Physics Highly Condensed Notes

Basics

Newtons (N) = F = ma = mᐧv/s = kgᐧm/s2

Energy = Joule (J) = Nᐧm = massᐧa/m = (kgᐧm/s2)/m = kgᐧm2/s2

Power = Watt (W) = Joule/sec = (Nᐧm)/s = Nᐧv = Fᐧv = (Nᐧm)/s = (kgᐧm2/s2)/s = kgᐧm2/s3

Intensity (I) = W/m2 = (J/s)/m2 = (Nᐧm/s)/m2 = (massᐧaᐧm/s)/m2 = (kgᐧm/s2ᐧm/s)/m2 = (kgᐧm2/s3)/

m2 = kgᐧm2/s3ᐧm2 = kg/s3

Tangential acceleration (aT) = v/s = (m/s)/s = m/s2

Centripetal acceleration (ac) = v2/r = (m2/s2)m = m/s2

Centripetal force (Fc) = mac = kgᐧm/s2 = N (no work done because displacement = 0)

CSA (cross-sectional area) = πr2 = π(½d)2 = π(¼d) = πd/4

Basic Trig angles

- Sin90°/Cos0° = 1

- Sin60°/Cos30° = 0.86

- Sin30°/Cos60° = 0.5

- Sin0°/Cos90° = 0

Mechanics

The coe cient of kinetic friction is always lower than the coe cient of static friction. Once an
object overcomes static friction, there will be a drop in the friction it feels (as static friction
switches to kinetic friction) and the object will feel net acceleration (assuming the force that
overcame the static friction is still acting on it.

Static friction is based on normal force and is constant; Fs = μsN

Kinetic friction is based on normal force but is not constant! Fk = μkN; Force only applied to
counter any other forces! (Otherwise friction force would cause it to accelerate!) If not external
force is acting on the object (ie. gravity) then the object is at rest!! Kinetic friction opposes
external forces up to its limit.

Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same
temperature.

First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created or destroyed, it is only transformed.

The energy in the universe is constant.

Second Law of Thermodynamics: entropy tends to increase in any given system.

Third Law of Thermodynamics: absolute 0 °K is a state of 0 entropy.

Conduction: heat transferred from solids

Convection: heat transferred from uids (liquids/gasses)

Radiation: heat transferred from electromagnetic radiation

Q: heat transfer (from perspective of the system)

Q < 0 [Q = (-)]: heat has transferred out of the system; system loses heat energy

Q > 0 [Q = (+)]: heat has transferred into the system; system gains heat energy

Q = 0: no heat transfer in or out of the system (adiabatic); no transfer of heat energy

W: work done by the system (from the perspective of the system)

W < 0 [W = (-)]: work has been done on the system; system gains work energy

W > 0 [W = (+)]: work has been done by the system; system loses work energy

W = 0: no work has been done on or by the system; system loses no work energy (isochoric; W
= PΔV)

E = energy of the system (from the system’s perspective)

ΔE < 0 [ΔE = (-)]: system has lost energy (heat energy or work energy)

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 ΔE > 0 [ΔE = (+)]: system has gained energy (heat energy or work energy)

ΔE = 0: system has neither lost or gained energy (heat energy or work energy) (isothermal
process; E is proportional to T; T is a measurement of KEavg)

ΔE = Q - PΔV

Isobaric process: constant pressure (P = constant; thus, ΔE = Q - ΔV)

Isochoric process: constant volume (ΔV = 0; thus, ΔE = Q)

Isothermal process: constant temperature (ΔE = 0; thus, Q = PΔV)

Adiabatic process: no heat transfer (Q = 0; thus, ΔE = - PΔV)

Fluids

Density (ρ): m/V (mass over volume) (kg/m3) (volume must be expressed in m3; convert density
from kg/L to kg/m3 for any equations with ρ)

Density of H20 = 1 kg/L = 1 kg/1000 cm3 = 1000 g/1000 cm3 = 1 g/cm3

1 L = 1000 cm3 (10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm)

Force of gravity: F = mg

Force of gravity for uids: F = ρVg (ρ = m/V; m = ρV)

Pressure (P = F⟂/A): force acting perpendicular to a surface area

Hydrostatic gauge pressure: pressure exerted by uid, excluding the in uence of atmospheric
pressure (P = ρDg) (derivation: P = F⟂/A = mg/A = ρVg/A = ρDAg/A = ρDg)

Total pressure (Ptotal) = Patm + Pgauge

- Total pressure is not proportional to depth (because Patm does not increase with depth)

Archimedes’ Principle: buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the uid displaced, thus we
can calculate the F of the uid displaced as such: F = ρVg (V and ρ of uid displaced).

Floating equilibrium: Fobj = Fbouy (mg = ρVg; ρVg = ρVg; thus, if the density of the object is less
than the liquid it is in, it will oat). To determine amount of object that is out of the water, use
the following derivation (F1 = F2; ρVg1 = ρVg2; ρ1/ρ2 = V2/V1)

Pascal’s Law: pressure apply to an enclosed uid will be transmitted without change in
magnitude to every point the uid contacts the container (P = P; F/A = F/A)

- Volume remains constant for non compressible uids, so determining the depth of the uid
moved, use the following: Ad1 = Ad2

Flow rate: f = Av

Continuity of ow rate: Av = Av

Cross-sectional area equation: d2

Ideal uid

- Incompressible (constant ρ)

- Negligible viscosity

- Laminar ow (steamlined ow)

- Constant ow (f is constant)

Bernoulli’s equation: applies to ideal uids; P1 + ½ρv12 + ρgh1 = P1 + ½ρv22 + ρgh2

Toricelli’s result: describes the velocity with which a uid ows from an opening in a container
under the force of gravity (derived from Bernoulli’s equation; P1 + ½ρv12 + ρgh1 = P1 + ½ρv22 +
ρgh2; ρgh1 = ½ρv22 + ρgh2; gh1 = ½v22 + gh2; (gh1 - gh2) = ½v22 ; v2 = square root(2gD)

Bernoulli e ect: pressure and velocity are inversely proportional to each other.

If pressure increases, the velocity decreases to keep the algebraic sum of potential energy,
kinetic energy, and pressure constant.

Elasticity of Solids

Electrostatics

Elementary charge (e) = 1.6 x 10-19

- The electric charge of both an electron (-e) and proton (+e)

Charge (q, +/-) = ne, where n is the number of elementary charged particles

Source charge (Q)

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 Coulomb’s Law (measured in N): the electrostatic force between two particles; F = k(q1q2/r2)

- Coulomb’s constant (k) = 9 x 109

Electric eld (E) (measured in N/C): the electric eld created by a charge (q); a ects all
electrically charged particles within the eld; direction of electric eld points away from positive
charge source (towards negative charge source) - the path protons would take; determined by
the equation E = k(Q/r2)

Uniform electric eld: E is the same strength (N/C) at all points in the electric eld; formed
between two at-surfaced charge sources

Electric eld force (measured in N): F = qE, same thing as F = k(q1q2/r2)

Electric dipole: a separated positive and negative charge, creating an electric eld

Conductor: more free electrons (-e) to move about; conduction e- are free to roam; metals

Insulators: less/no free electrons (-e) to move about; e- are tightly bound in orbitals; nonmetals

Electric potential (φ) (measured in J/C): the potential to do work; the potential energy that an
electrically charged particle has while sitting in an electric eld; how much work can be done
on that particle as a result of the electric eld (if the particle is “let go”/allowed to move from its
position where potential is measured); φ = k(Q/r)

Voltage (V) (electric potential di erence) (Δφ) (measured in ΔJ/C): the di erence in potential
energy between two points; the di erence in potential energy for a charged particle within an
electric eld between two points; moving the charged particle from one point (of electric
potential) to the other (of electric potential) will either take work or do work (depending on the
charge of the particle and the direction of movement against the eld); thus, the voltage
describes how much work can be done to (or must be done on) a particle when it moves
between two points! Describes the change in potential energy between two points for a
charged particle in an electric eld. (remember that electric eld arrows/vectors always point in
the direction of the movement of positively charged particles). In a practical sense; the greater
the voltage, the greater the work that can be done (or must be done) to the particle within the
electric eld between two points.

- (-q) moving with an electric eld = (+Δφ); moving away from positive charge source (towards
negative charge source); work must be done to the particle (by an external force) to move it
there (external energy added); the potential energy of (-q) increases; if (-q) is released, it
would now be able to travel farther to travel to the positive charge source than before (ie.
more work can be done to it by the electric eld; more potential energy)

- (+q) moving with an electric eld = (-Δφ); moving away from positive charge source (towards
negative charge source); work is being done to the particle (by the electric eld) to move it
there (potential energy converted into kinetic energy); the potential energy of (+q) decreases;
if (+q) is released from its new position, it would now have less to travel towards the negative
charge source than before (ie. less work can be done to it by the electric eld; less potential
energy)

- (-q) moving against an electric eld = (-Δφ); moving towards positive charge source (away
from negative charge source); work is being done to the particle (by the electric eld) to
move it there (potential energy converted into kinetic energy); the potential energy of (-q)
decreases; if (-q) is released from its new position, it would now have less to travel towards
the positive charge source than before (ie. less work can be done to it by the electric eld;
less potential energy)

- (+q) moving against an electric eld = (+Δφ); moving away from positive charge source
(towards negative charge source); work must be done to the particle (by an external force) to
move it there (external energy added); the potential energy of (+q) increases; if (+q) is
released, it would now be able to travel farther to travel to the negative charge source than
before (ie. more work can be done to it by the electric eld; more potential energy)

Change in electrical potential energy (measured in ΔJ): the change in electric potential of a
charged particle within an electric eld as a result of movement within that electric eld.
Calculated by = qV (q in C) (V in J/C)

Summary
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 - Electrical potential [φ = k(Q/r)] (J/C): amount of work that has the potential to be done (J)
per unit charge (C) from a speci c point within an electric eld created by source charge Q;
the “start” point for work potential

- E = qφ will give the amount of work (energy) done to a particle (q) from that “start” point

- Voltage (V) (Δφ) (ΔJ/C): the di erence between two electrical potentials or the change in
one electrical potential; the “start” and the “end” point. Describes how much work will be
done (J) per unit charge (C) if allowed to move from “start” point to “end” point.

- E = qV will give the amount of work (energy done to a particle (q) from the “start” point to
the “end” point; this is then simply ΔJ.

- Change in electrical potential energy/work done by electric eld (ΔJ): the actual (not
relative) absolute amount of work (J) done/to be done when a charged particle moves across
a speci c voltage (from “start” point to “end” point). Conservation of energy says that if
energy is not lost, the PE will convert to KE. Calculated via E = qV, where q is the charge
within the eld that work is being done to.

Static electricity (“charge buildup electricity”) is the result of an imbalance between negative

and positive charges in an object. The charges will build up until they can be released/
discharged

How does a voltage (V) source (ie. battery) run out?

- Static electricity (charge buildup): since charge buildup is the cause of the electric current
(V= IR) in static electricity systems, the current will stop owing once the buildup goes away.
As the electrons ow away from the pile, the pile gets smaller ([φ = k(Q/r)], and Q is gradually
reducing in magnitude (C)). Eventually, the pile of excess electrons is gone. Quite literally,
electricity stops owing because the source runs out of excess electrons.

- Capacitors: work more like static electricity systems, because they physically build up
charged particles. As soon as one side of the capacitor is depleted of electrons, the
electric current stops owing through the capacitor. Two functions of capacitors are:

- Create a uniform electric eld: V = Ed = k(Qr/r2) = k(Q/r)

- Store electrical potential energy: just as a voltage source can build up electrical
potential (V = J/C), so can capacitors. PE = average Voltage x charge = ½V(Q) (in J) (V =
J/C, Q = C, VQ = JC/C) Units of E are N/C or V/m (V/m = (J/C)/(m/1) = J/Cm = Nm/Cm
= N/C). Discharging a capacitor: letting the electrons within the capacitor discharge and
equilibrate back between the two. Capacitors must be connected to allow the
movement of electrons (ie. putting a lightbulb in between them). This is a discharge of
static electricity and will dissipate as such; as the charge (Q) of electrons dissipate and
move from the negative plate back to the positive plate, the size of the charge (Q)
reduces, thus reducing the Voltage (V = kQ/r). As per V=IR, as voltage reduces, current
reduces (assuming R remains constant in the process).

- Circuit electricity: as the electrons ow through the circuit, they ow down the potential
energy slope that is created by the voltage. Once they reach the pump at the end of the
circuit, the low-energy electrons (J lost through resistors) are boosted back up (J lost from
battery source; less J/C = lower V; gradual V reduction) to a high potential energy so that
they can start owing through the circuit again. Circuits don't create, destroy, use up, or lose
electrons. They just carry the electrons around in circles. For this reason, circuit electrical
systems can't really run out of electrons. The energy delivered through a circuit is not the
result of electrons existing in the circuit. 

Electricity

Current (I) (measured in Q/t; (net movement of) coulombs per second (C/s) (from a speci c
reference point; in amperes, A): the movement of electrical charge (coulombs) per unit time; Q
(in coulombs) is de ned as ne, where n is the number of particles and e is the elementary
charge (1.6 x 10-19). Current is de ned as I = Q/t. A positive current (+I) means the current is
moving with the electric eld (ie. positive particles moving with electric eld). A negative current
(-I) means the current is moving against the electric eld (ie. electrons moving against the
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 electric eld; remember that the direction of electric eld is the direction that positively charged
particles move naturally).

Voltage (V) (Δφ): the di erence in electrical potential between two points in an electric eld;
describes the change in potential energy that would occur if an electrically charged particle
were to move from one position to another; thus it describes the work that can be done (or
must be done) to the particle between those two points; in practicality, a charged particle will
drift from high potential to low potential (converted PE to KE) and thus creating movement of
electrical charged particles (current!); voltage creates current when the electrically charged
particles within an electric eld are allowed to move naturally (from high potential to low
potential, converting PE to KE); V is measured in J/C, thus describing the amount of work that
is done per unit charge.

Resistance (R) (Ω) (de ned as R = V/I) (measured as V/A): resistance to ow of electrically
charge particles; R = ρL/A (ρ = resistivity of material, L length of resistor, A = area of resistor)

- Resistance is proportional to length (length of the path the charged particles must take under
resistance)

- Resistance in inversely proportional to A (room the charged particles have within the path)

Ohm’s Law: V = IR

Circuit rules

- I is the same across all series resistors (for parallel, total must equal series)

- V is the same across all parallel resistors

- The total of V across all series resistors must equal the total V of the circuit

Power (P) (measured in J/S): P = IV

Power dissipated by a resistor: P = I2R (P = IV = I(IR) = I2R)

Ammeter: measures current; must have as low as possible resistance so as to not decrease the
current of the circuit (V = IR, where R is the total of all resistance in series)

Voltmeter: measures voltage; lies in parallel to any part of the circuit; must have as high as
possible resistance so it does not reduce the overall current of circuit (in parallel, an extremely
high resistor will have virtually no current going through it and thus have virtually no e ect on
the circuit; total resistance in parallel = RxR/R+R)

Capacitors: a pair of conductors that hold equal but opposite charge (no net charge).
Capacitance is equal to C = Q/V and is measured in Farad’s (C2/J). Capacitance (C) for a given
capacitor is constant!! It does not change; any change to Q/V will result in a proportional
change to Q/V respectively. Capacitance (C) is proportional to A (area of the capacitors) and
inversely proportional to d (distance between them). Two functions of capacitors are:

- Create a uniform electric eld: V = Ed = k(Qr/r2) = k(Q/r). Units of E are N/C or V/m (V/m
= (J/C)/(m/1) = J/Cm = Nm/Cm = N/C)

- Store electrical potential energy: just as a voltage source can build up electrical
potential (V = J/C), so can capacitors. PE = average Voltage x charge = ½V(Q) (in J) (V =
J/C, Q = C, VQ = JC/C)

Discharging a capacitor: letting the electrons within the capacitor discharge and equilibrate
back between the two. Capacitors must be connected to allow the movement of electrons (ie.
putting a lightbulb in between them). This is a discharge of static electricity and will dissipate
as such; as the charge (Q) of electrons dissipate and move from the negative plate back to the
positive plate, the size of the charge (Q) reduces, thus reducing the Voltage (V = kQ/r). As per
V=IR, as voltage reduces, current reduces (assuming R remains constant in the process).

Dielectric: insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. When dielectrics are

placed in an electric eld, practically no current ows in them because, unlike metals, they
have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material. They are perfect
for preventing capacitors from discharging until it is desired for them to.

Dielectrics when charged, create small electric elds! Even though they are insulators, their
molecules become polarized (dipole moments) when in the presence of a eld. This eld is in
the opposite direction of the capacitor (because the capacitor is pulling negative mass to the
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 positive plate and visa versa, create an electric eld within the dielectric that is opposite to the
electric eld of the capacitors.

Dielectric constant (K): a value from 1 to ∞, denoting the strength of the dielectric. C
(capacitance) without dielectric = εA/d; C with dielectric = KεA/d; thus, the higher the value of
K, the greater the capacitance. A vacuum has a K = 1 (no change in capacitance at all since it
is a vacuum and there is nothing there). On the MCAT, the K of air = 1.

- Capacitance increases with increasing area because it can hold more charge (more space to
hold charges with their mutual repulsion)

- Capacitance increases with decreasing area between plates because the opposite charges
are closer together and can e ect more of an attractive force on each other, countering the
repulsive force of like charges on each respective plate

Inserting a dielectric into a capacitor after the charging source is removed (constant Q): C is
constant and depends only on the area/distance between capacitor plates and presence of a
dielectric. Thus, inserting a dielectric that increases C will proportionally decrease V (C = Q/V).

- Charge capacitor to V, disconnect battery (Q source) and insert dielectric (K)

- Constant Q (no more charge being added)

- C increases by factor of K

- V decreases by factor of K (C = Q/V)

- Enet (strength of electric eld) decreases by a factor of K (V = Ed). An opposite electric eld
is created within the dielectric, which decreases Enet. So while the E of the capacitor
remains the same (E = kQ/r2), the Enet decreases by a factor of K because of the creation
of an opposing electric eld within the dielectric.

- PE decreases by a factor of K (PE = ½VQ)

- Charge capacitor to V, keep battery connected (Q source) and insert dielectric (K)

- C increases by a factor of K

- Constant V (will keep increasing to match voltage source V)

- Q increases by a factor of K (C = Q/V)

- Constant Enet (V = Ed) (though E of the capacitors does increase [E = kQ/r2], the increase
is o set by the creation of an opposing electric eld within the dielectric (it is for this
reason that Enet decreases when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery). The
battery increases the charge source Q enough to keep the overall electric eld (Enet)
constant.

- PE increases by a factor of K (PE = ½VQ)

Magnetism

Magnetic eld (B) (units: N/Aᐧm)= (μ0I)/(2πr); created by current (I); can only a ect force on
moving charged particles (v > 0) and in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the eld
(parallel movement of particles feel no force from the magnetic elds); because magnetic elds
only provide a perpendicular (⟂) force to the velocity of the moving particle, the force is strictly
centripetal and provides only centripetal acceleration (ac) (F = mac = mv2/r = qvB = kgᐧm/s2 =
N); units are N/Aᐧm = N/(Cᐧm/s), where means that the strength of a magentic eld is a given N
per charge (C) and charge velocity (m/s)

Magnetic force (FB) = qvB; where q is the charged particle moving through the magnetic eld
(B), v is the velocity of the charged particle (q), and B is the strength of the magnetic eld (N);
because FB is only perpendicular, equation is in actually FB = qvBsin(angle); because magnetic
forces only produce centripetal acceleration (ac) the do no work (KE is constant) (because w =
fd, and since displacement is 0, work is 0).

- Sin90°/Cos0° = 1

- Sin60°/Cos30° = 0.86

- Sin30°/Cos60° = 0.5

- Sin0°/Cos90° = 0

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 Lorentz force: the combined force a charged particle feels when moving through an electric
eld (E) and a magnetic eld (B) (must be moving and have a perpendicular component (sin-
angle) to the magnetic eld for force to be felt); F = FB + FE = qE + qvB = q(E + vB) = N

Determining direction of charged particle in magnetic eld:

- Proton: right hand

- Fingers = B

- Thumb = v

- Perpendicular to palm surface = F

- Electron: left hand

- Fingers = B

- Thumb = v

- Perpendicular to palm surface = F

Source of magnetic elds: B are created by I. Strength of magnetic eld is proportional to

current (I) and inversely proportional to distance from the current (r) [B = (μ0I)/(2πr)]

- Since current (I) is by convention in the direction of positively charged particles, we use the
right hand rule to determine B direction

- Thumb = current (I) direction

- Fingers = B direction

- If current is provided by a loop, the same rules apply

- If current is provided by a solenoid (continuous circular loops), the result is a uniform electric
eld (B) within the solenoid, with the strongest part of B being in the middle of it.

Magnets: B direction leaves through the N pole and enters through the S pole

Ferromagnetic: retain e- con rmation after being magnetized; permanent magnet

Oscillation and Waves

SHM (simple harmonic motion): a type of periodic motion where the restoring force on the
moving object is directly proportional to the object's displacement magnitude and acts towards
the object's equilibrium position. F = -kx (k: spring constant; x: distance from equilibrium point).

- Based on Hooke’s Law: the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
is proportional to that distance.

PE = ½kx2 (J) (PE = J = Nᐧm = (massᐧa)ᐧm = (kgᐧm/s2)m = kgᐧm2/s2 = J = ½kx2)

PEmax: KE = 0

PEmin: K = max

Types of waves:

- Mechanical - longitudinal and transverse

- EM

- Matter - particle-wave duality

Mechanical wave: series of disturbances (oscillations) within a medium (cannot propagate

within a vacuum) that transfer energy from one place to another. Types of mechanical waves:

- Transverse wave - perpendicular oscillation to the direction of travel (e.g. rope)

- Longitudinal wave - parallel oscillation to the direction of travel (e.g. sound wave); series of
compressions and refractions, where one wavelength is from compression-to-compression
or refraction-to-refraction; compression = high pressure, refraction = low pressure

All waves except EM waves require matter to travel through

Frequency (⨍) (Hz = 1/s): the numbers of cycles per second

Wavelength (λ) (m): the length of the wave (from 2 same points in the wave cycle; ie. crest to
crest)

Amplitude (A): maximum displacement from equilibrium that the wave causes (ie. height of the
wave)

v=λ⨍ (m/s) (the velocity of a speci c wave (and all of its harmonics) is the same in any given
medium; eg. all EM waves are the same speed in a speci c medium)

Wave rules

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 1. Same medium = same v for each type of wave (thus only ⨍ and λ change, inversely); speed
of the wave is only determined by the type of wave and the medium it is travelling in

2. New medium = di erent v, but same frequency (for each type of wave), thus di erent λ

Wave interference: superimposing waves on each other results in either constructive or

destructive interference of those waves, creating a single resultant wave

- Constructive interference: the constituent waves are in phase, and their amplitudes add
together

- Destructive interference: the constituent waves are out of phase, and their amplitudes
subtract from each other

Standing waves: the result of two interfering with the exact same frequency, wavelength, and
amplitude but opposite directions of travel. The resultant wave does not travel but oscillates in
place (between constructive and destructive interference); the superposition of two identical
waves moving in opposite directions. The resultant wave we see is the superposition
(combination) of the two identical waves.

The distance between two of the same nodes (A/N) is always ½λ

Node (N): point where the waves comprising the standing wave cross each other. The distance
between two consecutive nodes is always ½λ

Antinode (A): point where the waves comprising the standing wave are farthest from each
other. The distance between two consecutive antinodes is always ½λ

Harmonics

- Odd harmonics (1st/fundamental, 3rd, etc.): even number of nodes

- Even harmonics (2nd, 4th, etc.): odd number of nodes

Harmonics for transverse waves: λ = 2L/n (n = harmonic number)

Sound - comprised of longitudinal waves; propagation velocity of sound: solids > liquids >
gasses

Standing sound waves in pipes

- Open pipe: λ = 2L/n (n: harmonic; 1: fundamental/1st harmonic, 2: 2nd harmonic, etc)

- All harmonics (fundamental, 2nd, 3rd…)

- One side closed: λ = 4L/n

- Only odd harmonics (fundamental, 3rd, 5th…)

- Closed pipe: always has node (N) at one of the pipe and antinode (A) at the other end, can
only have an even number of nodes; thus, can only have odd harmonics

- Two sides closed: λ = 2L/n

Beats: the result of two waves with di erent frequencies (⨍) interfering with each other; the
resultant wave grows and shrinks in amplitude, with nodes corresponding to complete
destructive interference and antinodes corresponding to complete constructive interference;
one beat corresponds to the wave between two nodes; the frequency (⨍) of the beats is the
di erence between the ⨍ of the two constituent waves; ⨍beat = |⨍1-⨍2|

Wave intensity (I): the intensity of a wave is the energy it transmits per second (power) per unit
area; I = W/m2 = (J/s)/m2 = (Nᐧm/s)/m2 = (massᐧaᐧm/s)/m2 = (kgᐧm/s2ᐧm/s)/m2 = (kgᐧm2/s3)/m2 =
kgᐧm2/s3ᐧm2 = kg/s3

Intensity level (B, bel): the level of intensity of a sound (denoted by I) above the threshold of
hearing (I0); B = log10(I/I0); I0 = 10-12 W/m2; expressed in dB (decibels); intensity (I) is inversely
proportional to r2, where r is the distance from the sound source

- 10 dB = 1 B; log1010 = 1; 10x stronger intensity

- 20 dB = 2 B; log10100 = 2; 100x stronger intensity

- 30 dB = 3 B; log101000 = 3; 1000x stronger intensity

Doppler e ect

- Approaching: higher detected frequency

- Receding: lower detected frequency

When light slows down, it bends towards the normal (line normal to the surface)
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