Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Methodology Package
Shu-te University
Fall, 2005
Syllabus
1. Human learning
2. First Language Acquisition
3. Second Language Acquisition
4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive, linguistic,
affective, and socio-cultural considerations
Part III: Practice
向教學法 東華代理)
my website:
home.kimo.com.tw/chiahsingpan
廣泛全面的)
廣泛全面的 concept than a large number of more
inclusive/global (廣泛全面的
減弱性雙語政策):
減弱性雙語政策 members of a minority group
subtractive bilingualism (減弱性雙語政策
learn the language of the majority group and the latter group downgrades
speakers of the minority language(see additive bilingualism)
cognitive pruning
教學) 力的賦予)
(認知性的刪除)
完形」心理學認為人類對於任何視覺圖像的認知,是一種經過知覺系統組織後的
形態與輪廓,而並非所有各自獨立部份的集合。易言之,「完形」心理學的基本
理論認為:「部份之總和不等於整體,因此整體不能分割;整體是由各部份所決
定。反之,各部份也由整體所決定」。由此一觀念推論,人們在欣賞一幅圖畫或
一張攝影作品時,畫面裡的每一個部份形成了各自獨立之視覺元素,如果想讓觀
者留下深刻的視覺認知,元素與元素之間必須彼此產生某種形式之關連。人類的
認知系統,如何把原本各自獨立的局部訊息串聯整合成一個整體概念,正是「完
形」心理學派主要的研究課題。
2. L1 Acquisition
2.1 Introduction to Language Acquisition
Interests in L1 competence for many centuries
(1) beginning of analyzing child language systematically and its
psychological process in the second half of the 20th century
(2) analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in
the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts
(3)three theoretical positions of first language acquisition
2.2 Theories of L1 acquisition
2.2.1 Behaviorism (Say What I Say): a psychological theory of learning claiming
lg learning is the result of imitation, practice, consistent feedback (reinforcement)
on success and habit formation (in the 1940s-50s in the U.S.)
(a) assumptions: “Behaviorism” deriving from Pavlov and Watson first
and extended by Skinner.
Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing
no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be
shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through
reinforcement
Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to
stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or
conditioned.
(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): an experimental behavioristic
model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning as the
dominant paradigm of psychology in the U.S. from the 1920s to 1970s.
*Assumption: more emphasis on the consequences of a stimulus than
on the stimulus itself
(i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted, nor elicited, without necessarily
observable stimuli;
(ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person.
(iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences((rewards and no
punishment ) which increase the probability of a recurrence of that behavior
*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam
Chomsky, transformational generative grammar, e.g. use of the past -tense
verbs); it tends to decrease internal motivation although there are situations
when incentives and external supports are necessary; it can’t explain how
children acquire complex grammatical structures
(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child language, lg abilities
as human specific ones different from other aspects of cognitive development,
success of learning L1 for children by mastering the basic structure of L1 in a
variety of conditions with insufficient input and limited correction.
of one rule being applied, then another and so on; lg acquisition does not
require a separate module of the mind but can be explained in terms of
learning in general (refutation to the innatism); what children need to know is
essentially available in the lg they are exposed to such as a computer program
which can learn certain things if it is exposed to them often enough.
語法) in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection
Stimuli: linguistic
responses
Conditioning(制約作用)
Reinforcement(增強)
Systematic, rule-governed
acquisition
Creative construction
Parallel distributed
processing (PDP)
1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Constructivist
Functionism 功能主義
Social interaction
Cognition and language
Functions of language
Discourse 言談
Language Acquisition
Research on language acquisition/use can be divided into first and second language
learning settings. The literature on first language learning is most relevant to child
development while second language learning pertains primarily to adult learning,
although most general theories of language learning apply to both. While it is not
clear whether different psychological processes are involved in first and second
language learning, there are differences in the way children and adults learn and this
has important implications. Theories of adult learning (e.g., Cross, Knowles, Rogers )
and literacy (e.g., Sticht ) are more likely to provide an appropriate framework for
second language learning compared to those concerned with child development (e.g.,
Bruner, Piaget ).
平衡化):
平衡化 cognition develops as a process of moving from
(c) equilibration (平衡化
(i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks
(ii) children’s ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a
threat to the ego; adults’ is protective and defensive
(iii) successful learning- one’s language ego must be strong enough to
overcome inhibitions
(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity
(d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races,
cultures, classes of people haven’t been developed
(e) peer pressure: children’s strong constraints upon them to conform;
adults tolerate linguistic differences more than children
3.1.4 Linguistic considerations
(a) Bilingualism
(i) two kinds of bilinguals
場地獨立/依賴
場地獨立 依賴
(a)field independence/field dependence styles:場地獨立
* significance of FI/FD
FI and FD are not in complementary distribution within an individual
Both styles are important to assume a person’s general inclinations in a given context
with an appropriate style
* cognitive styles: a link between personality and cognition to tackle a problem;
learning styles: the cognitive styles that are specifically related to an educational
context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled
(b) left- and right-brain functioning
Left-brain dominance Right-brain dominance
Remember names Remember faces
Prefers talking and writing-> less body Prefers drawing and manipulating objects
language -> more body language
(i) definition: how much one tolerates ideas and propositions opposing to
one’s belief system
(ii) with ambiguity tolerance-> free to entertain innovative and creative
possibilities and not be disturbed by uncertainty
(iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-> prevent meaningful subsumption of ideas
reflectivity impulsivity
Systematic styles Intuitive styles
A slower, more calculated A quick, hunch-based decision
decision maker maker
Accurate reader Fast reader
Inductive reasoning Willing to guess-> master the
psycholinguistic guessing game (by
Goodman who supported the
Whole Language Approach)
(p.121)
* More patience for a reflective learner, fewer judgments on mistakes made by an
impulsive learner.
imagery, auditory
self-management 自我管
representation 意象,
理, functional planning 功
keyword 關鍵字,
能性計畫, self-monitoring
contextualization 語
自我監控, delayed
文情境, elaboration
production 延緩表達 and
延伸應用, transfer
self-evaluation 自我評估
轉移, inferencing 推
2 p.128)
hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think e.g. well,
now let’s see, as a matter of fact)
* styles and strategies in practice
(a) Administer a learning styles checklist
(b) engage in frequent spontaneous hints about successful learning and
communication strategies
(c) Build strategic competence: to lower inhibitions, to encourage risk
taking, to build students’ self-confidence, to help them to develop
intrinsic motivation, to promote cooperative learning, to encourage
them to use right-brain processing, to promote ambiguity tolerance, to
help them use their intuition, to get students to make their mistakes
work for them, and to get students to set their own goals
-particular tasks within specific situation e.g. one subject matter area in
the educational domain
* a high level of communicative ability doesn’t necessarily correspond with a
high willingness to communicate.
(i) language ego 語言自我 by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman (1996): occurs
when identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their
newly acquired competence
(ii)higher self-esteem + adaptive language ego-> lower inhibition
be accomplished-> competitiveness)
(iii) three components of language anxiety by Horwitz et al and MacIntyre &
Gardner : communication apprehension
fear of negative social evaluation test anxiety
(e) Empathy: the process of putting oneself into some else’s shoes usually
through language
(i) transactional variables to SLA: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy,
extroversion, aggression, styles of communication
learners wish to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language
group; socially or culturally oriented
(iii) Implications: no single means of learning a L2; the two orientations are
not necessarily mutually exclusive
beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and
anxiety)
goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)
involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in
the language learning process)
environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of
cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)
personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning
experience).
Instructional Strategies to Enhance Student Motivation and Learning Transfer
Research studies have shown that language acquisition is the result of an interplay
between cognitive mechanism and environmental conditions (Spolsky, 1985; Sivert &
Egbert, 1995). Understanding and creating optimal language learning environments
thus becomes a primary concern of the language teacher. Teachers can observe
circumstances under which learners acquire language and can make adjustments
toward creating optimal learning conditions. In designing learning activities, the
language teacher should remember that because language learning focuses on both the
accuracy and appropriateness of application in various contexts of use, learners must
be given opportunities to participate as language users in multiple contexts. These
opportunities will result in learners' heightened motivation and awareness of the
intricacies of language use.
Some teaching strategies that can be used to foster motivation and provide better
Have learners take ownership of the learning assignment by letting them identify and
decide for themselves relevant learning goals. This will motivate them to apply what
they have learned to attain these learning goals.
Learners should recognize a real need to accomplish learning goals that are relevant
and holistic (rather than task-specific). This prepares them for the complexities of
real-world tasks that require them to use language skills and knowledge that have to
be continually transferred.
Learner anxiety (Horwitz, 1986) and other negative feelings can be stumbling blocks
to learners becoming cognizant of learning and transfer opportunities. Thus, providing
our learners with the motivation to learn is one of the best steps we can take to
facilitate learning success. This is best conveyed by Bruner (1960, p.31): "The best
way to create interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make
the knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in which learning
has occurred."
language culture and acquire the L2 usually during the recovery stage
(the tourist stage-> the empty stage (culture shock)-> the recovery stage (culture
stress)-> the acceptance stage (adaptation)) * Not everyone going the same
sequence of stages
(c) culture shock:
--phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and
crisis
--a profound cross-cultural learning experience which takes place when one
examines the degree to which one’s influenced by his own culture and
understands the culturally derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of other
people
(a) definition: the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that
come into contact within an individual which is difficult to measure
(b) parameters of social distance by John Schumann (1976)
(ii) power distance 權力差距- the extent to which the less power persons
(d) Study learner language from production data which are observable
■errors provide the evidence of how language is learned, and what procedures
■examination of errors from all possible sources, not just from L1 interference
mistakes errors
a performance error either a a noticeable deviation reflects the
random guess or a slip due to a lack of the linguistic competence
failure to utilize a known system
correctly
Can be self-corrected by native Cannot be self-corrected
speakers when attention is called
(iv)explaining errors:
systematic, universal, predictable? By repeated systematic
observation of learner speech
Sources:
1. interlingual transfer: especially in the beginning stages of
SLA e.g. “sheep” for “ship” for Chinese students
2. intralingual transfer: overgeneralization when learners
have begun to acquire parts of the new system e.g “He goed”
or overuse of “the/a, ” or simplifications, developmental
errors, communication-based errors, errors of avoidance or
errors of overproduction.
3. context of learning: classroom (tutored) e.g. faulty
concepts from teachers/induced erros/bookish (uncontracted
forms) ;or social situation (untutored) e.g. dialect acquisition
or idiosyncratic dialect
4. communicative strategies: circumlocution, word coinage,
false cognates (by Tarone, 1981), or prefabricated patterns
(c) criticism:
(i) positive reinforcement of clear and free communication is also important
(fluency).
(ii)Overemphasis on production data; comprehension is also important.
(iii)It fails to explain avoidance
(iv)It too closely focuses on specific language rather than universal aspects of
language
3.5.5 Stages of learner language development: all are not able to measure overall
competence because one can be in different stages of different tenses
sing
pointed out
人工製品
socioeconomic class, general character)人工製品
Part IV: Reviewing previous exam questions & discussion of heated issues
1. methodology 方法論:
方法論 The study of pedagogical practices in general.
1. approach 教學觀:
教學觀 Theoretical positions and beliefs about the
3. method 教學方法:
教學方法 A generalized, prescribed set of classroom
5. technique 教學技巧:
教學技巧 any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or
fluency & accuracy /function & form/ language use & language analysis
Fluency—the ability an individual to speak or write without undue hesitation
Accuracy—the ability an individual to speak or write grammatically
Minimal pairs: two words in a language which differ from each other by only one
distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning, such as bear and pear; it is also
sometimes used for any two pieces of lg that are identical except for a specific feature
e.g. The boy is here/the boys are here.
Minimal pair drill where minimal pairs are practiced together to help learners
distinguish a sound contrast.
Principles:
(1) Most learning takes place in a relaxed but focused state so attentiveness can be
manipulated to optimize learning and recall.
(2) The emphasis on memorization to vocabulary pairs—a target language item and
its native language translation—suggests a view of language in which lexis is central
and in which lexical translation rather than contextualization is stressed
(3) Six principal components through which desuggestion and suggestion operate
Authority: people remember best and are most influenced by information coming
from an authoritative source
Infantilization: a teacher-students relation is like that of parent to child; learners take
part in role playing, games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older students
regain the self-confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child.
double-planedness (involving both hemispheres of the brain (analysis + synthesis) &
using both the conscious and unconscious mind): the learner learns not only from the
effect of direct instruction but from the environment in which the instruction takes
place
intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness: Varying the tone and rhythm of
presented material helps both to avoid boredom through monotony of repetition and to
dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to linguistic material. Both intonation and
rhythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to
induce a relaxed attitude, concert pseudo-passiveness in which anxieties and tension
are relieved and power of concentration for new material is raised.
Characteristics:
(1) The students with a new identity and personal information
Criticism:
the use with learners of different proficiency levels benefits only intermediate and
advanced learners
too many demands on teachers
K. Content-Based Instruction (especially for ESP, EOP, and immersion programs)
(Book 3 p. 49)
Background:
Acquiring content (a subject matter) through language under the influence
of Immersion Education where foreign language instruction is taught through the
medium of the foreign language or for learners who need language to carry out
specific roles such as nurse, engineer and so on (Language for Specific Purposes)
Approach:
Theory of Language
Rationale Examples
Competency-based 1. It is based on a specification of “telephone”
syllabus the competencies learners are 1. read and dial phone
expected to master in relation to numbers
specific situations and activities 2. identify oneself on the
2. It is also widely used in social phone when answering and
survival and work-oriented calling
language programs. 3. requests to speak to sb
* competencies= the essential 4. respond to request to hold
skills, knowledge, and attitudes 5. respond to offer to take
required for effective performance messages
of particular tasks and activities
Text-based syllabus 1. It is built around texts and e.g.1 exchanges- simple,
samples of extended discourses complex, or casual
2. A context for language learning e.g.2 forms- simple or
should be identified. (e.g. complex formatted texts
telephone negotiations with
contractors)
Task-based syllabus 1. Tasks are activities that drive Two types of tasks for
the SLA process syllabus design
2. Grammar teaching is not central 1. pedagogical tasks
here since learners will acquire it jigsaw tasks
as a by-product of carrying out information-gap tasks
tasks problem-solving tasks
3. Tasks are motivating for decision-making tasks
learners and engage them in opinion exchange tasks
meaningful communication 2. real-world tasks
* In conclusion:
TBLT views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly
linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of which extend beyond the
practice of lg.
A task is an activity in which
1. meaning is primary
2. there’s some communication problem to solve
3. task completion has some priority
4. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
M. Neurolinguistic Programming by John Grindler and Richard Bandler (the mid
1970s)
Definition: neuro= about brain, linguistic=communication (both verbal and
nonverbal), programming=observable patterns of thought and behavior
Neuro linguistic programming (NLP for short) was developed in the early 1970s
by an information scientist and a linguist at the University of California at Santa Cruz.
They had observed that people with similar education, training, background, and years
of experience were achieving widely varying results ranging from wonderful to
mediocre. They wanted to know the secrets of effective people. What makes them
perform and accomplish things. They were especially interested in the possibility of
being able to duplicate the behavior, and therefore the competence, of these highly
effective individuals. It was the golden era of modeling and simulation. They
decided to model human excellence. They looked at factors such as education,
business and therapy. They have then zeroed in on the communication aspect. They
started studying how the successful people communicated (verbal language, body
language, eye movements, and others). By modeling their behavior, John Grinder and
Richard Bandler were able to make out patterns of thinking that assisted in the
subject's success. The two theorized that the brain can learn the healthy patterns and
behaviors and that this would bring about positive physical and emotional effects.
What emerged from their work came to be known as Neuro-Linguistic
Programming.
The basic premise of NLP is that the words we use reflect an inner, subconscious
1. 1840s to 1860s:
The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM; also the Classical Method):
Inspired by Latin and Greek learning in grammar schools for centuries in
Europe; aiming at appreciation of foreign literature and mental exercise
(Mental Discipline Theory) by deductive teaching of grammatical rules,
memorization of lists of isolated words, translations of texts and doing
written exercises.
It is criticized of being a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of
unusable grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perfect
translations of literary prose. It is fully “theory-lessness”. However, it
requires few specialized skill on the par of teachers. Tests of grammar rules
and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. It is
at times successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of a L2.
The Direct Method (popular in the early 20th century): Deriving from
Gouin’s Series Method and then developed by Berlitz, who called it the
Berlitz Method
2. 1930s-60s:
The Audio-lingual Method: (after the Reading Approach)
Based on Behavioral Psychology, Structuralism and the Contrastive
Analysis (the morpheme studies), this method aims at using the target
language communicatively by intensive oral drilling of basic sentence
patterns but it was challenged by Noam Chomsky in the early 60s.
At the same time, the Situational Approach prevailed in the U.K.
It is criticized for its failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency,
misconceptions of learning as a process of habit-formation and overlearning,
avoidance of errors, and inadequate theoretical foundations of structural
linguistics which did not tell us everything about lg that we needed to know.
3. 1970s (the Designer Methods: promises of success, one size fits all by David
Nunan, 1989 ):
Influenced by the theories of second language learning such as the
Error Analysis, Krashen’s theories, Shumann’s
pidginization/acculturaltion Model; the 1970s is significant, for since
then research on SLA became a single discipline in its own right, and a
number of innovative methods were conceived.
The Natural Approach (by Tracy Terrel and Stephan Krashen, 1982):
Acting on the claims of the Comprehension-based Approach, NA maintains
that production delayed until speech emerges and basic personal communication
skills taught in a relaxed atmosphere where the teacher provides comprehensible
input. Fluency is pursued instead of accuracy.
The most controversial aspects of NA are its advocacy of a silent period and
emphasis on comprehensible input since speech does not always emerge
naturally and the decision of which structure to be included is somehow intuitive.
However, NA’s advice of a silent period is good while Ss grow accustomed to a
new lg since their lg ego is not easily threatened and no immediate risk-taking is
forced.
I. pre-twentieth-century trends
(4) The “By the Way” Approach: sporadic (偶然) lectures or bits of behavior
and the weak version (both the subject and the lg valued-> theme-based
instruction)主題取向教學
沈浸式課程
version)沈浸式課程
(c) purpose: applying the meaningful learning principle to set useful and
practical objectives and increase the intrinsic motivation
(d) targeted students: usually pertains to academic or occupational
instruction over an extended period of time at intermediate-to-advanced
proficiency levels.
(e) Challenges: too demanding on teachers since they should possess both
knowledge of the lg and the subject matter(a double expert)
(f) Integration of skills in reading, discussing, problem-solving, writing
語言經驗法
Experience Approach(Book 3 p.239)語言經驗法
(4) The Episode Hypothesis (John Oller, 1983) Book 3 p.240 故事情節假設說
(a) inspired by “The Series Method “by Gouin in the 19th century: present