SCIENCE SECTION

Fatigue and Static Crack Growth Rate

of Alloy 718 Under Cathodic Polarization

T. Ramgopal‡,* and Anand Venkatesh**

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Fatigue crack growth rate was developed on three heats of Alloy 718 (UNS N07718) under cathodic polarization, over a wide range of loading
conditions. Fatigue crack growth rate increased with decreasing frequency over a range of Kmax and ΔK conditions. In most cases, there was no
evidence of a plateau in fatigue crack growth rate at low frequencies. The fatigue crack growth rate over the range of conditions evaluated
was influenced by static crack growth rate at Kmax. The principle of superposition of fatigue crack growth and static crack growth was used to
rationalize the observed crack growth rate response. Static crack growth rate of Alloy 718 measured under constant K conditions was lower
than that measured under rising displacement conditions. A crack tip strain rate-based model was used to rationalize the fatigue crack growth
rate behavior and the static crack growth rate behavior under constant K. However, the formulation of the model for the rising K was not able
to rationalize the crack growth rate under rising displacement conditions.

KEY WORDS: Alloy 718, corrosion fatigue, crack tip strain rate, hydrogen embrittlement, static crack growth rate

INTRODUCTION At high concentrations of hydrogen there was evidence

of slip band-based cracking along the <111> planes, while at low

E xploration and production of oil and gas from high-pres-

sure/high-temperature (HP/HT) fields has necessitated the
use of high-strength alloys for subsea production systems.
These systems are exposed to sour (H2S containing) fluids at
high temperatures (177°C to 204°C). They are also exposed to
seawater and cathodic polarization at seabed temperatures (4°C)
on the outside surfaces. The unique service conditions require
materials that are not only resistant to localized corrosion and
stress corrosion cracking at high temperatures, but also
hydrogen embrittlement at lower temperatures. High-strength
nickel-based alloys, in particular Alloy 718 (UNS N07718(1)),
offer excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking at higher
temperatures and hydrogen embrittlement at lower tem-
peratures. Therefore, it is commonly used for subsea production
systems.
Hydrogen embrittlement of Alloy 718 has been studied
in high-pressure hydrogen environments1-4 as well as under
cathodic polarization conditions.5-14 Increasing hydrogen
concentration led to a decrease in the threshold stress intensity
factor (Kth)4 and notch tensile strength.1 In addition to the
hydrogen concentration, the susceptibility to hydrogen embrit-
tlement is a function of the microstructure of Alloy 718.9,15-17
The presence of a continuous network of δ phase along grain
boundaries has been attributed to increased susceptibility to
hydrogen embrittlement.18-23 It was also found that increasing
volume fraction of γ′′ and γ′, as well as the increasing size of γ′′
precipitates, increases the susceptibility to hydrogen embrit-
tlement.9,17 Increased slip planarity and strain localization
coupled with the presence of hydrogen may be the reason for
increased susceptibility with γ“ size and volume fraction.
concentrations there was evidence of dimples and voids
around carbide particles.4 The presence of voids nucleating
around carbide particles was also observed in Alloy 903 (UNS
N19903) in high-pressure hydrogen.24-26 Slip band cracking was
observed in Alloy 718 under cathodic charging conditions and
was attributed to strain localization leading to void formation.10
It has been speculated that hydrogen segregation to sites of
strain localization at the intersection of slip bands helps stabilize
vacancies, leading to the formation of nano voids, which act as
sites of crack initiation.27-28 Intergranular cracking in the pres-
ence of δ phase along the boundaries has been attributed to
strain localization at the softer precipitate free zone along the
boundaries, leading to increased H accumulation at this in-
terface followed by decohesion along the γ/δ interface.17,19,23
Slow strain rate (SSR), constant load tests, and double
cantilever (DCB) tests on Alloy 718 under cathodic polarization in
simulated seawater did not indicate susceptibility to hydrogen
p
embrittlement even at 120 MPa m.11 However, more recent
work suggests that the susceptibility of Alloy 718 to hydrogen
embrittlement under cathodic polarization in 3.5 wt% NaCl is
dependent on applied strain rate.5 At strain rates of 5 × 10−7/s
p
in SSR tests, and at applied K-rates of 1.58 × 10−4 MPa m/s in
rising displacement fracture toughness tests, Alloy 718
showed susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.5 Slow-rising
step load tests performed on Alloy 718 under various heat
treatment conditions under cathodic polarization also revealed
a decrease in initiation fracture toughness.14
The crack growth rate of Alloy 718 in sulfuric acid under
cathodic polarization was sensitive to the applied K-rate.6,10
Transitioning rising displacement tests at a rate of

Submitted for publication: April 21, 2020. Revised and accepted: April 8, 2021. Preprint available online: April 8, 2021, https://doi.org/10.5006/3572.
‡
Corresponding author. E-mail: ramgopal.thodla@dnvgl.com.
* DNV GL, 5777 Frantz Road, Dublin, Ohio 43017.
** TechnipFMC, 13138 Lockwood, Houston, Texas 77044.
(1)
UNS numbers are listed in Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, published by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE International) and
cosponsored by ASTM International.

ISSN 0010-9312 (print), 1938-159X (online) © 2021 NACE International.

712 JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 Reproduction or redistribution of this article in any form CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG
is prohibited without express permission from the publisher.
 SCIENCE SECTION

p
approximately 5.55 × 10−4 MPa m/s to fixed grip conditions,

0.0005
0.0002
led to several orders of decrease in crack growth rate in

0.001
both Alloy 71829 and K-500 (UNS N05500).30 The sharp change

S
in crack growth with loading rate highlights the importance
of applied strain rate, and the role of abrupt changes in loading
rate leading to crack stalls. It is therefore critical to ensure

0.008
0.005
0.01
careful transition to constant load/K conditions for the crack

P
growth rate to accurately reflect the material response.
Transition from low cycle fatigue to static crack growth rate
resulted in steady state crack growth rate under constant K

0.07
0.05
0.11
conditions, which was lower than the rate under rising dis-

Si
placement conditions.31
Subsea production systems are subject to long dura-
tions of static holds as well as cyclic loads associated with

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0.04
0.07
start-up and shut-down events. Hence, there is a need to

Mn
0.1
understand damage accumulation due to both static and fa-
tigue loads. Limited work performed on Alloy 718 in high-

0.0038
0.0044
pressure hydrogen suggests that fatigue crack growth rate

0.004
increases with decreasing frequency and can be as high as

B
20 to 40 times higher than in-air values.2,32 It was also found
that the fatigue crack growth rate was a function of the
hydrogen pressure.2 However, there has been limited effort to

0.022

0.019
0.02
characterize the effect of low cycle fatigue, and static

C
loading on the crack growth rate response of Alloy 718 under
cathodic polarization. The current work is aimed at devel-
oping fatigue and static crack growth rate under cathodic

0.07
0.03
0.03
polarization on Alloy 718. Cu

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Table 1. Summary of Chemical Analysis of the Three Heats of Alloy 718 Material Tested

0.21
0.42
2.1 | Materials 0.01
Co

All tests were performed on UNS N07718 that met API-

6ACRA specifications. Tests were performed on three different
heats of Alloy 718 that were heat treated to the 120 K
0.44

0.47

(720 MPa) yield strength specifications. The chemistry of the

0.5
Al

three heats of Alloy 718 evaluated in this study are shown in

Table 1. The heat treatment and mechanical properties at room
temperature for the three heats are shown in Tables 2 and 3,
0.98
1.01
0.88

respectively. Heat A was a round bar of 197 mm diameter, and

Ti

heat B and C were forgings with a diameter of 483 mm, and

406 mm respectively.
All heats of material were free of continuous grain
2.88

boundary delta phase based on optical metallography as per

Mo

3
3

API-6ACRA requirements.
Nb+Ta

2.2 | Test Cell Configuration

4.91
5.05
5.01

All tests were performed in a rectangular cell made of

acrylic or C-276 (UNS N10276) mounted in a load frame. The
volume of the cell was 12 L. The temperature in the test cell
was controlled with a recirculating temperature bath, using a
18.4
18.3
18.5
Cr

glycol water mixture. The coils carrying the cooling/heating

fluid were uniformly spaced through the height of the cell to
maintain uniform temperature in the cell. The temperature of
18.72
17.87
17.14

the cell was typically maintained at 4.4±1°C.

Fe
Chemical Analysis (wt%)

All tests in this were performed on compact tension

(CT) specimens. The sample dimensions from the three heats
were slightly different and are described in more detail in the
Crack Length Measurements section. The samples were
53.7
54.7
53

loaded in the load train via clevises (C-276) and electrically

Ni

isolated using ceramic coated pins to prevent galvanic cou-

pling between the sample and the load train.
Heat ID

The test solution and the cell were deaerated with N2,
prior to starting the test, and the solution was transferred
C
A
B

under a N2 blanket from a transfer vessel. The solution was

CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 713

SCIENCE SECTION
Table 2. Summary of Heat Treatment of the Three Heats of
Alloy 718 Material Tested
Heat Treatment
Heat ID Solutionizing Aging
A 1,030°C/1.5 h/WQ 780°C/7 h/AC
B 1,035°C/2 h/WQ 785°C/7 h/AC
C 1,030°C/1.5 h/WQ 788°C/7.5 h/AC
Table 3. Summary of the Mechanical Properties of the
Three Heats of Alloy 718 Material Tested(A)
Mechanical Properties
Heat ID YS (MPa) UTS (MPa) % El % RA
A 938 1,220 27 36
B 911 1,221 28 38
C 883 1,173 27 34
(A)
YS: yield strength, UTS: ultimate tensile strength, El: elongation,
and RA: reduction of area.
deaerated throughout the course of the test using high purity N2
(99.999%). In all tests, a saturated calomel electrode (SCE) was
used as a reference electrode and a platinized niobium mesh was
used as a counter electrode. All tests were performed at an
applied potential of −1,050 mVSCE.
2.3 | Crack Length Measurements
Crack length measurements were performed using re-
versing direct current potential drop (DCPD) measurements.
DCPD measurements were performed using Pt wires of 1 mm
for the current and 0.5 mm for the potential drop measurements.
The wires were heat shrunk in Teflon and spot welded to the
sample. The spot weld location between the sample and the wires
were epoxy coated to prevent galvanic coupling between the
Pt wires and the sample.
A current of 4 A was applied to the sample and was
reversed about every 1 s to minimize thermal junction effects.
The absolute values of the measured potentials associated
with the reversing current were averaged to obtain a single data
point. Typically, anywhere from 100 to 1,000 data points were
averaged to create a single datum. A reference sample that was
nominally identical to the test sample was exposed to the
same conditions as the test sample. The signals from the ref-
erence was used to correct for temperature fluctuations in the
cell and drift in the voltage signals with time. The measured
signals from the sample was normalized with the signals from
the reference sample and converted to crack length based on
the Johnson equation.33
All tests were performed under K control. The measured
crack length was used to estimate the load required to maintain
the desired K level. Load adjustments were made when the K
deviated from the target value by more than 0.1%. No changes in
load were made for any apparent decrease in crack length.
The objective of the work was to evaluate the effect of
fatigue and static loading on the measured crack growth rate
(CGR) response as a function of loading variables. The details
of the test parameters and methods for each of these tests is
presented below, while the broad objective of the tests was to
determine the crack growth rate response of Alloy 718 under
714 JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7
cathodic polarization. However, slightly different objectives for
each of heat IDs resulted in tests being performed in slightly
different environments and geometries being evaluated. The
difference in the sample geometries, orientations, and the slightly
different pHs are not expected to influence the crack growth
rate measurements.
2.4 | Tests on Heat ID A
One K controlled test was performed on a CT specimen
with a B of 12.7 mm and W of 25.4 mmm that was precracked to
an a/W of 0.475. Another K controlled test was performed on a
CT specimen with a B of 6.35 mm and W of 25.4 mm. The
specimens were extracted from the bar in the C-R orienta-
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tion.34 The tests were performed in 3.5 wt% NaCl.
p
The first test was initiated at Kmax of 99 MPa m, and an
R-ratio of 0.6 under cyclic loading using a saw tooth wave form
with a 9:1 rise to fall time (Figure 1). The test was started at a
frequency of 10 mHz, corresponding to a 90 s rise and 10 s fall
time. Once sufficient crack growth was established the test
was transitioned to a 1 mHz (900 s rise and 100 s fall time).
Subsequently, increasing hold times were introduced under
1 mHz cycling (900 s rise and 100 s fall) to understand the effect
of hold times (Figure 1). The test was finally transitioned to
constant K conditions. The second test was initiated at a Kmax of
p
66 MPa m, and a R-ratio of 0.6 under cyclic loading similar to
the first experiment on heat A. The test was transitioned through
hold periods to constant K conditions.
2.5 | Test on Heat ID B
One low-cycle fatigue crack growth rate test was per-
formed on a CT specimen extracted from heat B in the C-L
orientation as defined in ASTM E399.34 The specimen had a B
of 12.7 mm and W of 50.8 mmm and was precracked to an a/W of
0.35. The test was performed in 3.5 wt% NaCl at a pH of 8.2.
Frequency scans were performed using a symmetrical saw tooth,
i.e., the rise time and fall time were identical. A schematic
illustration of the triangular wave form is shown in Figure 1.
Fatigue crack growth rate frequency scans were performed at
p p p
a constant Kmax of 55 MPa m, 66 MPa m, and 79.2 MPa m and
a R-ratio of 0.6. The test was started at the lowest value of Kmax
p
(55 MPa m) at a frequency of 0.3 Hz and the frequency was
decreased to 1 mHz. Once the frequency was reduced to
1 mHz (500 s rise time and 500 s fall time), increasing hold times
were introduced at Kmax to understand the effect of hold times
and the role of static crack growth (Figure 1). The value of Kmax
p
was then increased from 66 MPa m and the sequence re-
peated. The final stage of the test was performed at a Kmax of
p
79.2 MPa m and the same sequence described above.
t fall
se
tri
thold
t fall
se
tri
FIGURE 1. Triangular wave form and hold times applied in the fre-
quency scan tests.
CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG

2.6 | Test on Heat ID C
One low-cycle fatigue crack growth rate test was per-
formed on a CT specimen extracted from heat C in the L-R
orientation.34 The specimen had a B of 12.7 mm and W of
50.8 mmm and was precracked to an a/W of 0.35. The test was
performed in 3.5 wt% NaCl at a pH of 8.2. Fatigue crack growth
frequency scans were performed on C starting at an initial Kmax of
p
66 MPa m, R-ratio of 0.5. An asymmetrical wave form with a
rise to fall time of 9:1 was used. The test was started at an initial
frequency of 0.1 Hz and the frequency reduced in steps of one
decade to 1 mHz. Once sufficient crack growth was established
at 1 m Hz (at least 50 μm), hold periods of 9,000 s were
introduced to understand the effect of static loading. Subse-
p
quently, Kmax was increased to 79.2 MPa m, R-ratio of 0.5 (ΔK
p
of 39.6 MPa m), and the same sequence described above at
p RESULTS
66 MPa m was repeated. Once stable crack growth rate was
established at 9,000 s holds under these conditions, the ΔK was
reduced in steps by raising the value of Kmin. The Kmin was
p p
raised in steps to 59.4 MPa m, 69.3 MPa m, and 74.1 MPa m
p p p on three heats of Alloy 718 to understand the effect of frequency
resulting in a ΔK of 19.8 MPa m, 9.9 MPa m, and 5.1 MPa m,
respectively. At each ΔK step, sufficient crack growth (∼25 μm)
was established prior to making a change.
p from heat A was tested at a pH of 7, while the other two heats
The test was then transitioned to a Kmax of 92.4 MPa m,
R-ratio of 0.5, and a frequency scan similar to the one described
p
at 66 MPa m was performed, following which the Kmax was
p values is shown in Figure 2. The results indicate that the FCGR
increased to 101 MPa m, R-ratio of 0.5 and a frequency scan
was performed from 0.1 Hz to 1 mHz. Once sufficient crack
growth was established at 1 mHz, hold times of 9,000 s and
86,400 s were established to transition to a static crack.
The test was successfully transitioned to constant K after
sufficient crack growth was established at 1 d hold. Once
sufficient crack growth was established at constant K, a de-
creasing K profile was established to reduce the K to
p Figure 3. Over a range of ΔK from 22 MPa m to 32 MPa m the
100.5 MPa m (a small change) following which constant K
conditions were reestablished. When sufficient crack growth
was measured at −1,050 mVSCE, the potential was changed from
−1,050 mVSCE to −1,000 mVSCE after which the test was
terminated. Often transitions to constant K are made by making
abrupt changes from rising displacement tests or by simply
loading to a desired load, typically lead to crack stalling, and is not
truly representative of behavior under constant K.35
Under constant K conditions, attempts were made to
measure CGR over extended periods of time (hundreds of hours)
to ensure representative behavior. In general, whereever
practical, crack extension on the order of 50 μm was measured,
which is about 10 times the resolution of the DCPD system.
This is typical of the increments that have been measured when
measuring crack growth rates in the 10−7 mm/s to mid
10−8 mm/s.36-38 When CGRs are on the order of low to mid
10−9 mm/s, the measurement of 50 μm of crack extension is
often impractical.36-38 It is important to note that in the low
10−8 mm/s to 10−9 mm/s, variations in CGR are often asso-
ciated with small pockets of crack extension. The important
aspect of measurements of crack growth rates at the low end
is to demonstrate that very slow stable crack extension is
possible under constant K conditions.
Changes in K were made based on Equation (1):
K = Ko eCΔa
where is the initial Ko is the initial stress intensity factor, C
represents the K-gradient, and Δa is the increment of crack
length after which a K change was made.
CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG
SCIENCE SECTION
p
The highest value of K in each of the tests (69 MPa m,
p p
79.2 MPa m, and 101 MPa m) met the remaining ligament and
thickness criteria in ASTM 1681,39 shown in Equation (1):
 
4 K 2
W − a,B ≥ (2)
π σf
where W-a is the remaining ligament, B is the thickness, K is the
stress intensity factor, and σf is the flow strength (average of
YS and UTS—This value can be used in the current work since the
UTS/YS > 1.3. Note that the values of YS and UTS used were
obtained at 4.4°C, the test temperature).
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3.1 | Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Measurements
p Fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) tests were performed
Kmax, and ΔK on the environmentally assisted fatigue crack
growth rate under cathodic protection conditions. The sample
(B and C) were tested at a pH of 8.2.
The results of the FCGR tests for heat A at various ΔK
increases with decreasing frequency. In the range of ΔK
investigated, the FCGR increases by about 20 times as the
frequency is decreased from 10 mHz to 0.011 mHz. The effect
p
of frequency is similar at a ΔK of about 27 MPa m and
p
40 MPa m, i.e., the magnitude of increase in FCGR with
frequency is similar.
FCGR as a function of frequency for heat B is shown in
p p
FCGR increases with decreasing frequency. The FCGR
increases by about 20 to 50 times as the frequency is decreased
from about 10 mHz to 0.11 mHz. There is no evidence of a
plateau in the FCGR (i.e., no change in FCGR with change in
frequency) at any value of Kmax or ΔK studied for either heat A
or B.40
FCGR as a function of frequency at various values of ΔK
for heat C is shown in Figure 4. It is interesting to note that at a ΔK
p p
of 33 MPa m (Kmax = 66 MPa m) there appears to be
DNV GL 2276
Kmax = 66 - 69 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 - 28 MPa—m (B = 6.25 mm)
Kmax = 99 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
10–2
3.5 wt% NaCl
da/dN (mm/cycle)
40°F
–1,050 mVSCE
10–3
tH = 86,400 s
tH = 9,000 s
10–4
(1) 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100
f (Hz)
FIGURE 2. FCGR as a function of frequency and two different ΔK
values for heat A under cathodic polarization conditions. The CT
specimen dimensions are indicated in parenthesis in the legend of
each data set.
JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 715
SCIENCE SECTION

DNV GL 2276
DNV GL 2588 (pH = 8.2) Kmax = 66 - 69 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 - 28 MPa—m (B = 6.25 mm)
Kmax = 55 MPa—m, 'K = 22 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) Kmax = 99 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
3.5 wt% NaCl DNV GL 2588 (pH = 8.2)
40°F Kmax = 55 MPa—m, 'K = 22 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
10–2 Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 31.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
10–2 –1,050 mVSCE Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 31.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
3.5 wt% NaCl
da/dN (mm/cycle)

DNV GL 2053 (pH = 8.2)

da/dN (mm/cycle)
40°F Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 33 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
–1,050 mVSCE Kmax = 92.4 MPa—m, 'K = 46.2 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)

10–3 10–3
tH = 86,400 s tH = 86,400 s

tH = 9,000 s tH = 9,000 s
10–4 10–4
tH = 3,600 s tH = 3,600 s

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10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
FIGURE 5. FCGR as a function of frequency under cathodic polariza-
FIGURE 3. FCGR as a function of frequency and two different ΔK
tion over a range of Kmax and ΔK values for the three different heats
values for heat B under cathodic polarization conditions. The CT
evaluated. The CT specimen dimensions are indicated in parenthesis
specimen dimensions are indicated in parenthesis in the legend of
in the legend of each data set.
each data set.

DNV GL 2503 (pH = 8.2) polarization, which also exhibit an increase in FCGR with
Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 33 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) decreasing frequency, however at low frequencies they typically
Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
exhibit a plateau in FCGR.41-43 The frequency at which the
10–2 Kmax = 92.4 MPa—m, 'K = 46.2 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
Kmax = 96.8 MPa—m, 'K = 38.7 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
FCGR reaches a plateau value is a function of ΔK, and the
overpotential for hydrogen evolution.43-45 It is likely that the
da/dN (mm/cycle)

3.5 wt% NaCl

40°F
–1,050 mVSCE
10–3 tH = 86,400 s
tH = 9,000 s
10–4
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1
f (Hz)
FIGURE 4. FCGR as a function of frequency and two different ΔK
values for heat C under cathodic polarization conditions. The CT
specimen dimensions are indicated in parenthesis in the legend of
each data set.
evidence of a plateau in FCGR at about 1 mHz. However, at higher
values of Kmax, corresponding to higher values of ΔK, there is
no evidence of a plateau in the FCGR even at frequencies down to
0.011 mHz. The effect of Kmax on the FCGR is apparent at a ΔK
p p
of approximately 38 MPa m to 39 MPa m, the FCGR at
p
96.8 MPa m is about 2.5 times higher than that measured at
p
79.2 MPa m.
A summary of the FCGR data generated on the three
heats studied is shown in Figure 5. In general, at frequencies
lower than about 10 mHz, FCGR increased with decreasing
frequency suggesting increased susceptibility to environmen-
tally assisted fatigue. It is clear that even at low frequencies
there is no evidence of a plateau in FCGR with frequency, i.e., no
change in FCGR with decreasing frequency. In case of heat C
the FCGR at 1 mHz and 0.1 mHz is similar, though there is not
enough data to be certain that there is a plateau in the FCGR.
No additional repeats were performed given the relatively slow
crack growth rate. This behavior of Alloy 718 under cathodic
polarization is in contrast with the FCGR of steels under cathodic
absence of a plateau in FCGR under the tested conditions may be
due to static crack growth over a range of K values in the
fatigue loading cycle.
A comparison of the FCGR as a function of frequency for
different heats of Alloy 718 at similar values of Kmax (albiet slightly
different values of ΔK) is shown in Figure 6. In general, it
appears that across a range of Kmax values the FCGR at low
frequencies (<1 mHz) of heat C is about 2 to 3 times lower than
that of both heats A and B. The difference in the FCGR values at
100 low frequencies between heat C and the other two heats
though small appears to be consistent over a range of Kmax and
ΔK values. Heat C was aged at the highest temperature and for
the longest time (Table 2), likely leading to coarser γ“ precipitates
compared to the other two heats.46 The overaged micro-
structure for heat C in comparison to heats A and B may affect
slip planarity and is a possible explanation for the differences
in the FCGR of heat C.
FCGR plotted as a function of ΔK evaluated at different
frequencies is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 also shows the curve
for the in-air FCGR of Alloy 718. A set of curves with the same
slope as the in-air curve, but whose pre-exponent is increased to
bound the data at different frequencies, is also shown in
Figure 7. The data at 10 mHz are slightly higher than the in-air
values but only by about a factor of about 2 to 3. The FCGR at
1 mHz is about times higher than the in-air value, while the FCGR
at 0.1 mHz (9,000 s holds) is about 15 times higher than the in-
air value. At the lowest frequency of 0.011 mHz (86,400 s holds),
the FCGR is about 50 times higher than the in-air value. It is
possible that the increase in FCGR at the lowest two frequencies
of 0.1 mHz and 0.011 mHz may be associated with crack
extension during the hold periods. This may also be a likely
reason for the fact that there was no evidence of a plateau in
the FCGR at low frequencies.
In order to better understand the contribution of static crack
growth on the FCGR behavior, the static crack growth rate (SCGR)
behavior of two heats of Alloy 718, i.e., A and C, was determined.

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 SCIENCE SECTION

DNV GL 2276
1 mHz + 1 d hold
Kmax = 66 - 69 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 - 28 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) Sample ID A
DNV GL 2588 (pH = 8.2) 3.5 wt% NaCl Sample ID B (pH = 8.2)
Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 26.4 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) Sample ID C (pH = 8.2)
–1,050 mVSCE
10–2 DNV GL 2053 (pH = 8.2) 10–2 1 mHz + 9,000 s hold
Kmax = 66 MPa—m, 'K = 33 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm) 4.4°C/40°F Sample ID A
da/dN (mm/cycle)

3.5 wt% NaCl Sample ID B (pH = 8.2)

Sample ID C (pH = 8.2)

da/dN (mm/cycle)
4.4°C 1 mHz + No hold
–1,050 mVSCE 10–3 Sample ID A
10–3 t = 86,400 s Sample ID B (pH = 8.2)
H Sample ID C (pH = 8.2)
10 mHz
Sample ID A
Sample ID B (pH = 8.2)
10–4 Sample ID C (pH = 8.2)
tH = 9,000 s
In-air
10–4 Mean

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4u Mean
15u Mean
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 10–5 50u Mean
f (Hz)
10 100
(a) Kmax = 66 MPa—m
'K (MPa—m)
DNV GL 2588 (pH = 8.2) FIGURE 7. FCGR as a function of ΔK values at different frequencies for
Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 31.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
DNV GL 2053 (pH = 8.2) the three different heats evaluated in this study.
Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
10–2
3.5 wt% NaCl
4.4°C measurements at these two values of K is shown in Figure 8.
da/dN (mm/cycle)

p
–1,050 mVSCE The SCGR at 69 MPa m is about 4.2 × 10−9 mm/s. The appli-
p
cation of a slightly positive dK/da of 4 MPa m/mm results in a
10–3 slight increase in crack growth rate to 1.6 × 10−8 mm/s.
p
The SCGR on heat A at 99 MPa m is 1.7 × 10−7 mm/s
(Figure 8). An abrupt change was made to the K value from
p p
tH = 9,000 s 99 MPa m to 94.6 MPa m, which resulted in a sharp de-
crease in SCGR from 1.7 × 10−7 mm/s to 7.9 × 10−9 mm/s.
10–4 p
The SCGR at 80 MPa m and −1,050 mVSCE (pH = 8.2) on the
same heat of material (heat A) generated using a similar
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 methodology was 7.67 × 10−8 mm/s.31 This suggests that the
p
f (Hz) response in SCGR at 94.6 MPa m was associated with the
(b) Kmax = 79.2 MPa—m abrupt change in load and not reflective of the crack growth
rate under K control conditions. This highlights the role that
DNV GL 2276 abrupt changes in K or K-rate may not accurately reflect the
Kmax = 99 MPa—m, 'K = 39.6 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
environmentally assisted crack growth rate response.
DNV GL 2053 (pH = 8.2)
p
10–2
Kmax = 92.4 MPa—m, 'K = 46.2 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
Kmax = 96.8 MPa—m, 'K = 38.7 MPa—m (B = 12.52 mm)
The SCGR of heat C at 101 MPa m and −1,050 mVSCE
−7
was 1.5 × 10 mm/s as seen in Figure 9. The results are con-
3.5 wt% NaCl
da/dN (mm/cycle)

sistent with the data on heat A at similar values of K. The effect

4.4°C
–1,050 mVSCE of applied potential on the SCGR behavior of heat C was explored
as seen in Figure 9. Changing the applied potential from
tH = 86,400 s
10–3 −1,050 mVSCE to −1,000 mVSCE decreases the SCGR from
tH = 9,000 s 1.5 × 10−7 mm/s to 8 × 10−8 mm/s. The response of the SCGR
p
to applied potential at a K value of 101 MPa m is similar to the
behavior exhibited by heat A published earlier.31 A comparison
10–4 of the SCGR response to applied potential at a K value of
p
approximately 100 MPa m for the two heats (A and C) is
shown in Figure 10. The SCGR for heat A at −1,050 mVSCE and
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 a pH of 7 in this work, and at a pH of 8.2 from earlier work is
f (Hz) similar.31 This suggests that in the pH range of 7 to 8.2, the
(c) Kmax = 92 - 99 MPa—m external pH does not alter the crack growth rate.
FIGURE 6. FCGR as a function of frequency for different values of Kmax The relationship between K vs. SCGR for the two heats
and ΔK values for the three different heats evaluated in this study. The of Alloy 718 at −1,050 mVSCE generated under constant K
CT specimen dimensions are indicated in parenthesis in the legend of conditions is shown in Figure 11. The results generated under
p p
each data set: (a) Kmax = 66 MPa m, (b) Kmax = 79.2 MPa m, and (c) constant K suggest that SCGR can be sustained at rates as low
p p
Kmax = 92 MPa m to 99 MPa m. as 10−9 mm/s. The results suggest that the Kth is about
p
69 MPa m. This suggests that there may be a significant
contribution of static crack growth to the fatigue crack growth
3.2 | Static Crack Growth Rate Measurements rate when the Kmax value exceeds the Kth. The presence of static
The SCGR of heat A was determined at two values of K, crack growth during the load cycle would result in a contri-
p p
i.e., 69 MPa m and 99 MPa m. The results of the SCGR bution to crack extension that cycle independent and may explain

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SCIENCE SECTION

15.63
718
2/19/2017 @ 0 h
15.62 3.5 wt% NaCl
40°F
–1,050 mVSCE
15.61

a (mm) 15.6
Raw
15.59 Constant K = 69.4 MPa—m
1.6366u10–8 mm/s dK/da = 4 MPa—m/mm
15.58 4.1879u10–9 mm/s

15.57

15.56
600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500

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Time (h)
(a)

0.495 'a = 2.442u10–3 in

1.7245u10–7 mm/s
Constant K = 99 MPa—m

0.4945

0.494 'a=9.872u10–4 in
Change to 94.6 MPa—m

7.9045u10–9 mm/s
a (in)

0.4935
@ 307 h

3.5 wt% NaCl

0.493 40°F
@ 410 h

–1,050 mVSCE
0.4925

0.492

400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000

Time (h)
(b)
p
FIGURE 8. SCGR of heat A at −1,050 mVSCE in 3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C at two different values of K. (a) SCGR of heat A at 69 MPa m. The black line is
the raw data and the portions where the data were fit for the constant K and increase K portion are shown in blue and green, respectively.
p
(b) SCGR of heat A at 99 MPa m.

12.3
Heat C
3.5 wt% NaCl
12.25 pH = 8.2
'a = 8.161u10–2 mm
–1,000 mVSCE

40°F/4.4°C
Potential at

8.0779u10–8 mm/s
12.2 K = 91.4 ksi—in (100.5 MPa—m)
@ 3,697 h

Transition at
crack length @ 3,313 h

–1,000 mVSCE
12.15 Incubation period in
Constant K reset
a (mm)

transitioning after
changing from decreasing K
12.1
to constant K
'a = 8.071u10–3 mm
12.05 'a = 4.679u10–5 mm 4.1274u10–8 mm/s
–8.1602u10–10 mm/s
12 'a = 8.960u10–2 mm
–1,050 mVSCE –1,000 mVSCE
1.5785u10–7 mm/s
11.95
3,300 3,600 3,700 3,800 3,900 3,400
4,000 3,500
Time (h)
p
FIGURE 9. SCGR of heat C as a function of applied potential at 101 MPa m in 3.5 wt% NaCl, pH 8.2 at a temperature of 4.4°C.

the absence of a plateau in the FCGR with frequency over the demonstrated a strong sensitivity to the applied K-rate.6,10 In
range of ΔK and Kmax values explored. low pH environments, the crack growth rate exhibited a shallower
Crack growth rate tests on high-strength nickel-based dependence on K-rate, while at higher pH the crack growth
alloy under cathodic polarization indicate that the measured rate exhibited a steeper dependence with K-rate.6 The sensitivity
crack growth rate is sensitive to the applied K-rate (i.e., dK/dt).6 of crack growth rate to the applied strain rate was also
The crack growth rate of Alloy 718 in several environments has observed in K-500 under cathodic polarization.30 The sensitivity

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 SCIENCE SECTION

C, pH = 8.2
A, pH = 8.2/Thodla, et al.31 (Corr. Sci. 2020)
A, pH = 7

10–8
CGR (mm/s)

3.5 wt% NaCl

4 500 Pm
4.4°C/40°F
10–8 K~100 MPa—m
MAG: 50u HV: 20 kV

(a)
–1,100 –1,000 –900 –800

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Eapp (mVSCE)
FIGURE 10. SCGR as a function of applied potential for two heats of IGC
p
718 (A and C) at a K value of approximately100 MPa m in 3.5 wt%
NaCl at 4.4°C.
Slip band based
10–6 Cracking

5
IGC
100 Pm
MAG: 250u HV: 20 kV
10–7
CGR (mm/s)

(b)

10–8
Constant K
3.5 wt% NaCl
Constant K 4.4°C/40°F
Heat A
Heat C –1,050 mVSCE
10–9
50 100 Extended
K (MPa—m) voids

FIGURE 11. K vs. SCGR for two different heats of Alloy 718, performed 6 10 Pm
under constant K conditions in 3.5 wt% NaCl at −1,050 mVSCE. The MAG: 2,000u HV: 20 kV

tests on heat A were performed at pH 7, while the tests on heat C were
performed at pH 8.2.
of SCGR to the applied loading rate suggests that the con-
tribution of static crack growth during fatigue loading may be
influenced not only by the values of K in the loading cycle that
are above Kth but also by the applied strain rate in the load-
ing cycle.
3.3 | Crack Morphology
The crack morphology of heat A under low cycle fatigue
conditions as well as during the constant K portion of crack
extension is shown in Figure 12. The fracture morphology
exhibits evidence of slip band cracking along with some evidence
of intergranular cracking (Figure 12[b]). There is evidence of
p
slip bands on the grain facet during the constant K (99 MPa m at
−1,050 mVSCE) portion of crack growth (Figure 12[c]). The
p facets exhibit evidence of slip bands similar to the observations
crack morphology of heat A tested at Kmax of 66 MPa m to
p at 99 MPa m.
69 MPa m is shown in Figure 13. The crack morphology
exhibits evidence of slip band-based cracking. There is no evi-
dence of intergranular cracking either during fatigue loading or
p p
during static crack growth at a Kmax of 66 MPa m to 69 MPa m
p
unlike at 99 MPa m. The fracture morphology during low cycle
fatigue as well as during the constant K portion of the test
(c)
FIGURE 12. Scanning electron microcope (SEM) images of heat
A tested under fatigue loading as well as under static conditions in
p
3.5 wt% NaCl at 4.4°C at a Kmax of 99 MPa m. (a) Overall SEM image of
p
heat A tested at a Kmax of 99 MPa m in 3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C. Fracture
surface exhibits primarily transgranular features with some evidence
of intergranular crack morphology, (b) SEM image of heat A tested at
p
under constant K of 99 MPa m in 3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C and
−1050 mVSCE. Fracture surface exhibits slip band based cracking
with some evidence of intergranular crack morphology, and (c) SEM
p
image of heat A tested at under constant K of 99 MPa m in 3.5 wt%
NaCl, 4.4°C and −1,050 mVSCE. Fracture surface exhibits evidence of
slip bands on the grain facets. Elongated features indicated by yellow
arrows may represent voids at the intersection of dislocation slip
bands.
exhibits slip band-based cracking (Figure 13[b]). The grain
p
The elongated features observed on the grain facets in
Figure 12(c) may be associated with voids that are formed at the
intersection of slips bands. Similar features are observed in
Figure 13(c) associated with the crack growth at the lower K value
p p
of 66 MPa m to 69 MPa m. The cracking morphology is

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SCIENCE SECTION

hypothesized that hydrogen stabilizes vacancies at sites of strain

localization leading to the formation of nano voids. The for-
mation of nano voids at the intersection of DSBs act as sites of
crack initiation.19,27 It has been argued that the appearance of
intergranular cracking is a manifestation of slip localization at the
boundary which causes cracking to proceed along the
boundary.19 The microstructure of heat A was investigated earlier
and found to have γ“ precipitates on the order of about 40 nm
to 60 nm in size.7 There is also evidence of precipitate free zones
around grain boundaries associated with fine discontinuous δ
phase of approximately 500 nm.7 Rising displacement tests
p
under cathodic polarization at 1.58 × 10−4 MPa m/s resulted
2276-CR19_7 200 Pm in predominantly intergranular fracture morphology.7 However, at
MAG: 120u HV: 20 kV p
higher K-rates of 1.58 × 10−3 MPa m/s the morphology

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(a)
Slip band based
cracking
2276-CR19_5
100 Pm
MAG: 250u HV: 20 kV
(b)
Nano voids
Slip band based
DSBs
cracking
2276-CR19_9 20 Pm
MAG: 1,500u HV: 20 kV
(c)
FIGURE 13. SEM images of heat A tested under fatigue loading as well
as under static conditions in 3.5 wt% NaCl at 4.4°C at a Kmax of 66
p p
MPa m to 69 MPa m. (a) Overall SEM image of heat A tested at a Kmax
p p
of 66 MPa m to 69 MPa m in 3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C. Fracture surface
exhibits slip band-based transgranular features, (b) SEM image of heat
p to H embrittlement has been explored in both precharged and in
A tested at under constant K of 69 MPa m in 3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C and
−1,050 mVSCE. Fracture surface exhibits slip band-based cracking, and
p the strain to failure decreased with decreasing strain rate.47-48
(c) SEM image of heat A tested at under constant K of 69 MPa m in
3.5 wt% NaCl, 4.4°C and −1,050 mVSCE. Fracture surface exhibits slip
band-based cracking, along with evidence of dislocation slip bands
(DSBs) and presence of nano voids at the intersection of DSBs.
consistent with prior observations of cracking in Alloy 718 under
hydrogen charged conditions.10,19,27 Slip band cracking has
also been observed in both Alloy 903 in high purity H2 gas.25
Crack morphology in hydrogen charged Alloy 718 exhibits
evidence of slip band cracking, with the formation of nano voids
at the intersection of dislocation slip bands.19,27 It has been
exhibited evidence of ductility and a lower extent of intergranular
p
cracking.5 However, at a lower rate of 1.66 × 10−5 MPa m/s
there was increased evidence of slip band-based cracking,6
similar to the observations under constant K conditions.
Depending on the applied K-rate, strain localization can occur
either in the precipitate free zones at the grain boundaries or at
the intersection of DSBs. Hydrogen can accumulate at the sites
of strain localization and stabilize vacancies, resulting in the
formation of nano voids.19
DISCUSSION
The results of the crack growth rate measurements indi-
cate that the FCGR exhibits an increase with decreasing frequency.
There is no evidence of a plateau in FCGR at frequencies as low
as 0.011 mHz. The lack of a plateau in FCGR supports the notion
that there is a contribution of SCGR during the load cycle. This is
supported by observation of SCGR under constant K conditions.
The SCGR is influenced under an increasing K profile. In totality,
the results indicate that for Alloy 718 under cathodic polarization
conditions the crack growth rate exhibits significant environ-
mental influence at low frequencies and slow loading profiles. The
measured crack growth rate is sensitive to the applied strain rate
associated with both fatigue loading or rising K profiles. The data in
the current work under fatigue loading complements prior work
that evaluated the crack growth rate behavior under slow rising
displacement conditions as well as constant K conditions.5-7 The
results from the slow-rising displacement tests indicate that the
measured crack growth rate under cathodic polarization is a
function of the applied K-rate,5-6 with the crack growth rate de-
creasing with decreasing K-rate.6 The sensitivity of crack growth
rate to the applied K-rate suggests that the strain rate and the
electrochemical conditions at the crack tip play an important
role in the crack growth process.
The effect of strain rate on the susceptibility of Alloy 718
situ charging conditions, and it was found that in both cases
In situ charging resulted in H embrittlement across the entire
crack front suggesting that H charging during active defor-
mation and crack propagation is important in H embrittle-
ment.48 It was suggested that the transport of hydrogen to
areas of strain localization via dislocations and subsequent
hydrogen-strain interactions led to cracking.48 However, other
work performed on H precharged samples at high strain rates
(0.1/s), where H transport via dislocations is not possible, still
resulted in embrittlement of Alloy 718.47 These results sug-
gest that the strain rate at which H embrittlement and the
degree of embrittlement observed is a strong function of the
H concentration.

720 JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG


4.1 | Mechanism of Crack Growth
The above observations suggest that there may be a
significant role for crack tip strain rate-based processes that
influence crack growth. The primary factors that the crack tip
strain rate could affect are:
1. Rupture of the passive film.
2. Generation of hydrogen at the crack tip.
3. Dislocation enhanced transport of hydrogen.
Crack growth rate tests under constant K conditions
were related to the hydrogen generation reaction on the fresh
metal surface of Alloy 718 under the crack tip chemistry and
potential conditions.31 First principles modeling of water and
oxide coverage on the surface of bare Alloy 718 was related
to the crack growth rate. Increased oxide coverage led to a
decrease in the crack growth rate suggesting that the crack
growth rate was controlled by competition between water
adsorption associated with hydrogen generation and oxide
formation.31 The results in literature5-7,31 and the current work
support a frame work in which hydrogen generation at the
crack tip is the rate controlling step in the crack growth
process. The strong dependence of Kth on the applied dK/dt
for Alloy 718 under similar conditions also suggests that the
generation of hydrogen at the crack tip is likely the rate
limiting step.5 In strongly passivating systems reduction
reactions on fresh metal surfaces is significantly faster than
on the passive film, and is the primary source of crack tip
hydrogen.31 While the process of crack advance does in-
volve the interaction of hydrogen with DSBs and the formation
of voids at the intersection DSBs,19 the rate limiting step for
crack growth appears to be hydrogen generation at the crack
tip. Crack tip strain rate-based models that relate the charge
passed on the bare metal to the crack growth rate would be
applicable in this situation. In fact, a similar argument has
been proposed in understanding loading rate effects on the
crack growth rate behavior of titanium alloys under cathodic
polarization.49-50
Crack tip strain rate-based mechanisms have been de-
veloped to rationalize the crack growth rate behavior in various
environments.51-57 The mechanism of crack advance is as-
sociated with the build of strain rate at the crack tip that leads
to rupture of the oxide film resulting exposure of bare
metal.51,55,57 The charge associated with the generation of
hydrogen via the reduction reactions on the bare metal during
repassivation/formation of the oxide film contribute to the crack
advance.51,55,57 This frame work was applied to predict both
the fatigue and static crack growth rate behavior of stainless
steels in high temperature water51,53,57 as well as steels in near
neutral and high pH SCC environments.55,58
Parkins has performed an extensive survey of various
models of crack tip strain rate under fatigue loading conditions,
and applied them to corrosion fatigue of line pipe steels in
high pH SCC environments.54 The strain rate formulations had a
ΔK2 dependence and were proportional to the frequency.54
The strain rate associated with fatigue loading has been
modeled by Ford and Andresen,52-53 as well as Shoji as a
multiplier of the in-air fatigue crack growth rate value.59 Hall has
developed a crack tip strain rate formulation based on the
Hutchense, Rice, Rosengren strain field equation,60-61 while
Shoji has developed a formulation that is based on Gao-
Hwang strain field equation.59,62-63 In both cases the strain rate
formulation incorporates contributions due to an applied K-
rate as well as due to crack advance. The environmental crack
growth rate in the crack tip strain rate-based model is
Equation (3):
CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG
SCIENCE SECTION
ȧ = Aðε̇Þm (3)
where ȧ is the crack growth rate in environment, ε̇ is the
crack tip strain rate (cyclic or static), A is constant dependent
on the oxide rupture strain and repassivation kinetics of the
bare metal surface, and m is the slope of the repassivation
transient on the bare metal surface.
The overall crack growth rate based on a linear super-
position of the crack growth rate due to fatigue and static loading
is given in Equation (4):57,64
ȧtot = ȧcyc,air þ ȧcyc,env þ ȧstatic (4)
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The cyclic strain rate has been modeled by Ford and
Andresen,53,57 as well as Shoji59 as a value that is proportional to
the in-air crack growth rate value as shown in (5). The asso-
ciated cyclic crack growth rate based on a crack tip strain rate
model is given in (6).
ε̇cyc = Cȧcyc,air (5)
ȧcyc,env = Aðε̇cyc Þm (6)
where ε̇cyc is the cyclic crack tip strain rate and C is a constant (a
value of 50/ mm was used in the current work).
The value of C used in literature in high-temperature
water was 40/mm and appeared to fit the data well.53,57 In the
current work a similar approach was adopted to estimate the
strain rate associated with cyclic crack growth rate, and a C value
of 50/mm was used to fit the data.
The strain rate at the crack tip under constant K condi-
tions is due to crack advance and creep at the crack tip. There
are several formulations for the strain rate under constant K
conditions. Ford and Andresen used a formulation shown in
Equation (7) that was based on the best fit to the experimental
crack growth rate data of stainless steels in high-temperature
water.51,57
ε̇static = BK4 (7)
The above formulation implies that there is no value of Kth.
However, in the current work the data in Figure 11 suggests that
p p
the Kth is about 66 MPa m to 69 MPa m. Hence, the above
equation was modified consistent with the work by Lu and Song56
by replacing K with K-Kth as shown in Equation (8).
ε̇static = BðK − Kth Þ4 (8)
The strain rate formulations shown in Equations (4) and (6)
were used in Equation (2) to model the fatigue and static crack
growth rate data generated in the current effort. It was as-
sumed that crack growth during the fatigue loading only occurred
during the rising part of the load cycle. All the crack growth
rate data was converted into the time domain based on the
measured crack extension over the entire period of the cycle.
The in-air crack growth rate was estimated based on the in-air
fatigue crack growth rate of Alloy 718 shown in Figure 7. The
resulting expression for the crack growth rate is shown in
Equation (9).57 It should be noted that the effect of variations in
rise time at a constant hold time were not explored in a sys-
tematic fashion in this work. The FCGR on heat B was mea-
sured using a 1:1 rise to fall time while for heat A and C a 9:1 rise
to fall time were used.
JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 721
SCIENCE SECTION

    4.2 | Role of Applied Strain Rate

1 da 50 da m The above analysis suggests that the crack growth rate
ȧtot = þ AtR þ AtH ½BðK − Kth Þ4 m (9)
tR þ tH þ tF dNair tR dNair under static/quasi static conditions is sensitive to the loading
format. The measured values of crack growth rate can be
significantly influenced by the applied strain rates either via fatigue
da
where dNair is the in-air fatigue crack growth rate, tR is the rise time loading or due to a rising Hall60-61 and Shoji, et al.,59,62-63 have
of the wave form, tH is the hold time, and tF is the fall time. both developed expressions for crack tip strain rate that is based
The values of A and m are unknowns and depend on the on the summation of the strain rate due to an applied K-rate and
crack tip chemistry, repassivation transients, and the oxide strain rate from crack advance. The formulation used by Hall60-61 is
rupture strains. Crevice electrode experiments to mimic crack shown in Equation (10) and in addition to the applied K-rate and
tip conditions indicate that under cathodic polarization the crack K, depends on material properties like yield strength and the strain
tip pH for Alloy 718 is in the range of 12 to 13, current transient hardening co-efficient.
trends from preliminary scratch experiments were related to the  n     nþ1
measured crack growth rate.31 However, rigorous experi- 2n ασYS K2 nþ1 K̇ 2βn σYS ȧ 1 K 2 n−1

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ε̇ = þ ln
mental data on the repassivation behavior of Alloy 718 in crack nþ1 E αIn ro σ2YS K n − 1 E ro 3πro σYS
tip conditions is lacking. Hence, in this analysis, an m value of (10)
0.5 was assumed. The value of A was estimated to be about
p
2× 104− mm/ s based on the assumption that io is approxi- where n, σYS, and E are the strain hardening co-efficient, yield
mately 0.1 A/cm2, to of 0.01s,65 oxide rupture strain εf of 0.001,66 strength (MPa), and Young’s modulus (GPa), respectively (5.68
and an m value of 0.5. These values are based on the elec- MPa, 966 MPa, and 206 GPa, respectively, for Alloy 718 in this
trochemical scratch tests on steels in alkaline environments study7), α is the constant in the Ramberg-Osgord equation, In is
representative of crack tip environments under cathodic po- a term dependent on the strain hardening co-efficient and was
larization.65 Combining the above assumptions, with the Kth value determined form the fit of In vs. n to be 5.02,67-68 K̇ is the applied
p p
of 66 MPa m, the value of B in Equation (6) was estimated to K-rate (MPa m/s), K is the applied stress intensity factor
−12 p
be 2 × 10 by fitting Equation (6) to the SCGR data in Figure 11. (MPa m), β is Rice’s co-efficient (5.08), and ro is the distance
Based on the above assumptions, the crack growth rate ahead of the crack tip (μm)–500 μm.
associated with the Kmax, ΔK, and frequency in the current work The value of ro is an unknown and in the current work has
was predicted, a comparison of the predicted crack growth been assumed to be 500 μm. Shoji has used a rovalue of 150 μm
rate to the measured crack growth rate is shown in Figure 14. The to 250 μm for stainless with yield strengths in the range of 200
predicted values of crack growth rate are in good agreement MPa to rationalize the crack growth rate data in high temperature
with the measured values of crack growth rate over a wide range water.62,69 The effect of ro on the value of strain rate due to the
p
of crack growth rates. The deviation between the predicted K and K̇ terms for heat A at 80 MPa m and at two different values
and measured values are associated with long hold times at a of K̇ are shown in Figure 15. At large values of ro it is clear, that
p p
Kmax of 66 MPa m and 69 MPa m. At these values of Kmax the the contribution of strain rate from the rising displacement term
estimated values of SCGR is small, and are essentially set to be associated with K̇ is higher than the contribution from the
zero in the model. It is possible that in the presence of dynamic constant K term.
strain (associated with the rise time of the cycle), the SCGR at The effect of strain rate on the crack growth rate is shown
values near Kth are significantly higher than the values mea- in Figure 16, where the crack growth rate for heat A under two
sured under constant K conditions. This hypothesis is supported different K-rates6-7 is higher than the crack growth rate in the
by the three-fold increase in crack growth rate when a positive
p n+1
dK/da is applied at 69 MPa m as seen in Figure 8. 2n DVYS K2 n K 2En VYS a 1 K 2 n–1
H n+1 ln
n + 1 E DInroVYS2 K n – 1 E ro 3Sro VYS

A, n = 5.68, VYS = 966 MPa

10–4 dH/dt at dK/dt = 2.5u10–4 MPa—m/s
10–4
dH/dt at dK/dt = 2.8u10–5 MPa—m/s
Constant K term
da/dt (mm/s) – Predicted

dK/dt Term at 2.5u10–4 MPa—m/s

10–5 10–5 dK/dt Term at 2.8u10–5 MPa—m/s
718
dH/dt (s)

K = 80 MPa—m
10–6 10–6
da/dt = 7.56u10–8 mm/s

10–7
10–7 79.2 MPa—m/9,000 s
66 MPa—m/86,400 s
CGR 10–8
1:1
10–8 69 MPa—m/86,400 s 2:1
66 MPa—m/86,400 s 1:2
10–9
0 100 200 300 400 500
10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 ro (Pm)
da/dt (mm/s) – Measured FIGURE 15. The variation in strain rate as a function of ro associated
p
FIGURE 14. A comparison of the measured crack growth rate under with heat A at 80 MPa m, and a crack growth rate of 7.56 × 10−8 mm/s
various loading conditions, to the predicted crack growth rate based under constant K conditions. The effect of various values of K̇ on the
on the crack tip strain rate model developed in Equation (7). crack tip strain rate is also shown for comparison.

722 JULY 2021 • Vol. 77 • Issue 7 CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG


10–5
10–6
10–7 Constant K
CGR (mm/s)
3.5 wt% NaCl
4.4°C/40°F
10–8
–1,050 mVSCE
Constant K
A - Current work
10–9 C - Current work
A - K-rate: ~2.77u10–5 MPa—m/s (Ref.6)
A - K-rate: ~2.5u10–4 MPa—m/s (Ref.6)
10–10
dH/dt = B(K-Kth)4
Hall strain rate expression
Hall strain rate with dK/dt = 2.5u10–4 MPa—m/s
Hall strain rate with dK/dt = 2.5u10–3 MPa—m/s
10–11
80 120 160 200
K (MPa—m)
FIGURE 16. The effect of varying K-rate on the crack growth rate
behavior. Data generated at different loading rates sourced from
Equation (7). The data from the current work was performed under
constant K conditions, with no actively applied strain rate. The fit of
crack growth rate using Equation (6) results in a B value of 2 × 10−12.
The fit to the Hall Strain Rate expression used an A value of
p
2 × 10−4 mm/ s.
current work at constant K. The effect of K-rate on crack growth
rate was observed on K-500 under cathodic charging condi-
tions,30 as well as for low alloy steels in high pressure hydro-
gen.70-71 The effect of varying K on crack growth rate under
dK/da control has been observed in stainless steel in high
pressure water.72-74
Equation (8) attempts to capture the effect of both K and
K̇ on the crack growth rate. Equation (8) was substituted in
Equation (1) to solve for the crack growth rate as a function of
K and K̇. The values of A and m used in the analysis were the same
ones used for the fatigue crack rate analysis. The predicted
values of crack growth rate both under rising K values were
significantly different from the measured values (Figure 16).
The under prediction of the crack growth rate due to K̇ based on
crack tip strain rate formulations was been observed in earlier
work.72,74 It has been postulated that in addition to the applied K
effect there is also an effect of the increased strain field ahead
of the crack tip.72 A similar argument has been used to rationalize
the threshold values measured for steels in high pressure H2
under rising displacement conditions vs decreasing K
conditions.75
The above analysis suggests that there is a significant
work that needs to be performed in understanding the role of
applied K-rate on the static crack growth rate behavior.
However, to develop an understanding of the effect of K-rate, it is
important to understand the behavior under constant K con-
ditions as a baseline scenario. It is also important to understand
the role of the applied strain rate on the crack tip conditions, in
this analysis it is assumed that there is no effect of the applied
K-rate on the crack tip conditions. However, it is possible that,
under dynamic straining, convective effects can alter the
chemistry compared to constant K conditions.
Hence, there would be significant value in characterizing
the crack tip chemistry conditions of a growing crack in high
strength nickel-based alloys. The repassivation behavior of
fresh metal under the relevant crack tip environments also needs
to be characterized, so that the crack tip strain rate models
can be refined.
CORROSIONJOURNAL.ORG
SCIENCE SECTION
CONCLUSIONS
FCGR and SCGR behavior of three different heats of Alloy
718 under cathodic polarization was characterized. The results of
the work support the following conclusions:
➣ FCGR of three different heats of Alloy 718 increased with
decreasing frequency in the range of 10 mHz to 0.011 mHz, over
a wide range of Kmax and ΔK values. There was no evidence of
a plateau in FCGR with frequency (i.e., no change in FCGR with
decreasing frequency). The FCGR at low frequencies was
about 50 times higher than the in-air values. The absence of
a plateau in fatigue crack growth was likely associated with
static crack growth at the Kmax under the tested conditions.
p
➣ The Kth for SCGR in Alloy 718 is about 66 MPa m. The
Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/corrosion/article-pdf/77/7/712/2852094/3572.pdf by PROQUEST, Kimber Gerlich on 03 July 2021
measured values of static crack growth rate under constant K
p
conditions at 69 MPa m was 4.2 × 10−9 mm/s. At a constant K
240 p
value in the range of approximately 100 MPa m, the static crack
growth rate was 1.5 × 10−7 mm/s. The measured crack growth
rates under constant K conditions were lower than those mea-
sured on the same heats under rising displacement conditions.
The results also highlight the need for careful crack management
to transition to constant K.
➣ The measured values of FCGR were rationalized based on a
crack tip strain rate based model. In general, the predicted values
of fatigue crack growth rate based on the superposition
principle were in good agreement with the measured values.
However, at low frequencies and Kmax values near Kth for
SCGR, the predicted values underestimated the measured
values, likely due to an effect of the dynamic strain rate during
fatigue loading on the SCGR. The crack tip strain rate formulation
was not able to accurately predict the effect of the rising K on
the measured crack growth rate behavior.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support for the
work from the Navy Research Labs and TechnipFMC. Scott
Harrod and Brandon Gerst’s help in performing the experi-
ments is greatly appreciated. The feedback and discussions with
Dr. Derek Horton, Dr. Narasi Sridhar, and Dr. Feng Gui are also
greatly appreciated.
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