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Appendices

Introduction to appendices Appendix C: Map Showing Areas of Coal and

Some Other Mineral Extractions 318
Appendices are an important and useful part of any practical
Appendix D: Foundation Selection Tables 319
design manual provided that they are related to the main
Appendix E: Guide to Use of Ground
text and that their use is clearly defined and understood.
Improvement 322
These appendices have largely been gathered from the Appendix F: Tables Relating to Contaminated
many tables, graphs and charts developed in the main text Sites/Soils 325
in its presentation of practical design examples. They have Appendix G: Factors of Safety 341
then been added to and tabulated into a quick reference Appendix H: Design Charts for Pad and
form for easy access by the knowledgeable reader. Strip Foundations 343
Appendix J: Table of Ground Beam Trial Sizes 348
The authors therefore hope that all readers will progress via
Appendix K: Design Graphs and Charts for
the main text to familiarity with the appendices and use
Raft Foundations Spanning
them in their pursuit of the practical design of economical
Local Depressions 349
foundations.
Appendix L: Table of Material Frictional
Appendix A: Properties and Presumed Bearing Resistances 357
Pressures of Some Well Known Appendix M: Cost Indices for Foundation Types 358
Engineering Soils and Rocks 314 Appendix N: Allowable Bearing Pressure
Appendix B: Map Showing Areas of Shrinkable for Foundations on
Clays In Britain 317 Non-Cohesive Soil 359
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A Properties and Presumed Bearing

Pressures of Some Well Known
Engineering Soils and Rocks

There is a tendency on the part of more experienced engin-
eers, particularly those who have become well acquainted
over the years with a variety of soil mechanics problems
on a wide variety of sites, to assume a working knowledge
of certain commonly encountered engineering soils, while
less experienced engineers, or those who have worked for
most of their lives in only one area of the country, are less
well versed in this area than their colleagues assume.
With this in mind, the following is a brief list of the pro-
perties of well known engineering soils/rocks common in
certain parts of the country. (Presumed bearing pressures
quoted for clays assume a 1 metre to 2 metre wide footing.)
Further information is given in Fig. A.1 and Table A.1.
Kimmeridge Clay
Kimmeridge Clay, like London and Oxford Clays, can
contain naturally occurring sulfates. These clays are stiff
fissured heavy clays which swell with moisture increase
and shrink with moisture decrease.
Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2

Table A.1 Presumed allowable bearing values (BS 8004, Table 1)

NOTE. These values are for preliminary design purposes only, and may need alteration upwards or downwards. No addition has
been made for the depth of embedment of the foundation (see 2.1.2.3.2 and 2.1.2.3.3).

Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed allowable bearing value Remarks

kN/m2 kgf/cm2*
tonf/ft2

Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in These values are based on
sound condition 10 000 100 the assumption that the
Strong limestones and strong foundations are taken down to
sandstones 4 000 40 unweathered rock. For weak,
Schists and slates 3 000 30 weathered and broken rock,
Strong shales, strong mudstones and see 2.2.2.3.1.12
strong siltstones 2 000 20

Non-cohesive Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel >600 >6 Width of foundation not less
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium than 1 m. Groundwater level
dense sand and gravel <200 to 600 <2 to 6 assumed to be a depth not
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel <200 <2 less than below the base of
Compact sand >300 >3 the foundation. For effect
Medium dense sand 100 to 300 1 to 30 of relative density and
Loose sand <100 <1 groundwater level, see
Value depending on degree of 2.2.2.3.2
looseness

Cohesive soils Very stiff boulder clays and hard clays 300 to 600 3 to 6 Group 3 is susceptible to long-
Stiff clays 150 to 300 1.5 to 3 term consolidation settlement
Firm clays 75 to 150 0.75 to 1.5 (see 2.1.2.3.3).
Soft clays and silts <75 <0.75 For consistencies of clays, see
table 5
Very soft clays and silts Not applicable

Peat and organic soils Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.4

Made ground or fill Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.5

* 107.25 kN/m2 = 1.094 kgf/cm2 = 1 tonf/ft2.

All references within this table refer to the original document.
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Appendices 315

Key

Keuper Marl

London Clay

Kimmeridge Clay

Oxford Clay

Wealden Clay

Fig. A.1 Distribution of specific engineering soils.

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316 Appendices
London Clay
London Clay is an overconsolidated clay with either a red,
brown or greenish-blue colour due to the presence of iron
oxide. The estimated consolidation load in the central London
area was about 3500 kN/m2 in previous geological ages.
The depths of the clay beds vary, but, including the under-
lying sands, gravels and boulder clay, are typically 50 metres
thick over the underlying chalk.
London Clay can have a high plasticity index and is often
highly shrinkable.
Presumed bearing pressure
= 200 to 400 kN/m2
(stiff blue clay)
Presumed bearing pressure
= 100 to 200 kN/m2
(firm brown clay)
Oxford Clay
As its name suggests, Oxford Clay is found in thick beds
between Oxford and Cirencester, and is extensively worked
for brick production.
Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2
Wealden Clay
As its name suggests, Wealden Clay is found in The Weald,
between the North and South Downs, in a crescent running
west from Eastbourne to Horsham and Haslemere, and
then east as far as Hythe on the south coast.
Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2
As discussed in Chapter 2, many structures are founded on
engineering soils classed as drift on the geological maps,
varying in depth from 2 to 200 metres and sometimes
more. But larger structures are often founded on rock, and
certain rock types, termed solid on the geological maps, are
mentioned below.
Keuper Marl (a red-brown Mercia mudstone)
Keuper Marl is an argillaceous rock, often interbedded
with sandstone, which can be highly fissured – this encour-
ages water percolation which leads to softening. It outcrops
on either side of the Pennines and extends as a single band
down through the Midlands to the Bristol area. It reaches its
greatest thicknesses (1200 m to 1500 m) in the Cheshire/
Shropshire basin.
Although a stable mudstone at depth, when disturbed in
shallow foundations, Keuper Marl behaves as a clay suscept-
ible to swelling and softening by the action of groundwater.
BS 8004(1) provides recommended ranges of bearing pres-
sure of between 125 and 1000 kN/m2 (see Table A.1),
depending upon the degree of weathering, as classified in
CIRIA report CS70.(2)
Greywacke
Greywacke consists of badly sorted muddy sedimentary
rocks with much coarse material compressed in deep
troughs, sometimes thousands of metres in depth.
Presumed bearing pressure = 550 to 1200 kN/m2
Bunter sandstone
Bunter sandstone is a softish rock consisting of cemented
particles of sand with 10% to 20% passing the 75 micron sieve.
Presumed bearing pressure = 450 to 900 kN/m2
Chalk
Chalk is a sound, soft white limestone, but is susceptible to
softening when subject to percolating water. As covered in
the text, in extreme cases this can result in the formation of
swallow-holes.
Presumed bearing pressure = 125 to 1200 kN/m2
References
1. British Standards Institution (1986) BS 8004, Code of Practice for
Foundations. BSI, London.
2. Chandler, R.J. & Forster, A. (2001) Engineering in Mercia Mudstone.
Report C570, CIRIA, London.