant formulas
Hexose (6C)
- 3 ways to obtained:
- Group of sugar with general formula C6H12O6 o Inversion of Sucrose (Fructose + glucose)
1. Glucose o Hydrolysis of sucrose (Fructose + glucose)
- a.k.a. “Dextrose”, “Physiologic sugar”, “Grape o Hydrolysis of Inulin
Sugar”, “Glucopyrinose” Other names Uses Identification
- First isolated in grapes test
- Beta D-glucose (structural components of Glucose o D-glucose o Nutrient (parenteral), Moore’s test
o Dextrose excipient (caramel
cellulose, most abundant type of glucose) and o Blood sugar o Ca gluconate/ color/ dark
Alpha D-glucose (Storage polysaccharide, o Grape sugar gluceptate/ brown)-
made of starch) o Physiologic sugar levulinate- Ca identification
replenisher of reducing
- Obtained by controlled hydrolysis of starch o Ferrous gluconate- sugars
- Plant source: Grapes (Vitis vinifera) hematinic
- Use: As nutrient given by mouth, enema, SC or Fructose o Fruit sugar o Food for diabetic Seliwannoff’s
o Levulose o Ingredient in infant test (red
IV o Sweetest feeding formula color)
Monosaccharide o Ingredient in fructose
Dextrose excipient injection, nutrient

- Sweetening agent
- Use as pharmaceutical excipient (Tablet binder Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose
coating agent)
- Crystalline dextrose monohydrate, less rigorous Disaccharides: Lactose and Maltose
purification 3. Galactose
Dextrates- mixture of saccharide >93% dextrose - Aldohexose
Liquid glucose - C4 epimer of glucose
- Source: milk
- From incomplete hydrolysis of starch, contains mainly - Note: Gauchers’ Disease
dextrose but with maltose, dextrins and water - Bos Taurus
- Sweetening agent
2. Fructose
- Sweetest monosaccharide
- a.k.a. “Fruit sugar”, “Levulose”
- Ketohexose
- Sweetest but bitter after taste
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 7

dioxide)- decolorized the substance

- Crystallization (evaporation process)
Sugar beets
- Dig fruit
- Wash
- Cut
- Thinly V-shape form of beets
“Cossettes”
Invert Sugar
- Water
- Heat application
- Presence of acid in the sugar
- Mixture of glucose and fructose in
solution
D-galactose - Less tendency to crystallize than
Mannose: C2 epimer of (Epimer
glucoseat C-4) sucrose
- Sweeter than sucrose
Molasses
Heptose (7C)
- Residual dark colored syrup after
complete crystallization of sucrose
- Sedoheptulose - Purpose of molasses: Manufacturing
of ethanol “Rum”
Nonose (9C) -
Maltose - Glucose + - a.k.a. “Malt sugar”
- Neuraminic acid (sialic acid) Glucose -  1,4 link
- -1,2- - Major degradation of product of starch
Disaccharides glucosidic - Source: Sugar from grains (barley)
Sucrose - Glucose - The most abundant disaccharides bond - Use: injections and nutritional intravenous
and - a.k.a. “Table sugar”, “Saccharin” fluids as an energy source.
Fructose - Source: Sugar Cane (Saccharum - Sweetest disaccharide
- -1,4- officinarum), Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris), - 1/3 as sweet as “sugar”
glucosidic Maple tree (Acer saccharum) - Produce from the germination of Barley
bond - Use: Demulcent (Relives inflammation (Hordeum vulgare)
and irritation) and nutrient, Bacteriostatic Lactose - Glucose + - a.k.a. “Milk sugar”
(85% w/v, less waste bacteria) and Galactos - Β 1,4 link
Preservative e - 1/6 as sweet as sugar
Sugar Cane - Β-1,4- - Source: From cow’s milk (fresh milk of Bos
- pH 4-4.5 glycosidic Taurus)
- Mill (heavy rollers) bond - Hydrolyzed specifically by lactase
- Boil and add lime (Ca (OH)2) - “Casein” protein found in milk
- Neutralized the plant acid - Lactic and butyric acid fermentation
(inversion of sugar, coagulation of - Spoilage of milk
the albumin) - Colostrum “Breastmilk”
- pH 7 - Milk Products:
- Removed the latter scum o Butter- formed when fat globules unite
- Filter o Buttermilk- liquid left after fat globules
- SO2 (if brown sugar no sulfur unite by churning
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 8

o Skimmed milk- milk after separation of the intestine (Large water, laxative)
cream
o Coagulum- formed when skimmed milk is
treated with rennin
Oligosaccharides
Stand Maltotriose

Churning - 3 glucose unit

- Intermediate product of starch hydrolysis
- -1,4
rennin
Dextrin

- Several glucose units

o Cheese- treated - Responsible for the browning of bread
coagulum
- Product of partial hydrolysis of starch
o Whey- liquid
separated from
coagulum
o Condensed milk- form by partial Some terms to remember:
evaporation of milk in a vacuum in a o Liquid glucose- incomplete product of starch hydrolysis
hermetically sealed container by
o Dextrin- partial product of starch hydrolysis
autoclaving
o Maltotriose- intermediate product of starch hydrolysis
o Malted milk- evaporation of milk with
malt extract o Maltose- complete or major product of starch hydrolysis
- Uses:
o Natural microflora, infant formula - -1,4 and -1,6
o Tablet diluent
o Source of lactor, yogurt, Kumyss Polysaccharide
(fermented milk)
o Employed in culture media (Cassein, Na - a.k.a. “glycans”
caseinate)
Lactulose - Fructose + - Brand name: Duphalac, Lilac
- Homoglycan: starch, inulin, dextran, cellulose, chitin
Galactos - B- 1,4 link - Heteroglycan: gums and pectins
e - Semi synthetic sugar prepared by alkaline
- Β-1,4- rearrangement of lactose Homoglycan 1) Cellulose
glycosidic - Use: Laxative for patients with MI decrease - Composed of repeating units of glucose
bond blood NH3+ - Β-1,4 bond
����������� - Structural skeleton (1 cell wall of plants)
- Lactose Lactulose
- Uses: Self binding tablet diluent, Disintegrant
- 20-30g (3x a day)
- Products of cellulose:
- MOA:
o Purified cotton
o Not absorbed
- a.k.a. “Adsorbent cotton”
o Metabolized by colonic flora to
- Source: hair of the seed of Gossypium hirsutum
lactic and acetic acid
- Description: Cellulose β-linked linear
- Lactulose→Lactic acid, Acetic→Irritation in
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 9

glucopyranosyl polymer Glycoside

- Uses: Manufacturing of explosive (Cellulose
acetate), surgical dressing - Organic natural compounds present in a lot of plants and some animals,
o Powdered Cellulose these compounds upon hydrolysis give one or more sugars (glycone) and
- It is a purified, mechanically disintegrated non-sugar (aglycone) or called genin.
cellulose prepared by processing -cellulose - 2 components: Glycone, Aglycone
- Uses: self-binding diluent, Disintegrant Glycone Aglycone
o Microcrystalline cellulose - Sugar component - Non-sugar component
- Diluent in the production of tablets. - Common denominator “genin”
o Purified rayon - Inactive - Basis of classification
- Fibrous form of bleached, regenerated cellulose - Water soluble - Active
- It is used as a surgical aid. - Insoluble in organic solvents - Water insoluble
o Cellulose Derivatives - Soluble in organic solvents
Methyl cellulose- bulk laxative, artificial tears
Ethyl cellulose- tablet binder, tablet coating
Hydroxyethyl cellulose- thickener, artificial tears
Hydroxypropymethyl cellulose- thickener, - Are plant constituents which produces sugar (glucose, rhamnose,
artificial tears cymarose) as a product of hydrolysis
Oxidized cellulose- local hemostatic (sterile - “Sugar ethers”
pads) - Can be linked by: N, S, O, C glycosidic bond
Cellulose Acetate Phthalate- tablet coating - Soluble: water and alcohol
Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose- suspending - Insoluble: ether and benzene
agent, thickening agent - Most active glycosidic enzyme: Myrosin (mustard), Emulsin (almond kernel)
o Pyroxylin - How does glycosides hydrolyse? By boiling with mineral acid (HCl, HSO4,
- a.k.a. “Soluble gun cotton” HNO3)
- Description: Formed by the action of
Nitric acid and sulfuric acid in cotton Cardiac glycosides
- Uses: Topical protectant, preparation of
collodion and flexible - 1st use: Diuretic (↑ the passage of the blood in the kidney (Diuresis), Increase
2% camphor (Waterproofing (Collodion) cardiac output)
- MOA: Na/K atpase inhibitor
HNO3
- ↑ Na= ↑ Ca→ Troponin C (Contraction)
HSO4 - Digoxin effect: (+) inotropic (↑ contraction of cardiac muscle), (-) inotropic
(↓ Heart rate)
3% Castor oil (Flexibility)
- Cardiac glycosides:
2) Starch 1) Cardenolides
- A glucosan 2) Bufadienolides
- Storage polysaccharides in plants
Cardenolides Bufadienolides
- 2 components of starch: Amylose and Amylopectin
- More common - Less common/ rare
- Optimum activity/ active - Less activity/ inactive
- 23 Carbon with 5 - 24 Carbon with 6 membered lactone
membered lactone ring ring
- Same chemical properties of “Bufalin”
(toxic metabolites found in the skin of
toad)
3) Grecian Foxglove (Digitalis lanata)
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 10

- Constituents: Digoxin leaves (well tolerated, fewer side effect) - Anthraquinone glycosides are generally orange, red or brown
4) Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) - Red compounds found in fairly limited distribution within the plant
- Constituent: Digitoxin leaves (lipid soluble, longer half-life (dili kingdom
dali ma-eliminate, toxicity)) - Anthraquinone glycosides:
5) Convallaria (Convalaria majalis) 1) Cascara Sagrada (Rhamnus purstianus)
- a.k.a. “Lily of Valley” - Part: Dried bark
- Constituent: Convallatoxin - a.k.a. “Sacred bark, Rhamnus purstiana”
- Part: Rhizome or root - Constituent: Cascaroides
- Toxic to human - 1 year with MgO- reduces the bitter taste plant
6) Adonis (Adonis vernalis)
- a.k.a. “Pheasant’s eye” A Optical isomer of barbaloin (aloe)→laxative
- Constituent: Adonitoxin B
7) Apocynum (Apocynum cannabinum) C Optical isomer of Chrysarobin
- a.k.a. “Black Indian Hemp, Dog bare, Candian Hemp” D
- Constituent: cymarine 2) Frangula (Rhamnus frangula)
8) Black Hellebore (Helleborus niger) - a.k.a. “Buckthorn bark”
- a.k.a. “Christmas rose” - Constituent: Frangulin A and B
- Constituent: Helleberin - Karaya + Frangula (Movicol)- Relief of constipation
9) Strophantus (Strophantus kombe, Strophantus hispidus) 3) Aloe (Aloe barbadensis, Aloe spicata)
- Constituents: K-strophantin, G-strophantin (toxic metabolite - a.k.a. “Sabila, Lilly of Dessert”
(Ouabain/ arrow poison)) - Aloe barbadensis- majority spp. Found in the Philippines
10) Squill (Urginea maritima, Urginea indica) - Constituent: Barbaloin (Chief/ cathartic), Aloe emodin, Aloin
- Constituents: Scillaren A - Part: Dried Latex juice
- Part: Bulb 4) Rhubard
- Use: Expectorant, Diuretic, Cardiotonic, poorly absorbed in - a.k.a. “Rheum, Chinese Rhubarb”
the GIT (Short duration of action) - Rheum officinale (Medicinal plant)
- Rheum emodi, Rheum webbianum (Ornamental)
Identification test for cardiac glycosides
- Constituent: Rhein anthrones (Drastic cathartic action)
Test Positive result - Part: Dried rhizome roots
Liebermann burchard Green - Not use leaves: contains oxalate (toxic)
Keller-kiliamis Bluish green 5) Senna
- a.k.a. “Senna leaves”
Digitalis squill red
- Cassia acutifolia (Alexandria- broken leaves)
Legal’s test- 5 membered lactone ring Deep red - Cassia angustifolia (Tinne valley- full or fresh leaves)
Kedde test- 5 membered lactone ring Violet - Constituent: Sennosides A and B
Baljet’s test Yellow to orange - Leaves: blue green color= high quality, yellow= poor quality
- Color in urine: reddish but no clinical significance
6) Chrysarobin (Andira araroba)
Anthraquinone Glycoside - Mixtures of neutral principle form GOA powder
- Keratolytic agent
- Laxative - Treatment: psoriasis, eczema
- Cathartic/ Stimulant Cathartic (Chrysarobin (too irritating)) - Solvent: Hot benzene
- The glycosides are absorbed from the small intestine and re-excreted in
the large intestine→Produced an increase in motility→laxative
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 11

7) Chrysazin - Constituents: Dioscin, Botogenin, Diosgenin- Cortisone

- Only synthetic anthraquinone glycoside analogue precursor, anti-inflammatory property
- a.k.a. “Danthron” - Use: Rheumatic arthritis treatment, asthma treatment
- Cathartic effect 3. Ginseng
- a.k.a. “Panax, Man root”
Identification test for anthraquinone glycosides - Panax ginseng (Asia (Korea))
Test Positive result - Panax quiquefolius (America)
Borntrager’s test Pink, red, violet color - Constituents: Ginsenosides, Panaxosides, Dammarol
- Increases libido
- Uses: demulcent, expectorant, emetic, stimulant, carminative,
Saponin Glycosides adaptogen (manage stress), improve stamina
- Treatment: Loss of appetite, improve stamina, debility due to
- Saponins are glucosides with foaming characteristics. old age (muscle weakness)
- Saponins consist of a polycyclic aglycones attached to one or more 4. Agave (Agave cantula)
sugar side chains. - a.k.a. “Maguey”
- Saponin have bitter taste. Some saponins are toxic (Sapotoxic) - Constituents: Hecogenin, Manogenin, Contigenin
- Foaming ability: Mixture of hydrophobic- aglycone (sapogenin), - Use: Molluscicides (kills mollusc)
hydrophilic- glycone 5. Sarsaparilla (Smillax ornata, Smillax officinalis)
- 1st: identification test (foam test) - a.k.a. “Smillax”
Saponins - Uses: Rheumatic arthritis treatment, Chronic skin diseases
S Soap-like (foams upon shaking) treatment in syphilis
S Steroidal in nature 6. Guava (Psidium guajava)
S Sapogenin (aglycone) - a.k.a. “Bayabas”
S Sapotoxin (toxic aglycone) - Antimicrobial property due to saponin compound
- Acrid taste
- Sternulatory (induces sneezing) Identification test for saponin glycosides
- Irritating to mucous membrane Test Positive result
- Destroys RBC’s of cold-blooded animals (fish
poison) Froth test 1 cm Layer of foam
Foam test Persistent foam
Liebermann-Burchard Green
1. Glycyrrhiza (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Hemolysis test RBC ruptured
- ↑ foaminess of beer
- a.k.a. “Licorice”
- Constituents: Glycyrrhizin/ glycyrrhizic acid (50x sweeter than Cyanophore Glycosides
sugar), glycyrrhitic acid
- The hydrolysis of this glycoside it will produce HCN
- Masking for the bitter drugs
- Found in rosaceous plants
- Contraindicated in hypersensitive patient- retention of Na
- Termed as cyanogenic glycosides (Amygdalin- widely distributed
and H2O
cyanophore glycosides)
- Male: 100 mg/ day cause sterility
- Mandelonitrile (benzaldehyde- cyanohydrin)- common derivatives of
- Use: demulcent, expectorant, anti-inflammatory, masking
cyanophore glycosides
agent for bitter drugs
- Enzyme: Emulsin= Amygdalase + Prunase
2. Discorea (Dioscorea floribunda)
- a.k.a. “Mexican yam”
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 12

3) White mustard - a.k.a. “Sinapis Alba”

- Brassica alba
Amygdalase - Constituent: Sinalbin
Myrosinase

Prunase

- Uses: Local irritant, emetic, rubefacient,

vesicant (Cause of blistering of the skin),
condiment
Identification test for isothocyanate glycosides
Test Positive result
1. Wild Cherry Prunus serotine - Dried bark Odor test Mustard smell
- Constituent: Prunasin Ferric chloride test Blood red
- Sedative, Expectorant
2. Apricot Prunus armeniaca - Function: Sickle cell anemia
- Constituent: Laetrile (B17) Flavonol Glycosides
3. Bitter Almond Prunus amygdalus - Constituent: Benzaldehyde
- Flavonoids are virtually universal plant pigments.
- Synthetic bitter almond oil
- They are responsible for the color of flowers, fruits and sometimes
4. Cassava Manihot esculenta - Constituent: Mannihotoxins
leaves.
- They ensure tissue protection against the damaging effects of UV
Identification test for cyanophore glycosides radiation.
- Flavus= yellow (red, blue, purple)
Test Positive result
- Rutin, Quercetin, Citrus bioflavonoids (Hesperidin, Hesperitin, Diosmin,
Guignard’s test Red color
and Naringen), Vitamin P. (P-permeability factor, Rutin + Hesperidin)
- Uses:
o Treatment for capillary bleeding and secondary capillary
Isothiocyanate Glycosides fragility (Vitamin P.)
1) Mustard - a.k.a. “Glucosinolates” o Treating symptoms of common cold (Citrus Bioflavonoid)
glycosides - Found in Cruciferous plant (Brassicaceae)
o Anti-ulcer effect (Quercitin- acts by prompting mucous
- Contains a functional group: SCN
secretion, protective agent/ inhibit the growth of H. pylori)
- Mustard green: Brassica juncea
1) Elm
2) Black Mustard - a.k.a. “Brown mustard, Sinapis nigra”
- Brassica nigra - a.k.a. “American Elm”
- Constituent: - Ulmus americana
o Sinigrin - Constituent: quercetin
 Sinigrin (Potassium myrinate) 2) Milk thistle
 Sinalbin (Parahydroxyl benzyl) - Hepato protective
o Isothiocyanate - a.k.a. “Silymarin”
Myrosinase - Sylibium marianum
- Constituent: Silibinin
3) Gingko
- a.k.a. “Maidenhair Tree”
- Gingko biloba
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 13

- Constituents: gingkolides, bilobaloides H

- Memory enhancer (Increase supply of oxygen in the brain)

Identification test for flavonol glycosides

Test Positive result H
Pew’s test Deep purple/ red
Shinoda test Deep red/ magenta
Pacheco’s test Red color
a) Ethyl vanillin- synthetic analogue for vanillin

Alcohol Glycosides Lactone Glycosides

- a.k.a. “Salix” 1) Coumarin

- Salix purpurea, Salix fragilis - Source: Tonka beans
- Constituents: Salicin (resemble salicylic acid), Populin (benzoyl salicin; - Cause drug to drug interaction, ban in FDA for flavouring agent.
anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory) - Dipteryx odorata
- Popular tree - Fragrant odor, aromatic burning taste
- Populus - Flavoring agent
- Anticoagulant property
2) Dicumarol
H O A - a.k.a. “Bishydroxycoumarin”
- from improperly cured leaves of sweet clover (Melilotus
officinalis)
- First oral anticoagulant
- Dose: 200-300 mg initially, 25 to 200 mg monitored by
Aspirin- Enteric coated tablet, (<80 mg Thrombolytics, >325 mg NSAID) Prothrombin time
- Vitamin K- promotes clotting factor, precursor of warfarin
Identification test for alcohol glycosides 3) Cantharides
Test Positive result - From Spanish flies/ Russian flies/ Blistering flies (Cantharis
vesicatoria)
Fehling’s test Brick red
- Mature insects with brilliant green with a metallic luster
Nessler’s test Gray - Killed with fumes of hot vinegar, ammonia, chloroform or
Tollen’s test Silver Mirror plunged in dilute vinegar
- Constituents: Cantharidin (vesicating principle)
- Uses: Irritant, Vesicant, Aphrodisiac (Priapism- painful, 12 to 24
Aldehyde Glycosides hours), Wart removal (topical)
4) Psoralens
1) Vanilla - Photosensitizing furocoumarins
- a.k.a. “Mexican/ Vera cruz, Bourbon vanilla (Vanilla - From family Apiaceae or Rutaceae
planifolia)” - Source: Bishop’s flower (Ammi majus)
- Tahitian vanilla (V. tahitiensis) - Constituents: Methoxalen (8-methoxysporalen or xanthoxin)
- Constituents: Glucovanillin and glucovanillic acid - Uses: Repigmentation in idiopathic vitiligo (leukoderma)
- 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (principal constituent) - Risks: Cataract, Carcinogenesis →Avoid UV radiation or sun
- “Aroma”, “Flavor” - Trioxsalen- synthetic analogue
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 14

Phenol glycosides - Converts animal hide to leather

- Chewing of “nga-nga/ betel nut”- esophageal cancer
1) Uva-ursi 2) Hamamelis Leaf
- Eaten by bears - a.k.a. “Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana)
- a.k.a. “Bear berry” - Constituents: Hamamelitannin (derived from gallic acid)
- Arctostaphylos uva-ursi - Use: astringent and hemostatic
- Part: Dried leaves a) Hamamelis water
H - Use:
o Astringent in hemorrhoidal products (Anti-
inflammtory)
o Astringent in insect bites and sting
preparation
2) Poison Ivy and oak o Astringent in teething preparation
- Poison Ivy: Rhus radicans, Toxicodendron radicans 3) Nutgall
- Poison Oak: Rhus toxidendron, Toxicodendron toxicaria - Hardened excrescence obtained from the young twigs of
- Constituents: uroshiol (Quercus infectoria) when a hymenopterous insect (Cynips
tinctoria) bores holes to deposit its ova
Tannins - Constituents: 50-70% tannic acid
- A complex substances or polyphenols that are difficult to separate
because they do not crystallize
- Forms colloidal solution in water
- Acidic
- Puckering taste- Sour taste
- Precipitated by Copper, Lead, Tin, Dichromate
- Precipitates gelatin (used for detection of gelatin)
- Precipitates alkaloid from insoluble tannates
- Precipitates proteins used in the tanning of leather.

Hydrolyzable Non-hydrolyzable

Other names Pyrogallotannins Phlobatannins,

Condensed tannins

Chemically Galic acid or related Phenolic nuclei

polyphenol esterified with 1 linked to CHO and
sugars CHON
Hydrolic products Pyrogallol Phlobaphenes (red
colored)
Ferric Chloride Blue-Black Green-black
test
Leather type Blooms leather Tanner’s red
1) Tannins
- Astringent
- Carcinogenic potential
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 15

- Kingdom: Monera - Kingdom: Protista (unicellular), Fungi,

Biochemistry Plantae, Animalia

Other Characteristics of Prokaryotic:

- the chemistry of life
- Circular DNA (plasmids)
- Study of macromolecules/ biomolecules - No membrane bound organelles
- Have ribosomes (bacteria)
Overview of Cell
1.Cell membrane - Barrier; for protection
Present in plants but absence in animals:
- Semipermeable
- Cell wall
- non-polar, small polar, ions- both have
- Chloroplasts (element present: Mg)
channels (use energy)
- Cellulose
- not all will pass through
- Rigidity
- Fluid mosaic model
- Characteristics:
- Lipid bilayer (polar head, non-polar tail)
Mitosis Meiosis
- Integral proteins
Cell multiplication- cytoplasmic division Cell division- both cytoplasmic
- Peripheral proteins
and nuclear division
2.Nucleus - Control center Daughter cells: diploids Daughter cells: haploids
- Stores genetic materials
Forms somatic/ body cells Form sex cells/ gametes
3.Cytoplasm/ - Contains organelles
Cytosol In humans: 46 chromosomes (23 pairs: 22 In humans: 23 chromosomes
4.Mitochondria - Powerhouse of the cell (produces ATP) somatic chromosomes, 1 sex
- Redox reactions occur here chromosomes)
- Electron transport chain
5.Endoplasmic - Rough ER, Smooth ER
Reticulum
6.Ribosomes - Actual site of protein synthesis
- 80s: 40s, 60s ribosomal subunit (s means o Aneploids- disorder or abnormality in the # of chromosomes
svedberg) o Kline feller syndrome (XXY)- hypogonadism, gynecomastia
7.Golgi Bodies/ - Required for storage of protein o Trisomy 21/ down syndrome- on the 21 pair, 3 chromosome which
Apparatus - Processing/ modification of protein should only have 2 chromosomes
- Example: Glycosylation (attach sugar in protein) o Super Females (XXX)- sterile (do not give birth/ baby), short lifespan
8.Lysosome/ - Contains hydrolytic enzymes o Female (XX)
Suicide sacs - Example: macrophages o Male (XY)
- Peroxisomes- contains hydrogen peroxide
70s: 30s, 50s (bacteria) Stages in Mitosis
1. Interphase - Resting stage
Tetracycline (ALCM: A-30s, LCM- 50s) - Longest stage
2. Prophase Presence of chromatins in microscope
Classification of cells by presence/ absence of true nucleus
3. Metaphase - Formation of spindle fibers
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
- Cross-over happens
- No true nucleus; no - Contain true nucleus; has membrane - Chromosomes in equatorial position
membrane bound bound nucleus.
4. Anaphase Chromosomes start to migrate to opposite poles
nucleus.
 MODULE 2: PHARMACOGNOSY (15%) 16

5. Telophase Cytoplasmic division o Chromoproteins (Hemoglobin)- metals

o Metalloproteins- metals
o Phosphoprotein (Casein)- metals
Structures and Functions of Biomolecules

Proteins- polymers of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.

Functions of Protein Classification of Amino Acids

A. Dynamic A. Standard/ - With at least one specific codon (sequence of 3
1. Storage and - Ferritin Common nucleotides specifying an amino acid) existing in the
Transport - Transferrin Amino DNA genetic code
- Hemoglobin, Myoglobin (carries oxygen) acids - 20 amino acids
2. Muscular - Myosin
contraction - Actin
3. Biological Enzymes “almost all enzymes are protein”
catalysts
4. Metabolic - Hormone: Steroids, Polypeptides (insulin,
control oxytocin)
Insulin- Vasopressin (ADH), TSH.
Oxytocin- Love hormone, induces uterine
contraction.
B. Derived - Derived from standard amino acids usually by an
5. Immune system - Immunoglobulins:
Amino enzyme facilitated reaction
IgG- pregnant (pass to babies)
Acids o Hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine
IgA- Secretions (saliva, sweat)
o -carboxyglutamate
IgM- Infection (Malaki, Mauna)
o Cystine
IgE- allergy
IgD- Beta cell
6. Tissue - Command cell to convert to other types
differentiation (Stem cells- fertilize egg)
B. Structural
1. Collagen Skin elasticity
2. Keratin Hair, nails
3. Elastin Muscle, blood vessels
4. Fibroin Spider web Structure of -Amino Acids

- 19 standard Amino acids exist like this

Classification of Proteins - Only Proline exist as an amino acid
A. Simple proteins - Made up of amino acids only
o Albumin/ ovalbumin
o Glutein/ glutelin
o Scleroproteins (Keratin, Fibroin)
B. Conjugated Proteins - Composed of amino acids and inorganic or
organic compounds
o Nucleoproteins (Histone, nuclei)
o Lipoproteins (HDL, VLDL, LDL)
o Glucoproteins (↑CHON)- CHO
o Mucoproteins (mucus)- red (CHO)