Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr.

Moretadha Alghanimy

Electric Field in Material Space

In a broad sense, materials may be classified in terms of their
conductivity 𝜎, in mhos per meter (℧/𝑚) or Siemens per meter
(S/m), as conductors and nonconductors, or technically as metals
and insulators (or dielectrics). A material with high conductivity
(𝜎 ≫ 1) is referred to as a metal whereas one with low conductivity
(𝜎 ≪ 1) is referred to as an insulator. A material whose conductivity
lies somewhere between those of metals and insulators is called a
semiconductor.
The conductivity of metals generally increases with decrease
in temperature. At temperatures near absolute zero (T = 0°K), some
conductors exhibit infinite conductivity and are called
superconductors. Lead (‫ ) َرﺻﺎص‬and aluminum are typical examples of
such metals. The conductivity of lead at 4°K is of the order of
1020 mhos/m.
The major difference between a metal and an insulator lies in
the amount of electrons available for conduction of current.
Dielectric materials have few electrons available for conduction of
current in contrast to metals, which have an abundance of free
electrons.

Convection and Conduction Currents

The current (in amperes) through a given area is the electric
charge passing through the area per unit time. That is
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= …1
𝑑𝑡
If current ∆𝐼 flows through a surface ∆𝑆, the current density is
∆𝐼
𝐽𝑛 =
∆𝑆
or ∆𝐼 = 𝐽𝑛 ∆𝑆

assuming that the current density is perpendicular to the surface. If

the current density is not normal to the surface,

∆𝐼 = 𝑱⃑𝟏𝟏 . ∆𝑆̂
Thus, the total current flowing through a surface S is

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𝐼 = � 𝑱⃑. 𝒅𝑆̂

Depending on how 𝐼 is produced, there are different kinds of current

densities: convection current density, conduction current density,
and displacement current density.
Convection current, as distinct from conduction current, does not
involve conductors and consequently does not satisfy Ohm's law. It
occurs when current flows through an insulating medium such as
liquid or a vacuum. A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube, for
example, is convection current.
Consider a filament of figure below. If there is a flow of charge, of
density 𝜌𝑣 , at velocity 𝑢
�⃑ = 𝑢𝑦 𝑎�𝑦 , from eq.1, the current through the
filament is
∆𝑄 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑣 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑠∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
∆𝐼 = = = = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑠𝑢𝑦
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
The current density at a given point is the current through a unit
normal area at that point.

Fig. 1 Current in a filament.

The y-directed current density 𝐽𝑦 is given by

∆𝐼
𝐽𝑦 = = 𝜌𝑣 𝑢𝑦
∆𝑠
Hence, in general
𝑱⃑ = 𝜌𝑣 𝒖
�⃑
The current 𝐼 is the convection current and 𝐽 is the convection
current density in amperes/square meter (A/m2).
Conduction current requires a conductor. A conductor is
characterized by a large amount of free electrons that provide
conduction current due an impressed electric field. When an electric
field E is applied, the force on an electron with charge −𝑒 is
�⃑ = −𝑒𝑬𝑬
𝑭 �⃑
Since the electron is not in free space, it will not be accelerated
under the influence of the electric field. Rather, it suffers constant

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

collision with the atomic lattice and drifts from one atom to another.
If the electron with mass m is moving in an electric field E with an
average drift velocity 𝑢 �⃑, according to Newton's law, the average
change in momentum of the free electron must match the applied
force. Thus, electrical force=mechanical force, or

𝑚𝑢�⃑ 𝑒𝜏
= −𝑒𝐸�⃑ → 𝑢
�⃑ = − 𝐸�⃑
𝜏 𝑚

where 𝜏 is the average time interval between collisions. If there are n

electrons per unit volume, the electronic charge density is given by
𝜌𝑣 = −𝑛𝑒
Thus the conduction current density is

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝑱⃑ = 𝜌𝑣 𝒖
�⃑ =𝐸�⃑ = 𝜎𝐸�⃑
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
or 𝑱⃑ = 𝜎𝐸�⃑ which is called Ohm's law, where 𝜎 = is the
𝑚
conductivity of the conductor.
Ex.1 Given the vector current density 𝐉 = 10ρ2 z𝐚ρ −
4ρ cos 2 φ 𝐚φ mA/m2: (a) find the current density at P(ρ =
3, φ = 30o , z = 2); (b) determine the total current flowing
outward through the circular band ρ = 3, 0 < φ < 2π, 2 < z <
2.8.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

Continuity of Current
The principle of conservation of charge states simply those
charges can be neither created nor destroyed, although equal
amounts of positive and negative charge may be simultaneously
created, obtained by separation, or lost by recombination.
The continuity equation follows from this principle when we
consider any region bounded by a closed surface. Thus current
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 coming out of the closed surface is

𝑑𝑄𝑖
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = � 𝑱⃑. 𝒅𝑆̂ = − … … . .1
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑄𝑖 is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface. Invoking

divergence theorem
� 𝑱⃑. 𝒅𝑆̂ = �(∇. 𝑱⃑)𝒅𝒗 … … … 2
𝑠 𝑣
but
𝑑𝑄𝑖 𝑑 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
− = − � 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = − � 𝑑𝑣 … … … 3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑣
Substituting eqs.2 and 3 into eq. 1 gives
𝜕 𝜌𝑣
�(∇. 𝑱⃑)𝒅𝒗 = − � 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑣
or
𝜕 𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝑱⃑ = −
𝜕𝑡
This is called the continuity of current equation.

Ex. Current density is given in cylindrical coordinates as 𝑱 =

−106 𝑧1.5 𝒂𝒛 𝐴/𝑚2 in the region 0 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 20μm; for 𝜌 ≥
20𝜇𝑚, J = 0. (a) Find the total current crossing the surface z = 0.1
m in the 𝒂𝒛 direction. (b) If the charge velocity is 2 × 106 m/s at z
= 0.1 m, find 𝜌𝑣 there. (c) If the volume charge density at z =
0.15 m is −2000 𝐶/𝑚3 , find the charge velocity there.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

Metallic Conductors
In conductor, the valence electrons, or conduction, or free,
electrons, move under the influence of an electric field. With a field
�⃑, an electron having a charge Q = −e will experience a force
𝑬𝑬

�𝑭⃑ = −𝑒𝑬𝑬
�⃑

In free space, the electron would accelerate and continuously

increase its velocity (and energy); in the crystalline material, the
progress of the electron is impeded by continual collisions with the
thermally excited crystalline lattice structure, and a constant average
velocity is soon attained. This velocity 𝒖 �⃑𝑑 is termed the drift
velocity, and it is linearly related to the electric field intensity by the
mobility of the electron in the given material. We designate mobility
by the symbol 𝜇 (mu), so that

�⃑𝑑 = −𝜇𝑒 �𝑬𝑬⃑

𝒖

where 𝜇𝑒 is the mobility of an electron and is positive by definition.

Previously, 𝑱⃑ = 𝜌𝑣 𝒖
�⃑, so that 𝑱⃑ = − 𝜌𝑣 𝜇𝑒 �𝑬𝑬⃑ , where 𝜌𝑣 is the free-
electron charge density, a negative value. The relationship between 𝑱⃑

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

and �𝑬𝑬⃑ for a metallic conductor, however, is also specified by the

conductivity 𝜎 (sigma), 𝑱⃑ = 𝜎𝑬𝑬
�⃑, or 𝜎 = − 𝜌𝑣 𝜇𝑒 .
The application of Ohm’s law in point form to a macroscopic
region leads to a more familiar form. Initially, assume that J and E
are uniform, as they are in the cylindrical region shown in figure
below. Because they are uniform,

𝐼 = � 𝑱⃑. 𝒅𝑆̂ = 𝐽𝑆
𝑠

Fig. 2 Uniform current density J and electric field intensity E in a

cylindrical region of length L and cross sectional area S.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media,
the conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface separating
the media are called boundary conditions. These conditions are
helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the
field on the other side is known. Obviously, the conditions will be
dictated by the types of material the media are made of. We shall
consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating

-dielectric 𝜀𝜀𝑟1 and dielectric 𝜀𝜀𝑟2

-conductor and dielectric
-conductor and free space
Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity �𝑬𝑬⃑ into two
orthogonal components: �𝑬𝑬⃑ = 𝐸�⃑𝑡 + 𝐸�⃑𝑛

where 𝐸�⃑𝑡 , and 𝐸�⃑𝑛 are, respectively, the tangential and normal
components of �⃑ to the interface of interest. A similar
𝑬𝑬
��⃑.
decomposition can be done for the electric flux density 𝑫𝑫

A. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

Consider the 𝑬𝑬�⃑ field existing in a region consisting of two
different dielectrics characterized by 𝜀𝜀1 = 𝜀𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝜀0 and 𝜀𝜀2 = 𝜀𝜀𝑟2 𝜀𝜀0 as
shown in figure below. 𝑬𝑬 �⃑𝟏𝟏 and 𝑬𝑬 �⃑𝟐𝟐 in media 1 and 2, respectively,
can be decomposed as
�𝑬𝑬⃑𝟏𝟏 = �𝑬𝑬⃑𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + �𝑬𝑬⃑𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
�𝑬𝑬⃑𝟐𝟐 = �𝑬𝑬⃑𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 + �𝑬𝑬⃑𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏

To determine the boundary conditions, we apply the Maxwell's

equation
�⃑ . 𝑑𝒍̂ = 0
� 𝑬𝑬
to the closed path abcda assuming that the path is very small with
respect to the variation of �𝑬𝑬⃑.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

��⃑𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑬𝑬 ��⃑
𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏

𝜀𝜀1
a b
��⃑
𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
∆h
��⃑
𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
��⃑𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑬𝑬 d c
𝜀𝜀2 ��⃑
𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 ∆w

Fig. 3 Dielectric-dielectric �𝑬𝑬⃑ boundary.

around the small closed path abcda. The integral must be broken up
into four parts
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

� +� +� +� =0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
We obtain

∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐸1𝑡 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸1𝑛 − 𝐸2𝑛 − 𝐸2𝑡 ∆𝑤 + 𝐸2𝑛 + 𝐸1𝑛 =0
2 2 2 2
�⃑𝑡 | and 𝐸𝑛 = |𝑬𝑬
where 𝐸𝑡 = |𝑬𝑬 �⃑𝑛 |. As ∆ℎ → 0, equation above
becomes
𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡

Thus the tangential components of 𝑬𝑬 �⃑ are the same on the two sides
of the boundary In other words, �𝑬𝑬⃑, undergoes no change on the
boundary and it is said to be continuous across the boundary.

𝐷1𝑡 𝐷2𝑡
𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡 → =
𝜀𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝜀𝑟2

��⃑, undergoes some change across the interface. Hence 𝑫𝑫

that is, 𝑫𝑫 ��⃑ is
said to be discontinuous across the interface.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

��⃑𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑫𝑫 ��⃑
𝑫𝑫𝟏𝟏
∆S
𝜀𝜀1
��⃑
𝑫𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

��⃑
𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ∆h
��⃑𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑫𝑫
𝜀𝜀2 ��⃑
𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐

��⃑ boundary.
Fig.4 Dielectric-dielectric 𝑫𝑫

Similarly, we apply
��⃑ . 𝑑𝒔� = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
� 𝑫𝑫

to the pillbox (Gaussian surface) of Figure 4. The sides are again

very short (∆ℎ → 0), and the flux leaving the top and bottom
surfaces is the difference

∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆 = 𝐷1𝑛 ∆𝑆 − 𝐷2𝑛 ∆𝑆
or
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐷1𝑛 − 𝐷2𝑛
If no free charges exist at the interface (i.e., charges are not
deliberately placed there), 𝜌𝑠 = 0 and 𝐷1𝑛 = 𝐷2𝑛
or the normal component of D is continuous. It follows that
𝜀𝜀1 𝐸1𝑛 = 𝜀𝜀2 𝐸2𝑛
and normal 𝑬𝑬�⃑ is discontinuous.
As mentioned earlier, the boundary conditions are usually
applied in finding the electric field on one side of the boundary
given the field on the other side. Besides this, we can use the
boundary conditions to determine the "refraction" of the electric
field across the interface.
Consider ��⃑
𝑫𝑫1 or �𝑬𝑬⃑1 and ��⃑ �⃑2 making angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 with the
𝑫𝑫2 or 𝑬𝑬
normal to the interface.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

Thus, in general, an interface between two dielectrics produces

bending of the flux lines as a result of unequal polarization charges
that accumulate on the sides of the interface.

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Lectures on Electromagnetic Fields Dr. Moretadha Alghanimy

B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

This is the case shown in Figure below. The conductor is assumed to
be perfect (i.e., 𝜎 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑐 → 0). Although such a conductor is not
practically realizable, we may regard conductors such as copper and
silver as though they were perfect conductors.

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Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations

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