1

BC CALCULUS REVIEW

Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions:

If f x  is continuous on a, b and k is any number between f a  and f b ,
then there is at least one number c between a and b such that f (c )  k .
The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) is only an existence theorem. It does not explicitly
tell us a number, just that a number exists.

example: Prove that function f(x) = x2cos(2x) + 1 has a zero between 2 and 2.5.
𝑓(2) ≈ −1.614574
𝑓(2.5) ≈ 2.7728887
f is continuous on [2, 2.5], f(2)<0 and f(2.5)>0, so f must have a zero between 2 and 2.5.

Limit: The limit is the y-value a function y(x) is getting close to not necessarily the function value itself.
Right hand limit (RHL): lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿; 𝑥 > 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 +

Left hand limit (LHL): lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ; 𝑥 < 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐 −

Limit of a function: lim f ( x)  L ⇔ lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  L

x c x c x c

Continuous function at x = c: lim f ( x )  L and lim f ( x)  L and 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝐿

x c  x c

Continuous function: lim f ( x)  f (c) for x  c of domain

x c

Differentiable function at x = c: lim f ' ( x)  lim f ' ( x)

x c x c

Differentiable function: lim f ' ( x)  lim f ' ( x) for x  c of domain

x c x c

The derivative of a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) at a fixed point 𝒂

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) ′ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
The derivative of a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑑𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

If a function is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑐 , then it is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑐 .

lim f ' ( x)  lim f ' ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  f (c)

x c  x c x c x c

The converse: "If a function is continuous at c, then it is differentiable at c," - is not true.
Differentiability implies continuity, continuity doesn’t imply differentiability.
visually: left limit of the slope ≠ right limit of the slope
 2

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ≠ 𝑓(2) 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ≠ 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

▪ not defined at x=2 ▪ defined at x=3
▪ has limit at x=2 ▪ does not limit at x=3
▪ not continuous at x=2 ▪ not continuous at x=3
▪ not differentiable at x=2 ▪ not differentiable at x=3

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ≠ 𝑓(2)

▪ defined at x=2
▪ has limit at x=2
▪ not continuous at x=2 ▪ defined at x=3
▪ not differentiable at x=2 ▪ has limit at x=3
▪ continuous at x=3
▪ differentiable at x=3

Equation of the tangent line to a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
Equation of the normal line to a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
1
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = − ′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑎)
 3

Differentiation Formulas

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑓 𝑓′ 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑔′
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ± 𝑔′ (𝑥) [𝑓𝑔] = 𝑓′ 𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′ [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑔2

𝑑 𝑑
𝑐=0 [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 (ln 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑎 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = − = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥 = − 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 = − sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑥
𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 csc 𝑥 = − |𝑥| = (|𝑥| = √𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖 𝑑 𝑑𝑓
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐫𝐮𝐥𝐞 for composite functions 𝑦 = 𝑓[𝑢(𝑥)] = ∙ [ [𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))] = 𝑔′ (𝑥)]
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑔

𝑑 𝑛 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑛 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑢 (ln 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑢 ∙ ln 𝑎 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑢) = sin 𝑢 = cos 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
cos 𝑢 = − sin 𝑢 tan 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 cot 𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑢 = − 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑢 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑢 = − 2
sec 𝑢 = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 csc 𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑 𝑢
𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 csc 𝑢 = − |𝑢| = √𝑢2 = 𝑢′
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢 − 1 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 ) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑢2 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 3
√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢−3 𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
= = (cos 𝑢) (2𝑥) = = (2𝑢) (cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 1 −
4

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) 3 (2𝑥 + 1)
3
= 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 2 ) = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓′(𝑥) = − 3
3 √(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)4
 4

𝑓 ′ provides:
▪ 𝐭𝐡𝐞 (𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬) 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝒇 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝒙
▪ 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝒙.
𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐄 𝐎𝐅 𝐂𝐇𝐀𝐍𝐆𝐄: 𝐑𝐄𝐋𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐃 𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐒 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐏𝐀𝐑𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐋𝐄 𝐌𝐎𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍
𝑑𝑓
If 𝑓(𝑥)represents a quantity, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = represents the instantaneous rate of change of that function.
𝑑𝑥

𝐊𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐌𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐒 SUMMARY
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑠(𝑡)

𝑠2 − 𝑠1 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ∶ 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑎(𝑡) =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑠
(𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬) 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲: 𝑣(𝑡) = (𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬) 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑎(𝑡) = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐮𝐬)𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = |𝑣(𝑡)| 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = |𝑎(𝑡)|

𝑑𝑠
𝟏. if > 0 → 𝑣 is + and |v| is +
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝟏𝒂. if 𝑣 > 0 and > 0 → 𝑣 ↑ and |v| ↑ 𝟏𝒃. if 𝑣 > 0 and < 0 → 𝑣 ↓ and |v| ↓
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠
𝟐. if < 0 → 𝑣 is − and |v| is +
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝟐𝒂. if 𝑣 < 0 and > 0 → 𝑣 ↑ and |v| ↓ 𝟐𝒃. if 𝑣 < 0 and < 0 → 𝑣 ↓ and |v| ↑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐈𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐈𝐂𝐈𝐓 𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐈𝐕𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍: use when functions are defined implicitly: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25

x3 + y3 = 6xy. Chain rule: 𝑢 = 𝑦 3

3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 𝑦’ = 6𝑥𝑦’ + 6𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= = 3𝑦 2 = 3𝑦 2 𝑦′
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑦’ = 2𝑥𝑦’ + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 − 𝑥 2
𝑦′ = 2
𝑦 − 2𝑥
 5

𝐋𝐎𝐆𝐀𝐑𝐈𝐓𝐇𝐌𝐈𝐂 𝐃𝐈𝐅𝐅𝐄𝐑𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐈𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍:
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥sin 𝑥 or a crazy product, quotient

1. Take natural logarithms of both sides of an equation y = f(x).

2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x
3. Solve the resulting equation for y’.

𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = (sin 𝑥) ln 𝑥
1 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 +
𝑦 𝑥
′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 = (𝑙𝑛 𝑥)𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥−1

𝐃𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔 1
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 ⇒ =1 ⇒ 𝑔′ (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑥 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, find (𝑓 −1 )’(1)

𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ [𝑔(𝑥)]𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1 ⇒
𝑓′[𝑔(1)]𝑔′(1) = 1
𝑓(0) = 1 ⇒ 𝑔(1) = 𝑓 −1 (1) = 0
1 1 1
𝑔′ (1) = = ⇒ 𝑔′ (1) =
𝑓′(0) 2 − sin 0 2

Intermediate Value Theorem for Derivatives:

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any two points in an interval on which 𝑓 is differentiable,

then 𝑓′ takes on every value between 𝑓′(𝑎) and 𝑓′(𝑏).
Between 𝑎 and 𝑏, 𝑓′ must take on every value between ½ and 3.
The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) is only an existence theorem.
It does not explicitly tell us a number, just that a number exists.
 6

Methods for finding limits

𝑃(𝑥) 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 Remember 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑥→±∞ 𝑥

𝑥3 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1/𝑥 − 6/𝑥 2 ) 𝑥
l𝑖𝑚 2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 2
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = ∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 (1 − 4/𝑥 + 3/𝑥 ) 𝑥→∞ 1

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 (1 − 4/𝑥 + 3/𝑥 2 ) 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 3
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 +𝑥−6 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1/𝑥 − 6/𝑥 2 ) 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

sin 𝑥
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin 3𝑥
tan 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥 1 1 3 sin 3𝑥 1 2𝑥 3 3
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ∙ ∙ ) = (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) = (1)(1)(1) =
𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→0 1 cos 3𝑥 sin 2𝑥 2 𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 3𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 2𝑥 2 2
1 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 𝑦 1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 =( 1 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ = =1
𝑥→∞ 1 𝑦= 𝑦→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑦→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦

0
Recognizing a given limit ( ) as a derivative (‼‼‼):
0
′
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
3
√8 + ℎ − 2 𝑑 3 1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = √𝑥 | = 𝑥 −2/3 | =
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=8 3 𝑥=8 12
1 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥| = − sin 𝑥|𝑥=𝜋⁄3 = −
√3
𝜋 𝜋 ℎ→0 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥→ ⁄3 𝑥− 𝑥− 𝑥=𝜋⁄3
3 3
 7

4. L’Hopital Rule
𝟎 ±∞
a) Indeterminate forms: and : use L’Hopital rule directly
𝟎 ±∞

𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 − 𝑥 0 3𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥 − 1 0 9𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑒 3𝑥 6 3
lim = ( ) = lim = ( ) = lim = =
𝑥→0 1 − cos(2𝑥) 0 𝑥→0 2 sin(2𝑥) 0 𝑥→0 4 cos(2𝑥) 4 2
𝑥 ∞ 1 𝑥 ∞
lim = ( ) = lim = lim =( )
𝑥→∞ (ln 𝑥) 3 ∞ 𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 3(ln 𝑥) 2 ∞
3(ln 𝑥)2 ( )
𝑥
1 𝑥 ∞ 1 𝑥
= lim = lim = ( ) = lim = lim = ∞
𝑥→∞ 6 ln 𝑥 (1/𝑥) 𝑥→∞ 6 ln 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥→∞ 6(1/𝑥) 𝑥→∞ 6

1 0
b) Indeterminate form: 0 ∙ ∞ use algebra to convert the expression to a fraction (0 ∙ ∞ = 0 ∙ = )
0 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 0 √1 − 𝑥 2 = 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) (𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥) = (0 ∙ ∞) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 0 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

[𝑒 1/𝑥 − 1] 0 𝑒 1/𝑥 (−1/𝑥 2 )

lim 𝑥[𝑒 1/𝑥 − 1] = (∞ ∙ 0) = lim = ( ) = lim = lim (𝑒 1/𝑥 ) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ (1/𝑥) 0 𝑥→∞ −1/𝑥 2 𝑥→∞

0 ±∞
c) Indeterminate form: ∞ − ∞ convert the expression into or
0 ±∞

𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 1 − 1 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 1 1

lim ( − ) = lim = lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 ln 𝑥 𝑥→1 (𝑥 − 1)𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥→1 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 2 2
𝑙𝑛𝑥 +
𝑥

d) Indeterminate forms: 1∞ 00 ∞0 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 = (00 )

𝑥→0+

1. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

2. ln 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑥
3. lim {𝑔(𝑥) ln 𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐿 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = (0 ∙ −∞) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1
𝑥
1
∞ 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (−𝑥) = 0
= ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚+
∞ 𝑥→0 1 𝑥→0+
− 2
𝑥
4. lim 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝐿 𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0
 8

Absolute Extrema Relative (local) Extrema

1. x = c is an absolute maximum of f ( x) if 1. x = c is a relative/local maximum of f ( x) if
f (c) ≥ f ( x) for all x in the domain. f (c) ≥ f ( x) for all x in some open interval around c.

2. x = c is an absolute minimum of f ( x) 2. x = c is a relative/local minimum of f ( x) if

if f (c) ≤ f ( x) for all x in the domain. f (c) ≤ f ( x) for all x in some open interval around c.
Extreme Value Theorem
If f ( x) is continuous on the closed interval If the function isn’t continuous on the interval
[a,b] then there exist numbers c and d so that, then the function may or may not have
1. a ≤ c, d ≤ b , absolute/local extrema at the point of discontinuity.
2. f (c) is the abs. max. in [a,b] ,
3. f (d ) is the abs. min. in [a,b]

Critical Point: Possible inflection value:

𝑥 = 𝑐 is a critical point of 𝑓(𝑥) provided that either 𝑥 = 𝑐 is possible inflection value of 𝑓(𝑥) provided that either
1. 𝑓 ’(𝑐) = 0 1. 𝑓"(𝑥) = 0
or or
2. 𝑓 ’(𝑐) does not exist. 2. 𝑓"(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
These values are essentially critical values of 𝑓′(𝑥)

Note: A critical value can occur at a discontinuity, as long as 𝑓 is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑐

Note: A possible inflection value can occur at a discontinuity, as long as f is defined at 𝑥 = 𝑐

𝐂𝐔𝐑𝐕𝐄 𝐒𝐊𝐄𝐓𝐂𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐆

𝐈𝐍𝐂𝐑𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐈𝐍𝐆/𝐃𝐄𝐂𝐑𝐄𝐀𝐒𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
▪ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is increasing on that interval.
▪ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 𝑜n an interval, then 𝑓 is decreasing on that interval.

𝐂𝐎𝐍𝐂𝐀𝐕𝐈𝐓𝐘 𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐓
▪ If 𝑓"(𝑥) > 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is concave up on that interval.
▪ If 𝑓"(𝑥) < 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is concave down on that interval.

𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦: 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦:

▪ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 ▪ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 ▪ 𝑓′′(𝑥) < 0
▪ 𝑓 ′′′ ≠ 0 ▪ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes from − to + ▪ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)changes from + to −
▪ 𝑓 ′′ changes from either ▪ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑐) around c ▪ 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑐) around c
+ to − OR − to +
 9

CLOSED INTERVAL TEST for ABSOLUTE EXTREMA

For a continuous function f (x) on a closed interval [a,b]:
1) Find all critical points of f (x) [f‘(x) = 0 & f‘(x) = DNE]
2) Find all extrema [f‘(x) = 0]
check for min/max
a) check f (x) on both sides of extrema point x = c [𝑎 < 𝑐 & 𝑏 > 𝑐]
if 𝑓(𝑎) & 𝑓(𝑏) < 𝑓(𝑐)  𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
if 𝑓(𝑎) & 𝑓(𝑏) > 𝑓(𝑐)  𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
or
b) check f’ (x) on both sides of extrema point x = c
if 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 & 𝑓 ′ (𝑏)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒  𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
if 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 & 𝑓 ′ (𝑏)𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒  𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
or
c) check f’’ (x) @ extrema point x = c
if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒  𝑓 ′ (𝑐)𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 [𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 " + " 𝑡𝑜 " − "  𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
if 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐)𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒  𝑓 ′ (𝑐)𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 [𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 " − " 𝑡𝑜 " + "  𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 @ 𝑥 = 𝑐
3) for absolute global extrema check end points !!!
Note: You may find critical values of f that are not in the open interval (a,b).
While these will certainly be critical values of f, they are not included in the test
if they are not in the open interval (a,b).

Rolle's Theorem:
If 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠
① 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏]
② 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛 (𝑎, 𝑏)
③ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 ∃ 𝒄 𝝐 (𝒂, 𝒃) 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒇′ (𝒄) = 𝟎
(that means that there exists at least one)

Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives:

If 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 ① continuous on a, b
② differentiable on a, b ,
f (b)  f (a)
then there exists a number c in a, b such that f ' (c)  .
ba
Geometric Interpretation: Under the given conditions, there is a
point in the open interval where the tangent to the curve is the same as
the slope of the line joining the endpoints.
Application: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open
interval where the instantaneous rate of change is the same as the
average rate of change on the interval (very important). If the function
is a position function, then there is a point in the open interval where the
instantaneous velocity is the same as the average velocity on the interval.

f (b)  f (a) is the average rate of change of the function f(x) on the interval [a, b]
ba
 10

𝐎𝐏𝐓𝐈𝐌𝐈𝐙𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍 𝐏𝐑𝐎𝐁𝐋𝐄𝐌𝐒
▪ involve setting up an equation to be optimized and constraint.
▪ solve constraint for one of two variables and plug it into first equation.
▪ find stationary points for optimal solution (min/max)
▪ the optimal solution may occur at and end point of the domain as well at a stationary point.

We want to construct a box with a square base and we A cylindrical aluminum soda can is to hold 300 cm3 of
only have 10 square meters of material to use in tasty beverage. What are the dimensions of the can
construction of the box. Assuming that all the material that will minimize the amount of aluminum used?
is used in the construction process determine the
maximum volume that the box can have. Constraint eq. Optimization eq.
(𝜋𝑟 2 )ℎ = 300 𝐴 = (2𝜋𝑟)ℎ + 2(𝜋𝑟 2 )
Constraint eq. Optimization eq.
300
2
2𝑎 + 4𝑎𝑏 = 10 𝑉 = 𝑎2 𝑏 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 + 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑟 2
5𝑎 600
𝑉 = 𝑎2 𝑏 = − 𝑎3 /2 𝐴= + 2𝜋𝑟 2
2 𝑟
𝑑𝑉 5 3𝑎2 𝑑𝐴 600
= − =0 = − 2 + 4𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑎 2 2 𝑑𝑎 𝑟

5 5 𝑑𝐴
𝑎=√ 𝑏=√ =0
3 3 𝑑𝑎
𝑟 = 3.628 𝑐𝑚 ℎ = 7.287 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 248.812 𝑐𝑚3
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈ 249 𝑐𝑚3

𝐑𝐄𝐋𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐃 𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐒
Objectives: Identify a mathematical relationship between quantities that are each changing.
▪ Draw a picture (sketch).
▪ Write down known information.
▪ Write down what you are looking for.
▪ Write an equation to relate the variables.
▪ Differentiate both sides with respect to t using chain rule.
▪ Evaluate

Suppose that the radius of a sphere is increasing Air is being blown into a sphere at the rate of 6 cm3/s.
0.1 cm/sec. How fast is the radius changing when the radius of the
At what rate is the sphere growing when sphere is 2 cm?
r = 10 cm? 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚3 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
=6 ( = )
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡
= 0.1𝑐𝑚/ sec ( = ) 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
3 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 2𝑐𝑚: 6 = 4𝜋(2)2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 3
| = 40𝜋 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 | = 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑟=10 𝑑𝑡 𝑟=2 8𝜋
 11

Balloon is rising straight up. Car A is traveling west at 50 mi/h and car B is traveling
Angle θ is changing 0.14 rad/min. north at 60 mi/h. Both are headed for the intersection
How fast is balloon rising of the two roads.
when θ = π/4? At what rate are the cars approaching each other when
𝑑𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑑ℎ car A is 0.3 mi and car B is 0.4 mi from the intersection?
= 0.14 =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑖
= −50 both
ℎ = 500 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝑡 ℎ
𝑑𝑦 𝑚𝑖 decreasing
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝜃 = −60
= 500 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝑡 ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝜋 2 𝑑𝑧
| = 500 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) (0.14) =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜃=𝜋/4 4 𝑑𝑡
𝑧2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
𝑑ℎ
| = 140 m/min 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝜃=𝜋⁄4 2𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
When x = 0.3 mi & y = 0.4 mi, z = 0.5 mi.
𝑑𝑧
= −78 𝑚𝑖/ℎ
𝑑𝑡

Linear approximation / Tangent line approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) at point 𝑥 around 𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)

STEPS
1. Find the equation of the tangent line 𝑦(𝑥) at (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))
𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎))
2. For some 𝑥 = 𝑐 around a : 𝑓(𝑐) ≈ 𝑦(𝑐)
𝑓(𝑐) ≈ 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)

3. To determine if 𝑦(𝑐) is an over-approximation or an under approximation find concavity of 𝑓 (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎

a. If 𝑓′′(𝑎)<0, 𝑓 (𝑥) is concave down around 𝑎, tangent line is above 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦(𝑐) is an over-approximation
b. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) >0, 𝑓 (𝑥) is concave up around 𝑎 , tangent line is bellow 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦(𝑐) is an under-approximation

example:
Suppose that we don't have a formula for g(x) but we know that g(3) = −3 and g'(x) = x2 + 7 for all x
(a) Use a linear approximation to estimate g(2.9) and g(3.1).
(b)Are your estimates in part (a) too large or too small? Explain
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎) + 𝑔′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎))
𝑔(2.9) = −3 + 16(−0.1)) = −4.6
𝑔(3.1) = −3 + 16(0.1)) = −2.4
𝑔′(3) > 0 𝑔 increases so the linear approx will be less than the actual value since
the linear approximation will underestimate the increasing slope.
 12

example:
Find the linearization of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 3 at 𝑎 = 1, and use it to approximate the numbers √3.98 and
√4.05
Are these approximations overestimates or underestimates?

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2√ 𝑥 + 3

𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(1) + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑥=1 (𝑥 − 1)

1 7 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 2 + (𝑥 − 1) = +
4 4 4

7 𝑥
linear aproximation: √𝑥 + 3 ≈ + (when 𝑥 is near 1)
4 4

7 0.98
√3.98 ≈ + = 1.995
4 4
7 1.05
√4.05 ≈ + = 2.0125
4 4

𝑓 ′′ (1) < 0 → 𝑓(𝑥) is concave down around 𝑥 = 1

Tangent line is above the curve, so estimated values are overestimation

Differentials:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a differentiable function. The differential 𝑑𝑦 is:

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
 13

INTEGRATION
𝟏. 𝐀𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐹(𝑥) , 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹’(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) .
𝟐. 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 where 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ( 𝑥) .
𝟑. 𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥

𝑛 𝑏−𝑎
∆𝑥 =
▪ 𝐑𝐢𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐧 𝐬𝐮𝐦 of 𝑓(𝑥) on [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑖𝑠 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥 [ 𝑛 ]
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)∆𝑥

𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑠
𝑛→∞
𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) → 𝑓(𝑥)
∆𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥

▪ 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 (𝐅𝐓𝐨𝐂𝟏):

𝑏

𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐄𝐓 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞

𝑎
𝑛
𝑏
▪ lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )∆𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
∆𝑥→0
𝑎
𝑖=1

If 𝑓′ (𝑥) = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥) and 𝑓(2) = −2 find (𝑎) and integral equation for 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑏) 𝑓(3) (𝑐) 𝑓(−2)
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1
𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2) + ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(2) + 2 ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(2) + 2𝑥|2𝑥 − sin 4𝑥|
2 2 2 2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 − sin 4𝑥 + sin(8)
2
3 3 3
1
𝑏) 𝑓(3) = 𝑓(2) + ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(2) + 2 ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 2 + 2𝑥|32 − sin 4𝑥|
2 2 2 2
1 1
𝑓(3) = sin 8 − sin 12
2 2
−2 −2 −2
1
𝑐) 𝑓(−2) = −2 + ∫ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −2 + 2 ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 2 + 2𝑥|−2
2 − sin 4𝑥|
2 2 2 2
𝑓(−2) = sin(8) − 10

𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐚𝐬 𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 − 𝐀𝐑𝐄𝐀 𝐈𝐒 𝐀𝐋𝐖𝐀𝐘𝐒 𝐏𝐎𝐒𝐈𝐓𝐈𝐕𝐄 𝐈𝐍 𝐌𝐀𝐓𝐇

1. If we are integrating by hand, we must decide if and where the graph crosses the x − axis,
then split up our interval, manually making negative regions positive.
if the calculator is permitted, then evaluate
𝑏

2. Calcultaor: ∫|𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥
𝑎

In velocity – time graph,

net accumulation of integral is 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 the area (absolute value) is 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 !!!!!!
 14

𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚

1. Find the mean value of the function 2. Find total area

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 [𝟎, 𝟐𝛑] 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 [𝟎, 𝟐𝛑]

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝟐𝝅
1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)| ∫ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝟎
0 0 0 𝜋
1
= [−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 − (−𝑐𝑜𝑠 0)] = 0 = −[−2] + [2] = 4
2𝜋
𝐝𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 2 (FToC2)

f (x) is continuous on [a, b]. Then
𝑥

𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎
is also continuous on [a, b], and
𝑥
𝑑
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
FToC 2, the most general form

𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑
[ ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] ∙ 𝑔′ (𝑥) − 𝑓[ℎ(𝑥)] ∙ ℎ′(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥
ℎ(𝑥)
 15

Common derivatives and integrals

𝑑 |𝑥| 𝑥|𝑥|
|𝑥| = = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥) ∫|𝑥| 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑 1 1
ln 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cos 𝑥 = −sin 𝑥 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
tan 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cot 𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 ∫ csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −csc 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 1
arcsin 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 1
arccos 𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −arccos 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 1
arctan 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = arctan 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 1
arccot 𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −arccot 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 1
arcsec 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = arcsec 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑 1 1
arccsc 𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −arccos 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

b b


Displacement (or change in position) = v t dt
a
Total Distance Traveled =
 vt  dt .
a
 16

Standard Integration Techniques

u Substitution: The substitution 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) & 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 will convert
𝑏 𝑔(𝑏)

∫ 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 don′ t forget to change limits of integration to new variable
𝑔(𝑎)
𝑎

2 8 x u
3 5 5 8 5
∫ 5𝑥2 cos 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑢 = 𝑥2 ) = ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢| = (sin 8 − sin 1) 1 1
𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 3 1 3 2 8
1 1

function contains substitution example

𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥)
√𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑥
[1/√(−2𝑥 + 3)]𝑑𝑥 = (– ½)du/√𝑢

𝑢 = ln 𝑥
ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = (1/𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑙𝑛2 𝑥/𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢

𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 2
𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑜𝑟 √𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑎 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
√𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
√𝑥2 − 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝜃 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

2 2 2
16 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 → 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ = 16 ∫ 3 3
𝑥2 √4 − 9𝑥2 2 2
2 2
(3 sin 𝜃) √4 − 9 (3 sin 𝜃)

3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1
= 16 ∫ = 24 ∫ 2
= 12 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = −12 cot 𝜃 + 𝐶
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃√4 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

9 2 1
cos 𝜃 √1 − 4 𝑥 √4 − 9𝑥 2 √4 − 9𝑥 2
cot 𝜃 = = =2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 3 3 3𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
2 2
16 4√4 − 9𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝐶
𝑥 2 √4 − 9𝑥 2 𝑥
 17

Integration by Parts:
𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑏 𝑏 5
𝑏 1
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 | − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 3 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
{ 𝑣=𝑥 }
5
5
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 | − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3 3

= 5 ln 5 − 3 ln 3 − 2

Even function : f (  x )  f ( x) Odd function : f (  x )   f ( x)

a a a
 f ( x)dx  2  f ( x)dx  f ( x)dx  0
a 0 a
 18

Improper Integral is an integral with one or more infinite limits and/or discontinuous integrands.
Integral is called convergent if the limit exists and has a finite value or divergent if the limit doesn’t exist or has infinite value.

Infinite Limit
∞ 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

1. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 2. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏→∞ 𝑎→−∞
𝑎 𝑎 −∞ 𝑎
∞ 𝑐 𝑏

3. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝑇𝐻 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎→−∞ 𝑏→∞
−∞ 𝑎 𝑐

Discontinuous Integrand
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐

1. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡. 𝑎𝑡 𝑎: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 2. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡. 𝑎𝑡 𝑏: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑐→𝑎 𝑐→𝑏
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏

3. 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛. at a < c < b: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑂𝑇𝐻 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

Convergent + Convergent = Convergent Divergent + Convergent = Divergent

Divergent + Divergent = Divergent Divergent – Divergent . . . . . . = Indeterminate
Useful Fact: 𝑝 − 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠

∞ 1
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 > 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 ≤ 1.
𝑥𝑝

∞
1 1
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 > 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝑡𝑜
𝑥 𝑝−1
1

Comparison Test for Improper Integrals: 𝐼𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑜𝑛[𝑎, ∞) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

1. 𝐼𝑓 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. 2. 𝐼𝑓 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑔, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑔.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Mean Value Theorem for Integrals:

If f ( x ) is continuous on a, b, then there exists a number c in a, b such that

b b

 f x dx is average value of f x  on [a, b].

1
f x dx .
1
b  a a
f (c )  f 
ba
a

Restatement: Under the given conditions, there is a point in the open

interval where the value of the function is equal to the average value of the
function over the interval.
Geometric Interpretation: Under the given conditions, there is a point in
the open interval where the value of the function corresponds to the height
of a rectangle, with base (b  a ) , whose area is the same as the area under
the curve between the two endpoints.
 19

Applications of Integrals
𝑏
NET area: ∫𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥)|𝑑𝑥 = |𝐴1 | + |𝐴2 |
𝑏
NET accumulation: ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝐴1 | − |𝐴2 |

Area between Curves: The general formulas for the two main cases are:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫[𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑔(𝑦)]𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐

If the curves intersect then the area of each portion must be found individually.

Volumes of Revolution by slicing: The two main formulas are 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
Here is some general information about each method of computing and some examples.

Disk:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑
2
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫[𝑦(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋 ∫[𝑥(𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐

2 2
Washers: 𝐴 = 𝜋 {( 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 ) − ( 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) }
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
 20

𝑏 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑

𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫{[𝑦1 (𝑥)]2 − [𝑦2 (𝑥)]2 }𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝜋 ∫{[𝑥1 (𝑦)]2 − [𝑥2 (𝑦)]2 }𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐

Cylinders:

𝑏 𝑏

𝑉 = ∫ 𝐴𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑥[𝑦1 (𝑥) − 𝑦2 (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑎

Differential Equations

A differential equation is an equation involving derivatives of an unknown function and possibly the function itself as well as
the independent variable.
The order of a differential equation is the highest order of the derivatives of the unknown function
appearing in the equation

1. Direct Integration ( the simplest cases)

y   sin  x   y   cos  x   C

y   6x  ex  y   3x 2  ex  C1  y  x 3  ex  C1x  C2

2. Separable Differential Equations

A separable differential equation can be expressed as the product of a function of x and a function of y.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑥) ∙ ℎ(𝑦) ⇒ ∫ = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 ℎ(𝑦)

3. Initial-value problem
is an ordinary differential equation together with a specified value of the unknown function
at a given point in the domain of the solution

𝑑𝑦 𝜋
If = 𝑦 tan 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 3 when 𝑥 = 0. What is y when 𝑥 = ? (separable differential eq. )
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 ⇒ ln|𝑦| = − ∫ +𝐶 ⇒ ln|𝑦| = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑦 cos 𝑥 𝑢
ln |𝑦 cos 𝑥| = ln 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = 𝐶 & (0,3) ⇒ 𝐶=3 ⇒ 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = 3|
𝜋
when 𝑥 = 𝑦=6
3
 21

4. Exponential Growth and decay

rate of change is proportional to the amount present
P0 population at time t = 0
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘𝑃 ⟹ 𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 k is either a growth or decay constant
𝑑𝑡
Bacteria in a culture increased from 400 to 1600 in three hours. Assuming that the rate of increase
is directly proportional to the population
a) Find an appropriate equation to model the population.
b) Find the number of bacteria at the end of six hours.

𝑑𝑃
= 𝑘𝑃 → 𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 @𝑡 = 0 𝑃 = 𝑃0 = 400 → 𝑃 = 400 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1⁄
@𝑡 = 3 𝑃 = 1600 → 𝑒 3𝑘 = 4 → 𝑒 𝑘 = 4 3
𝑡
𝑎) 𝑃 = 400 (4 ⁄3𝑎 )
𝑏) @ 𝑡 = 6 𝑃 = 400 (42 ) = 6400
1
If we were to solve for k (𝑘 = 𝑙𝑛 4 = 0.462) rather than ek we might have the problem with rounding!!
3
If you decide to find k, please keep all digits without rounding them. Round at the end. !!!!!!!!

Continuously Compounded Interest Radioactive Decay

interest is proportional to the amount present amount of a radioactive element left after time t
is proportional to amount present:

𝑑𝑁
𝑃′ = 𝑘𝑃 ⟹ 𝑃 = 𝑃0 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 − = 𝑘𝑡 ⟹ 𝑁(𝑡) = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡
k is Interest rate In problems: The half-life is the time required for
half the material to decay. k is not a half-life
Newton’s Law of Cooling
The rate of cooling is proportional to the difference in temperature between the liquid and surrounding.

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
= −𝑘[𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ] ( = ) ⟹ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 = [𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 ]𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

5. Logistic Growth
Natural maximum exists, such that the growth cannot occur beyond it.
There is a maximum population, or carrying capacity, M.
Growth rate is proportional to the amount present (P), but also how
far the current value is from the carrying capacity (M-P).

𝑑𝑃 𝑀
= 𝑘𝑃(𝑀 − 𝑃) ⟹ 𝑃 = In problems you get, you should push any equation
𝑑𝑡 1+𝐶𝑒 −(𝑀𝑘)𝑡
toward the form P’=kP(M-P) to recognize M usually
 22

Numerical Methods for Solving Differential Equations

𝑑𝑦
𝐄𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐫’𝐬 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝: = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑦(𝑥0 ) = 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) 𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑓𝑛 ∆𝑥
x0 ⋯⋯⋯ y0
𝑥0 + ∆𝑥 𝑓(x0 , y0 ) y1 = y0 + 𝑓(x0 , y0 )∆𝑥
𝑥1 + ∆𝑥 𝑓(x1 , y1 ) y2 = y1 + 𝑓(x1 , y1 )∆𝑥
𝑥2 + ∆𝑥 𝑓(x2 , y2 ) y3 = y2 + 𝑓(x2 , y2 )∆𝑥

𝑥𝑛+1 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) 𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )∆𝑥

Euler’s method follows pieces of approximate tangent lines. These values will be a bit low
if 𝑓 is concave up (𝒚′′ = 𝒇′ > 𝟎) or a bit too large if f is concave down (𝒚′′ = 𝒇′ < 𝟎)

Slope Fields show lots of little pieces (line segments) of the tangent lines
for many possible curves with various possible initial conditions

Parametric Equations and Curves

parametric equations: 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡)
Parametric curves have a direction of motion given by increasing t.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 [ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
= = = 𝑑𝑡 = [ ] = [ ] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Polar Equations and Curves r = r ()

x = r cos  y = r sin 
𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan
𝑥
 23

ALL TOGETHER:
Derivatives:
Cartesian Parametric Polar
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
= = = 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⟹ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⟹ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 [ ] 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
= [ ] = = ( ) = ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆: 𝑦 = 𝑚 (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆: 𝑦 = − 𝑚
(𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) + 𝑦0
𝑑𝑦
Cartesian form at point (x0, y0) of the curve y = y(x) 𝑚= 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Parametric form at point t = t0 of the curve x = x(t), y = y(t) {x0 = x(t0), y0 = y(t0)} 𝑚= 𝑎𝑡 𝑡0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Polar form at point  = 0 of the curve r = r() {r0 = r(0), x0 = r0 cos 0 , y0 = r0 sin 0} 𝑚= 𝑎𝑡 𝑟0 = 𝑟(𝜃0 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝒕𝟏 𝑜𝑟 𝜽𝟏 ∶ 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝐼𝑓 < 0 → 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛. 𝐼𝑓 > 0 → 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
Horizontal tangent line: Horizontal tangent will occur where the derivative is zero: =0
𝑑𝑥

Cartesian plane: y = y(x) 𝑑𝑦

= 0 ⟹ 𝑥0 (𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ⟹ 𝑦0 = 𝑦(𝑥0 ) 𝑒𝑞: 𝑦 = 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Parametric form: x = x(t), y = y(t) =0 ⟹ = 0 ⟹ 𝑡0 (𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 | ≠ 0) ⟹ 𝑦0 = 𝑦(𝑡0 ) 𝑒𝑞: 𝑦 = 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡0

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Polar curve: r = r() =0 ⟹ = 0 ⟹ 𝜃0 (𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 | ≠ 0) ⟹ 𝑟0 = 𝑟(𝜃0 ) ⟹ 𝑦0 = 𝑟0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 𝑒𝑞: 𝑦 = 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜃0
 24

𝑑𝑦
Vertical tangent line: Vertical tangents will occur where the derivative is not defined: =∞
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Cartesian plane: y = y(x) = ∞ ⟹ 𝑥0 𝑒𝑞: 𝑥 = 𝑥0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Parametric form: x = x(t), y = y(t) =∞ ⟹ = 0 ⟹ 𝑡0 (𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 | ≠ 0) ⟹ 𝑥0 = 𝑥(𝑡0 ) 𝑒𝑞: 𝑥 = 𝑥0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡0

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Polar curve: r = r() =∞ ⟹ = 0 ⟹ 𝜃0 (𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 | ≠ 0) ⟹ 𝑟0 = 𝑟(𝜃0 ) ⟹ 𝑥0 = 𝑟0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0 𝑒𝑞: 𝑥 = 𝑥0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝜃0

Arc length

𝑏 𝑏 𝑡2
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
Cartesian plane: y = y(x) 𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑡1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑏 𝑡2 2 2 𝑡2 2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Parametric form: x = x(t), y = y(t) 𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 = ∫ √( 𝑑𝑡) + ( 𝑑𝑡) = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑡1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

Polar curve: r = r() 𝑏 𝑏 𝜃2

𝑑𝑟 2
𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 = ∫ √ 𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝑎 𝑎 𝜃1 𝑑𝜃

𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

Area:

Area enclosed by the curve and x axis

𝑏 𝑏
Cartesian plane: y = y(x) 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏 𝑡2
𝑑𝑥
Parametric form: x = x(t), y = y(t) 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦[𝑥(𝑡)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 𝑡1 𝑑𝑡

𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏

𝜃2 1 𝜃2 2
Area enclosed by a polar curve r: r = r() 𝐴=∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜃1 2 𝜃1
 25

Particle Motion
1. Suppose a particle moves along a smooth curve in the plane so that its position at any time t is 〈𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)〉 ,
where x and y are differentiable functions of t.

• 𝑠⃗ = 〈𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)〉 is the particle’s position vector at time 𝑡

• 〈𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)〉 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 〉 + 𝑣⃗𝑡 is particle′ sposition moving with 𝑣⃗ from starting position 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 〉

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
• 𝑣⃗ = 〈 , 〉 ≡ 〈𝑥′(𝑡), 𝑦′(𝑡)〉 is the velocity vector at time 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• 𝑎⃗ = 〈𝑥′′(𝑡), 𝑦′′(𝑡)〉 is the acceleration vector at time 𝑡

2 2
• |𝑣⃗| ≡ ‖𝑣⃗‖ = √(𝑥′(𝑡)) + (𝑦′(𝑡)) is the speed of a particle [magnitude/ length/ norm of the velocity vector].

2 2
• |𝑎⃗| ≡ ‖𝑎⃗‖ = √(𝑥′′(𝑡)) + (𝑦′′(𝑡)) is the magnitude/ length/ norm of acceleration.
𝑣⃗⃗
• |𝑣
⃗⃗|
is the direction vector representing the particle’s direction of motion

2. Suppose a particle moves along a path in the plane so that its velocity at any time 𝑡 is ⃗𝑣⃗ = 〈𝑥′ (𝑡), 𝑦′ (𝑡)〉
𝑡2 𝑡2
• 𝑠⃗ = 〈∫ 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡, ∫ 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 〉 is displacement covered from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2
𝑡1 𝑡1

𝑡 𝑡 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
• ∫𝑡 2|𝑣⃗(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑡 2 √(𝑣𝑥 )2 + (𝑣𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑡 2 √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡 is distance covered from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2
1 1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1

𝑡2 𝑡2
• 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 〉 + 〈∫ 𝑥′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, ∫ 𝑦′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 〉 is new position
𝑡1 𝑡1

Parametric Motion: Given two parametric functions x t  and y t  , or a vector function x t , y t  ,

that describe the motion of an object. At any point t for which:
y' t   0 and x' t   0 , the motion will be parallel to the x-axis and the curve will have a horizontal tangent.

y' t   0 and x' t   0 , the motion will be parallel to the y-axis and the curve will have a vertical tangent.

y' t   0 and x' t   0 , the motion is stopped. If neither x' t  nor y' t  change sign at the point, the curve
will have a tangent line. Otherwise there will be no tangent line.

Distance versus Displacement:

b b

Displacement (or change in position) =

 vt dt
a
Total Distance Traveled =
 vt  dt .
a
 26

SEQUENCES
DEF 1 A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } has the limit L
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 →∞
𝑛→∞

if we can make the terms 𝑎𝑛 as close to 𝐿 as we like by taking 𝑛 sufficiently large.

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 exists , we say the sequence is convergent.
𝑛→∞
Otherwise, we say the sequence is divergent.

THEOREM If lim |𝑎𝑛 | = 0 , then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑥→∞ 𝑛→∞

This thm is true only if L = 0

SERIES
DEF
If the sequence {𝑺𝒏 } is convergent and lim 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆 exists as a real number,
𝑛→∞

then the series {𝒂𝒏 } is called convergent and we write

∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆
𝑛=1

▪ S is the sum of the series.

∞

If lim 𝑆𝑛 is nonexistent, then the series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 and has no sum.

𝑛→∞
𝑛=1

∞ ∞

𝐒𝐮𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐓𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐒𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 (∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 )

𝑛=1 𝑛=0

nth – term test

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then the series is divergent.
𝑛→∞

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0, then the series may converge or diverge, so you need to use different test.
𝑛→∞

.
Geometric Series Test
∞ ∞
𝑛−1
If the series has the form ∑ 𝑎 𝑟 or ∑ 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 ,
𝑛=1 𝑛=0

then the series converges if |𝑟| < 1 and diverges otherwise

∞
𝑎 𝑎
If the series converges, then it converges to (𝑆 = ∑ 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 = )
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑛=0
 27

p – series test (proof by integral test)

∞
1
If the series has the form of ∑ , then the series converges if p > 1 and diverges otherwise.
𝑛𝑝
𝑛=1
When 𝑝 = 1, the series is the divergent Harmonic series.

Integral Test

If 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛) and 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐜ontinuous, 𝐩ositive and 𝐝ecreasing function on the interval [1, ∞)
∞ ∞

then if improper integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converges, ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges.

1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞

then if improper integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 diverges, ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges.

1 𝑛=1

∞ ∞

If convergent, upper bound is: ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑎1 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑛=1 1
∞

S = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛+1 + 𝑎𝑛+2 + 𝑎𝑛+3 + ⋯ = 𝑆𝑛 + 𝑅𝑛

𝑛=1

𝑆𝑛 is Estimation of the sum S, and 𝑅𝑛 is the Remainder

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑅𝑛 ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑆𝑛 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑛 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛

Direct Comparison Test (DCT)

∞ ∞

▪ If 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 converges, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞

▪ If 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑏𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 diverges, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑛 1 1 1 𝑛2 𝑛
Ex: compare 𝑛 to 𝑛 , 3
to 3 , 2 to 2
2 2 𝑛 +1 𝑛 (𝑛 + 3)2 (𝑛 + 3)2

Limit Comparison Test (LCT)

(may be used instead of DCT most of the time)

𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛
If 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 > 0 and lim | | 𝐨𝐫 lim | | equal any finite number,
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

then either both ∑ 𝑎𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 converge or diverge.

Use this test when you cannot compare term by term because the rule of sequence is “too UGLY” but you can
still find a known series to compare with it.
3𝑛2 + 2𝑛 − 1 1
Ex: compare 5
to 3 (you can disregard the leading coefficient and all nonleading terms,
4𝑛 − 6𝑛 + 7 𝑛
𝑛2 1
looking only at the condensed degree of the leading terms: 5 = 3
𝑛 𝑛
 28

Ratio Test
𝑎𝑛+1
If lim | | = L (real number or ∞) , then
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

(𝑖) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges absolutely (and hence converges) if L < 1

(𝑖𝑖) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges if L > 1 (or ∞)

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) the test is inclonclusive if L = 1 (use another test)

Use this test for series whose terms converge rapidly, for instance those involving exponentials and/or
factorials!!!

Root Test
𝑛
If lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = L (real number or ∞) , then
𝑛→∞
(𝑖) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges absolutely (and hence converges) if L < 1

(𝑖𝑖) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges if L > 1 (or ∞)

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) the test is inclonclusive if L = 1 (use another test)

𝑒 2𝑛
Use this test for series involving n𝑡ℎ powers. Ex) ∑ 𝑛
𝑛

Alternating series test

∞ ∞

If the series has the form ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = ∑(−1)𝑛−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑛 > 0, then the series converges if
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝑖) 0 ≤ 𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + (decreasing terms)

𝑖𝑖) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑏𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞

If either of these conditions fails, the test fails, and you need use a different test.
If convergent, a partial sum Sn is used as an approximation to the total sum S.

𝑅𝑛 is the Remainder: |𝑅𝑛 | = |𝑆 − 𝑆𝑛 | ≤ 𝑏𝑛+1 , and the sum 𝑆 lies: 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛+1

ABSOLUTE AND CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE (for LOCO series +, - ,+,+,+,-,-,-)

∞ ∞

If ∑|𝑎𝑛 | converges, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is absolutly convergent then it is (just) convergent. The converse of this statement is false.
𝑛=1

∞ ∞ ∞

If ∑|𝑎𝑛 | diverges but ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges , then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭

𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

∞
(−𝟏)𝒏−𝟏
∑ 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭. 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝐚𝐥𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭.
𝒏
𝒏=𝟏
 29

Remember, if you are asked to find the ACTUAL sum of an infinite series, it must either be a Geometric
𝑎
series ( S = ) or a Telescoping Series (requires expanding and canceling terms).
1−𝑟
The only other tests that allows us to approximate the infinite sum are the Integral test and the Alternate Series
Test. We can find the nth partial sum Sn for any series.

Convergence of Power Series

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑎, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒:
𝟏. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 (𝛴𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑐0 ; 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑅 = 0

𝟐. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑅 > 0 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅;
𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

3. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥; 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝑅 = ∞

The set of values of x for which series converges is the interval of convergence
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠:
1. 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
2. 𝑇𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑔𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
∞
(−1)𝑛 (𝑥 + 1)𝑛
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∑
2𝑛
𝑛=0
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑥 + 1)𝑛+1 2𝑛 𝑥+1
lim | | = lim | 𝑛+1
∙ 𝑛
|=| |
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2 (𝑥 + 1) 2
𝑥+1
𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑓 | | < 1 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 + 1| < 2 → 𝑅 = 2 → −3 < 𝑥 < 1
2
∞ ∞ ∞
(−1)𝑛 (−2)𝑛 (−1)2𝑛 2𝑛
𝑥 = −3: ∑ = ∑ = ∑1 series diverges
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛
𝑥 = 1: ∑ = ∑(−1)𝑛 series diverges
2𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

interval of convergence: 𝑥 ∈ (−3,1)

TAYLOR SERIES
∞ 𝑛
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 ≈ ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
𝑛! 𝑘!
𝑛=0 𝑘=0

𝑓(𝑛+1) (𝑧)
error is remainder 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
(𝑛 + 1)!
𝑧 is the value between 𝑎 and 𝑥 , that yields maximum 𝑅𝑛