4.1-The Writing Process

MODULE 4
THE WRITING
PROCESS
PREPARED BY: ENGR. JONAYKA A. TAPIADOR
MODULE CONTENT
A. THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS

B. PRE WRITING PROCESS
C. PLANNING AND JOURNAL WRITING
D. WRITING A DRAFT
E. POST WRITING/REVISING
F. PROOFREADING
G. PUBLISHING
2
THE SENTENCE AND
ITS COMPONENTS
3
THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS:
TOPIC CONTENT
A. INTRODUCTION
B. PARTS OF A SENTENCE
C. SENTENCE STYLE
4
INTRODUCTION
✘ WHAT IS A SENTENCE?
A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically
containing a SUBJECT and PREDICATE, conveying a statement,
question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause
and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses. (Oxford Dictionary)
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TOPIC CONTENT
A. INTRODUCTION
C. SENTENCE STYLE
6
PARTS OF A SENTENCE
1. FINDING THE
SUBJECT
2. CLAUSES
3. PHRASES
4. TYPES OF SENTENCES
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1. FINDING THE SUBJECT
✘ Every sentence consists of
least a SUBJECT and a
PREDICATE. A complex
sentence with multiple
clauses may have more than
one subject and predicate.
✘ The subject is what the
sentence is about; the
predicate describes the
subject.
8
✘ A more precise definition is as
follows:
The subject is the part of the

sentence that is doing the action of
the main verb.
✘ The subject is usually a noun or

pronoun, but it can also be a
longer phrase.
9
✘ Let’s look at an example:
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PARTS OF A SENTENCE
2. CLAUSES
3. PHRASES
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2. CLAUSES
✘ Clauses are large
grammatical units composed
of many parts of speech. They
always contain a subject and
a verb, as well as any number
of modifiers.
✘ Take a look at some
examples of clauses in the
figure:
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2. CLAUSES
✘ Each of the clauses in the previous slide consists of a number of
parts of speech and phrases that together make up an idea. Some
of the examples can be complete sentences by themselves and
others cannot.
✘ When a clause can stand by itself it’s called an INDEPENDENT
CLAUSE. When it has to be connected to another clause it’s a
DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.
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2. CLAUSES (independent clause)
✘ Every INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
has one subject and one verb
and can stand by itself as a
complete sentence.
✘ Here are a few examples:
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2. CLAUSES (independent clause)
✘ While the examples may seem basic, the one thing that gives
students trouble is when you use a coordinating conjunction to
connect clauses:
✘ In these cases you should not consider the coordinating conjunction

as part of either clause. It just sits in between the independent
clauses.
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2. CLAUSES (dependent clause)
✘ A DEPENDENT CLAUSE cannot be a complete sentence by itself.
That’s because it always starts with a subordinating conjunction or
a relative pronoun:
✘ Dependent clauses that start with a relative pronoun are called

RELATIVE CLAUSES.
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✘ As mentioned, a dependent
clause cannot be a sentence
by itself.
✘ Note that the relative
pronoun not only connects
the dependent clause, but
often also acts as its subject.
After all, every clause has to
have a subject and a verb.
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✘ Now let’s see how we can add these dependent clauses to a
sentence:
✘ We all combine clauses intuitively, but recognizing how it works will

help you write more complex sentences.
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PARTS OF A SENTENCE
2. CLAUSES
3. PHRASES
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3. PHRASES
✘ Where clauses are larger units
that always contain at least a
subject and a verb, phrases are
smaller parts of the sentence.
✘ Sometimes they are essential to
the structure of a clause (e.g., a
noun phrase that functions as
the subject), and sometimes
they just provide some extra
information (most prepositional
phrases).
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3. PHRASES
TYPES OF PHRASES:
A. Noun phrase
B. Verb phrase
C. Prepositional phrase
D. Verbal phrase
E. Appositive phrase
F. Absolute phrase
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3. PHRASES
A. NOUN PHRASE:
A noun phrase is any noun or pronoun along with its modifiers:
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3. PHRASES
B. VERB PHRASE:
A verb phrase is any number of verbs working together:
Verb phrases often contain adverbs that change the meaning of the
phrase:
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3. PHRASES
C. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE:
A prepositional phrase always starts with a preposition and ends with
a noun or pronoun (and its modifiers) that is called the object of the
preposition:
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3. PHRASES
D. Verbal Phrases:
There are three types of verbal
phrases:
✘ participial phrases
✘ gerund phrases
✘ infinitive phrases
Each is explained in the
upcoming slides.
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3. PHRASES
D.1. Participial Phrase:
Participial phrases start with either a present or past participle. Here
are some examples of each.
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3. PHRASES
D.2. Gerund Phrase:
A gerund phrase is a present participle (and its modifiers) that acts like
a noun. It can take on a variety of jobs in the sentence. Here are a
couple of examples:
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3. PHRASES
D.3. Infinitive Phrase:

An infinitive phrase is the infinitive and its modifiers:
The infinitive phrase can also function in various ways:
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3. PHRASES
E. Appositive Phrase:
An appositive phrase is a phrase that renames an earlier noun or
pronoun:
In these examples, the appositive is a noun phrase. But you can use
other phrases as appositives too:
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3. PHRASES
F. Absolute Phrase:
Absolute phrases are the trickiest to identify. These phrases are not
closely connected to the rest of the sentence; they don’t describe a
specific word, but modify the whole sentence. They add extra
information and are usually separated by commas (or dashes).
Here are some more examples:
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PARTS OF A SENTENCE
2. CLAUSES
3. PHRASES
4. TYPES OF
SENTENCES
31
Once you know the difference between an independent clause
and a dependent (or subordinate) clause, you can see the basic
structure of each sentence.
TYPES OF SENTENCES:
A. SIMPLE
B. COMPOUND
C. COMPLEX
D. COMPOUND-COMPLEX
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A. Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence consists of just one independent clause:
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B. Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses. These can
be joined by a coordinating conjunction or a punctuation mark such as
a semi-colon, colon, or dash:
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C. Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and any
number of dependent clauses:
In this example, the first clause is dependent and the second is

independent.
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D. Compound-Complex Sentence:
Finally, a compound-complex sentence consists of two independent
clauses and any number of dependent clauses:
In this example, the first clause is dependent, whereas the last two
(joined by a coordinating conjunction) are independent.
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TOPIC CONTENT
A. INTRODUCTION
C. SENTENCE STYLE
37
SENTENCE STYLE
We will be looking at 4 sentence styles that we need to take into
consideration whenever we are constructing sentences:
✘ CONCISE SENTENCES
✘ STYLISH SENTENCES
✘ CONNECTING SENTENCES
✘ PARALLEL STRUCTURE
38
CONCISE SENTENCES
“Brevity is the soul of wit,”
said Shakespeare’s Polonius.
Strunk and White; “Omit

needless words.”
39
HOW TO WRITE CONCISELY
TIP #1 Avoid Overlapping Sentences:
Don’t repeat too much of the previous sentence:
Such overlapping often masks the fact that our ideas are poorly
connected. In this case, our edit reveals that there is no adequate
transition between the two topics (protective coloration … a long
tongue).
40
TIP #2 Avoid Too Many Doubles:
Some writers have a habit of saying everything in twos:
Not only did we cut down on the synonyms, but we removed a few
other redundant bits too.
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TIP #3 Don’t Dither Around With Verbs:
While you often need a string of verbs, avoid piling it on:
One main verb is better than a handful.
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TIP #4 Avoid Hyperbole:
Don’t write as if every sentence requires an exclamation mark. Avoid
excessive use of the following intensifiers:
Let the idea speak for itself.
43
TIP#5 Pick The Right Word:
Lazy writers pick the first word or
phrase that comes to mind.
They’ll write:
✘ not the same instead
of different
✘ despite the fact that instead
of while or although.
Try to find the best word for the job.
44
TIP #6 Avoid Redundancy:
Spoken English is full of redundant phrases. Here are a few to watch out
for when you write:
The list goes on, but the point is clear: think carefully about the literal
meaning of everything you write.
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SENTENCE STYLE
46
STYLISH SENTENCES
Crafting a great
sentence is not just a
matter of avoiding errors.
47
HOW TO WRITE STYLISH SENTENCE
TIP #1 Choose a Clear Subject:
Some writers try to squeeze too much into the subject of the sentence:
48
TIP #1 Choose a Clear Subject:
Here’s the same sentence from the previous slide, but with a simpler
subject:
In other words, choose a simple subject (people) over a complex and

abstract one.
In addition, select specific verbs (know, shares) to make your
description as vivid as possible.
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TIP #2 Pick the Right Verb:
Don’t settle for vague verbs.
Now let’s substitute a more specific verb:
So check your writing and choose the best verb for the job.
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TIP #3 Find Your Voice:
Another way to make your writing more direct is to write in the active
voice:
Don’t overdo it though. The passive voice exists for a reason. It

demonstrates how someone or something is affected by a particular
action. Pick the voice that makes the most sense.
51
TIP #4 Avoid Expletives:
An expletive is not only a swear word (which you should avoid too), but
it is also a particular grammatical construction. It’s a word (there or it,
followed by a form of “to be”) that helps us to form a complete
sentence but contains no meaning itself:
Often you can shorten such sentences:
So save expletives for when you want to emphasize (or introduce) the
subject. Otherwise, be succinct.
52
TIP #5 Be Positive:
Watch out for double negatives and, where possible, use positive
constructions:
53
TIP #6 Focus on Your Main Clause:
It’s all too easy to relegate the most interesting details to subordinate
clauses:
54
TIP #6 Focus on Your Main Clause:
Where possible, try to incorporate such vivid and colorful details in the
main clause:
55
TIP #7 Think About Beginnings and Endings:
Consider where you want the emphasis of a sentence to fall. Many
sentences place the emphasis at the beginning or the end:
Having some idea of where the emphasis lies can help you develop a
sense of rhythm in a paragraph.
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TIP #8 Don’t Tack on Extra Information:
Too many additions and extensions can spoil a house. It’s the same
with sentences. Particularly after a longer quotation you’re usually
best off starting a new sentence:
This is not bad, but often it’s a good idea to split up long sentences:
57
SENTENCE STYLE
58
CONNECTING SENTENCES
A period at the end of a sentence is like a dam in a river: it
creates an artificial barrier that interrupts the flow. Yet water cannot
be contained forever, and in the same way our ideas overflow each
individual sentence.
Let us take a look at some examples of connecting sentences:
✘ PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS
✘ COMBINING SENTENCES
✘ CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
✘ BEGINNING AND ENDINGS
✘ ANAPHORA
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parataxis and hypotaxis
Sentences and clauses are a bit like people: some are entirely
self-absorbed, whereas others interact well with others. Sentences
that act as if there’s no one else are called paratactic sentences. These
sentences don’t use many connecting words or transitional
expressions. To be precise, they don’t use subordination; every clause is
treated as equally important:
If your prose is
primarily paratactic, it will
come across as choppy
and it may be difficult for
the reader to follow your
train of thought.
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parataxis and hypotaxis
By contrast, the term hypotaxis refers to a writing style where
clauses are subordinated to each other. Hypotactic prose includes
more dependent clauses (and, by extension, more conjunctions):
You’ll notice that this passage is full of subordinating

conjunctions (although, that, since). This style creates more
connections, but it also has a weakness. If all your prose is consistently
hypotactic, it requires more effort to understand. Hypotactic
sentences are typically longer and more complex.
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combining sentences
One of the greatest skills you
can develop is being able to merge
shorter sentences. The point is not that
longer is better. Rather, being able to
move sentence parts around allows you
to connect and express your ideas more
effectively.
Here are a few strategies for
making connections.
✘ SUBORDINATION
✘ USING PHRASES
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combining sentences
SUBORDINATION
Subordination makes your sentences hypotactic. Making one clause
dependent on another allows you to create hierarchy and order:
The fact that the clauses are all connected mirrors the way one action
led to another makes it easier to read and understand.
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combining sentences
USING PHRASES
You can also combine sentences by turning clauses into phrases. Often
these phrases will include participles (e.g., training, trained):
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CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
You won’t always want to combine sentences, but you can still
connect them in any number of ways. Most often you’ll use a
conjunctive adverb or transitional expression.
The challenge with conjunctive adverbs is that it’s easy to rely

on them too much. If every sentence starts with moreover, thus,
or therefore, your writing will start to seem stale and formulaic.
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BEGINNINGS AND ENDINGS
Often it’s possible to connect sentences by repeating a phrase

or idea. Notice how the following examples create connections with
either the beginning or end of the first sentence:
When used badly, repetition becomes redundancy.

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ANAPHORA
In academic writing, anaphora is usually more muted, but it can
still be an effective technique. Here, for instance, is C. S. Lewis writing
about natural law (what he calls the Tao) in The Abolition of Man:
The third
time around
Lewis changes
the phrase and
turns from doubt
to greater
certainty.
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SENTENCE STYLE
68
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parallelism occurs when at least two parts of
a sentence (clauses or phrases) have a similar form.
Here’s an example:
Each clause uses a present participle (swimming, snorkeling) to

create symmetry.
If the sentence had been I love swimming, but I don’t like to
snorkel, it would be a case of faulty parallelism. Most cases of
parallelism involve either a list or some form of comparison.
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RECOGNIZING FAULTY PARALLELISM
The following would illustrate some common causes of faulty
parallelism:
✘ COMPARISON ✘ BULLETED LISTS
✘ LISTS ✘ CAUTION
✘ PREPOSITIONS
✘ ARTICLES
✘ THAT
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COMPARISON
When we compare things, we often use conjunctions. What’s
connected by the conjunctions needs to be parallel.
At the same time, there’s no need to be too much of a stickler

about parallelism. It may sound more natural to drop the last to and
leave it implied.
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LISTS
Lists are another form of comparison. Try to make sure that the
items in the list have a similar structure:
As you can
see, either add “in”
to every item in the
list or only at the
beginning.
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PREPOSITIONS
Watch out when you use prepositions:
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ARTICLES
Be consistent when you add articles (a, an, the) to the items in a
list:
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THAT
Often two parts of a comparison start with that:
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BULLETED LISTS
Faulty parallelism is especially common when the items of a list
are placed on separate lines. This is quite common in bureaucratic
writing:
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BULLETED LISTS
Here is a corrected version:
Obviously there is a lot more rewriting we could do here, but

creating some parallel structure is a decent start.
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CAUTION
Don’t overdo it. If a sentence is short, or the tone is more casual,
you can cut back on the parallel elements:
After all, normally you wouldn’t say,

“She not only bought me a coffee, but she
also bought me a cookie.”
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MODULE CONTENT
A. THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS
B. PRE WRITING PROCESS

C. PLANNING AND JOURNAL WRITING
D. WRITING A DRAFT
E. POST WRITING/REVISING
F. PROOFREADING
G. PUBLISHING
79
THANK YOU!
PRE WRITING PROCESS
(TO BE CONTINUED IN THE NEXT POWERPOINT PRESENTATION…)
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references
✘ https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/sentences.html
✘ https://natureofwriting.com
✘ https://pixabay.com/
✘ https://unsplash.com/
81

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MODULE 4

A. THE SENTENCE AND ITS COMPONENTS

The subject is the part of the

✘ The subject is usually a noun or

✘ In these cases you should not consider the coordinating conjunction

✘ Dependent clauses that start with a relative pronoun are called

✘ We all combine clauses intuitively, but recognizing how it works will

D.3. Infinitive Phrase:

The infinitive phrase can also function in various ways:

In this example, the first clause is dependent and the second is

Strunk and White; “Omit

One main verb is better than a handful.

Let the idea speak for itself.

In other words, choose a simple subject (people) over a complex and

Now let’s substitute a more specific verb:

Don’t overdo it though. The passive voice exists for a reason. It

Often you can shorten such sentences:

You’ll notice that this passage is full of subordinating

The challenge with conjunctive adverbs is that it’s easy to rely

Often it’s possible to connect sentences by repeating a phrase

When used badly, repetition becomes redundancy.

Each clause uses a present participle (swimming, snorkeling) to

At the same time, there’s no need to be too much of a stickler

Obviously there is a lot more rewriting we could do here, but

After all, normally you wouldn’t say,

B. PRE WRITING PROCESS

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