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MODULE 3
SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

CONTENTS
1. Generation of sinusoidal voltage,
2. Frequency of generated voltage,
3. Definition and numerical values of average value, root mean square value, form factor
and peak factor of sinusoidally varying quantities,
4. Phasor representation of alternating quantities,
5. Analysis with phasor diagrams of R, L, C, R – L, R – C and R – L – C circuits,
6. Analysis of series, parallel and series – parallel circuits,
7. Real power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor in single phase circuits.
8. Illustrative examples.

COURSE OUTCOMES: At the end of the module student will be able to:
1. Define a sinusoidal periodic waveform and the associated terminology
2. Define and evaluate average value, rms value, form factor and peak factor.
3. Define a phasor.
4. Define apparent power, real power, reactive power and power factor.
5. Explain the behavior of R, L and C in ac circuits.
6. Define reactance and impedance with respect to ac circuit.
7. Analyze series and parallel AC circuits and draw the phasor diagrams.

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An alternating quantity is on which acts in alternate directions and whose

magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of changes in definite intervals of time. If the
alternating quantity follows a sine curve during variations we call it a SINUSOIDAL
ALTERNATING QUANTITY.
GENERATION OF SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE
A multi-turn coil is placed inside a magnetic field as shown in figure 1. The flux lines are
from North Pole to South Pole. The coil is rotated at an angular speed,
ω = 2 π n (rad/s).
n = ω/2π speed of the coil (rev/sec, or rps)
N = n 60 speed of the coil (rev/min, or rpm)
l = length of the coil (m), b = width (diameter) of the coil (m)
T = No. of turns in the coil
B = flux density in the air gap (Wb/m2)
V = n b π= = tangential velocity of the coil (m/sec)
Area of the coil = a = bl (m2)
Flux cut by the coil = φ = B a = B b l (Wb)
Flux linkage = ψ = B b l T(Wb)

The values of flux φ and flux linkage ψ, are maximum, with

the coil being at horizontal position, θ = 0.
These values change, as the coil moves from the horizontal position.
At a certain instant t, the coil is at an angle (rad),
θ= ωt with the horizontal. The e.m.f (e) induced on one side of the
coil (conductor) is B l v sin θ. θ can also be termed as angular
displacement.
The emf induced in the coil (single turn) = 2 B l π b n sinθ.
The total emf induced or generated in the multi-turn coil is
= 2 T B l π b n sinθ = Em sinθ = Em sinωt.
The induced e.m.f can be expressed as e(t) = Em sinωt.
The above equation tells us that the induced e.m.f varies as per
a sine curve with respect to time.
We can also generate a sinusoidal alternating voltage by keeping the coil stationery and rotate
the magnetic field in the clockwise direction at an angular velocity of ω. It is easier to collect
the induced voltage from coil which is stationery than from a rotating coil.
Following terms can be defined for a sinusoidal alternating quantity:
1. Cycle: The value of sine wave repeats after every 2π radians. One complete set of positive
and negative values of the function is called a cycle. In one cycle the value of voltage
increases from zero to a maximum value, decreases through zero to a negative maximum
value and the again increases to zero.

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(2) Maximum (or Peak ) value: It is the maximum value positive or negative of the
quantity. It is also called the amplitude of the sinusoid

(3) Instantaneous Value: It is the value of the quantity at any instant.

(4)Time period (periodic time): It is the duration of the time required for the quantity to
complete one cycle.

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(5) Frequency: The number of cycles that occur in one second. It is denoted as f.
Unit: Hertz or cycles per second. In our country the standard value of frequency is 50 Hz. In
USA the standard frequency is 60Hz.Higher values of frequencies are used in
communications systems.
Frequency f = 1/Time period
If the generator has P poles and running at n revolutions per second, in one revolution the
e.m.f produced will have P/2 cycles as it require two poles to sweep past the conductor to
give one cycle of e.m.f.
Time for one revolution = 1/n seconds
In 1/n seconds we get P/2 cycles of e.m.f induced. Time for one cycle is (1/n)(2/P).
Time period T = 2/nP
Frequency f = 1/T = nP/2 cycles per second or Hertz.
(6) Angular frequency: Angular frequency ω is equal to the number of radians covered in
one second. Unit: radians per second.
One cycle covers 2π radians and there are f cycles in one second, the angular frequency is:
ω = 2π f = 2π/T
(7) Alteration, Phase and Phase angle:
One half of the cycle when it includes either all positive or all negative values is Alteration.
The fraction of time period that has elapsed since it last passed from the chosen zero position
or origin is the Phase. The phase at time t from the chosen origin is t/T.
The phase expressed in radians or degree is the Phase angle. θ = 2πt/T = 2π f t.
DEFINITION AND NUMERICAL VALUES OF AVERAGE VALUE, ROOT MEAN
SQUARE VALUE, FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR OF SINUSOIDALLY
VARYING QUANTITIES:
1. AVERAGE VALUE
An average value, by definition, is the algebraic sum of all the values divided by the total
number of values.
A waveform is a continuous variation of the value of a quantity with time t (or angle (θ)),
repeated after each cycle. The area under the waveform is found by integration and full cycle
is normally taken as 2π radians or T seconds. The average value Vav of the instantaneous
voltage v(t), taken over full cycle is given as

or

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A Sinusoidal wave will have the equal positive and negative areas over a cycle. The algebraic
sum of the two areas is zero. Hence the average value of a sine wave over a cycle is zero. To
get an average value for a sinusoidal alternating quantity we calculate it over a half cycle(
either positive or negative half cycle)
Average value of sinusoidal current over a positive half cycle is:

or

2. EFFECTIVE VALUE OR RMS VALUE

The effective value of an ac current is defined on the basis of its heating effect.
“The effective value of an ac current is that dc current which produces the same amount of
heat as that of ac current when flowing through a resistor for the same amount of time”.

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i = Im sinωt is an ac sinusoidal current flowing through a resistor R.

I is a dc current flowing through the same resistor R
The power

The second term is a cosine function varying with time at a frequency of 2ω. The average
value of this term is zero. Hence, the average value of power is

The power in resistor R due to dc current I is I2R

Cancelling R on both sides

As per the definition of effective value of the current,

Instantaneous power p absorbed in resistor R, is

In the above equation the quantity under the square root is the average or mean of the squared
function i2. The effective value of an ac wave is the square root of the mean of the squared
function.
Ieff is the root mean square (rms) value, denoted by Irms . For a sinusoidal alternating current,
calculating the effective value over half a period we have;

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The effective or RMS value of the sinusoidally alternating current with a maximum value of
Im is

3. FORM FACTOR
The ratio of effective value to the average value is known as the form factor of the waveform
of any shape.

4. PEAK FACTOR
The peak factor or crest factor or amplitude factor of a waveform is defined as the ratio of its
peak (or maximum) value to its rms value.
For sinusoidal waveform, the peak factor K p.

CONCEPT OF PHASORS AND PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING

QUANTITIES:
When a voltage phasor of amplitude Vm drawn in the reference direction (positive real axis)
and a current phasor of amplitude Im drawn at a negative angle θ with the reference direction.
When both these phasors rotate counterclockwise, time-function voltage and current
sinusoids are produced.
Consider a rotating vector of length V. Let this vector rotate in the counter clockwise
direction about the origin in the coordinate system at a constant angular velocity ω. The
vector describes an angle θ = ωt in time t with the horizontal. Let the vector be along the
horizontal axis at time t = 0. The vertical projection of the vector is its length times the sine of
the angle θ. As the vector rotates, the vertical projection of the vector generates a sine wave
function of time. If the length of the vector is Em, the sinusoidal wave form generated can be
represented as e(t) = Em sin ωt.

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PHASE
If the rotating vector had counterclockwise displacement of θ degrees from its initial position
(in a time of t1 seconds), the instantaneous voltage is v(t) = E m sinθ, the angle θ is called the
phase of the voltage at that instant.
The phase is related to time origin.
PHASE DIFFERENCE
The phase difference is the difference in phases of two sinusoidal alternating quantities
having the same angular velocities.
When a voltage phasor of amplitude Vm drawn in the reference direction (positive real axis)
and a current phasor of amplitude Im drawn at a negative angle θ with the reference direction.
When both these phasors rotate counterclockwise, time-function voltage and current
sinusoids are produced.
CONCEPT OF PHASORS
When a voltage phasor of amplitude Vm drawn in the reference direction (positive real axis)
and a current phasor of amplitude Im drawn at a negative angle θ with the reference direction.
When both these phasors rotate counterclockwise, time-function voltage and current
sinusoids are produced

PHASOR DIAGRAM
It is a diagram containing the phasors of inter-related
sinusoidal voltages and currents, with their phase
differences indicated. Figure shows a phasor diagram
showing the amplitudes and phasor relationship of voltage
and current.
Suppose an observer is standing at point P in figure.
The phasors are rotating counterclockwise at the speed
ω radians per second or f revolutions per second.

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In every revolution, the phasor Vm passes the observer before the phasor Im does.
Thus, the phasor Im lags (or follows) the phasor Vm by θ degree. Compared to the voltage
sine wave, the current sine wave is shifted to the right, or later in time. Therefore, i(t) =
Imsin(ωt – θ) is lagging v(t) = Vm sinωt by an angle.

NOTE to remember
The phasor are compared only if
1. Both have the same frequency.
2. Both are written with positive amplitude.
3. Both are written as sine functions, or as cosine functions.
BEHAVIOUR OF RESISTOR, INDUCTOR AND CAPACITOR IN AC CIRCUITS
1. RESISTOR:
A resistance R is connected across the terminals of an ac voltage source
Suppose that the ac voltage is a sine wave, v(t) = Vm sinωt

At instant B, if the value of the voltage is v, the current in R is i = v/R.

The current is proportional to the voltage all the time. The waveform of the current is also a
sine wave. The two waveforms are in phase with each other

In a purely resistive circuit, v(t) = Vm sinωt and i(t) = Im sinωt.

Power and Power factor
Instantaneous power p(t) = v(t) i(t) = Vmsinωt Imsinωt

The average power

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For a purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase with voltage. The phase angle θ =0°.
The real power, Pr = VI cos θ = VI cos 0° = VI
= Apparent power
Power factor = cos θ = cos 0° = 1.
2. INDUCTOR
A sinusoidal ac voltage source A is connected across a coil of inductance L having negligible
resistance. The current is given as i(t) = Imsinωt.

When a varying current flows through an inductance, the induced e.m.f

The induced emf e(t) lags the current i (t) by π/2 or 90⁰.
The induced emf e(t) opposes the applied voltage v.

The applied voltage v leads the current i by π/2

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Phasor diagrams

Inductive Reactance
The peak or maximum value v, the voltage across the inductor is:
Vm= ωLIm
Vm / Im = ωL
This ratio V/I for purely inductive circuit is called inductive reactance, and is represented by
XL = ωL = 2πf L. Unit: Ohm.
Taking the current phasor as reference, the voltage phasor across an inductor is given as V = j
XLI, which is along + j axis. Hence, we associate + j with an inductive reactance.
Power and Power Factor
In a purely inductive circuit, the current lags the applied voltage by π/2.
The power waveform can be plotted by finding the product vi from instant to instant.
The instantaneous power p(t)
= Vm sinωt Im sin(ωt – π/2)
= Vm Im sinωt sin(ωt – π/2)
= Vm Im ( - sinωt cosωt)
= Vm Im (- sin2ωt)/2
Average Power

=0

At ωt = 0°,90°, 180°,270°,360°, either the voltage or the current has zero value. At these
instants, the power too is zero. Between 0° and 90°, the voltage is positive but the current is
negative; and between 180° and 270°, the voltage is negative but the current is positive.
During these intervals the power is negative.
Between the 90°-180° and 270°-360°, both are either positive or negative. During these
intervals the power is positive. The power varies sinusoidally whose average value over a
complete cycle is zero. The average power consumed by the pure inductive circuit is zero.
The real power in a purely inductive circuit is
P = Vlcosθ = Vlcos 90° = 0
and power factor = cosθ = cos90° = 0 (lagging)
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3. CAPACITOR
A sinusoidal ac voltage source having v = Vm sinωt is connected across a capacitance C.
For the applied voltage v, the resulting current i is

The resulting current i leads the applied voltage v by π/2

For the voltage phasor as reference; that is V = VL0° = V + j0. the resulting current phasor
will then be I = I∟90° = 0 + j I.

Capacitive Reactance
The maximum value Im of the current is ωCVm.

The ratio

The ratio V/I, for a pure capacitive circuit is called capacitive reactance .

For purely capacitive circuit, the reactance varies inversely as the frequency and the current
varies directly as the frequency. Taking the current phasor as reference, we have I= 1∟0°.
The voltage phasor across the capacitor is then given as V = V∟- 90° = - jV = - j XCI, which
is along - j axis. It is for this reason that we associate - j with a capacitive reactance.
Power and Power factor
In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by π/2.
The power waveform can be plotted by finding the product v(t) i(t) from instant to instant.
The instantaneous power p(t)
= Vm sinωt Im sin(ωt + π/2)
= Vm Im sinωt sin(ωt + π/2)
= Vm Im (sinωt cosωt)
= Vm Im (sin2ωt)/2
Average Power

=0
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The power waveform can be plotted by finding the product vi from instant to
instant. Between 0°- 90° and 180° - 270°, voltage and current have same sign. During these
intervals the power is positive.
Between 90°- 180° and 270° - 360°, the voltage and the current are of opposite sign. During
these intervals the power is negative The power varies sinusoidally. The average value over a
complete cycle is zero. The average power consumed by the circuit is zero. The real power
in a purely capacitive circuit is given as
P = V I cosθ = V I cos90° = 0
Power factor = cosθ = cos90° = 0 (leading)
Comparison of R – L – C
Property Resistance Inductance Capacitance
Current V/R V/ωL = V/2πfL VωC = V 2πfC
Frequency Independent Directly Inversely
dependency proportional Proportional
Power VI = V2/R = Zero Zero
I2R
Phase difference 0 90 lagging 90 leading
Reactance R jXL = jωL = - j XC = 1/jωC
j2πfL
=1/ j 2πfC

BEHAVIOUR OF R - L AND R - C, IN AC CIRCUITS

1. SERIES R – L CIRCUIT
A practical inductor possesses inductance and resistance effectively in series. The analysis of
Rand L in series is equivalent to the analysis of a circuit containing a practical inductor.

Our aim is to find its steady-state response (i.e., the current I) for the given applied ac voltage
V. The reference polarity of V is shown by means of an arrow. VR and VL be the voltage
drops across resistance R and inductance L, respectively.

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We use Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) for the analysis. KVL is a basic law and is
applicable to all circuits whether dc or ac. In an ac circuit, the voltages and currents are
phasors. The analysis is done by treating voltage and current as phasors.
For the analysis of circuits using phasors we use phasor diagrams.
How to draw phasor diagram:
Consider the R – L circuit shown.
Step 1: Mark the source voltage V, showing its polarity, either by an arrow or by using + and
- signs. Mark the source current I showing its direction by an arrow. As a convention, the
current I must leave the positive terminal of the source.
Step 2: Mark the voltage across and the current through each individual component of the
circuit following the passive sign convention (i.e., the current must enter the plus-marked
terminal of the component). VR and IR for the resistance R, and VL and IL for the inductance
L.
Step 3 Draw the phasor diagrams for individual components.
(i) For resistance R :The current is in phase with the voltage. Draw the voltage phasor VR
along the reference direction (i.e., along +x direction).
Draw the current phasor IR also along the reference direction.
(ii) For inductance L:
The current lags the voltage by 90°. Draw the voltage phasor VL along the reference
direction. Draw the current phasor IL 90° lagging,

Step 4: To get complete phasor diagram, superimpose all the individual phasor diagrams, by
recognizing the common phasor among them. The common phasor is the current I = IR = IL.
IR is already along the reference direction. We rotate the phasor IL by 90° counterclockwise.

Step 5: Find the phasor addition (same as vector addition) of VR and VL .The resultant of this
addition is given by the diagonal OB. The phasor OB must be equal to supply voltage V, as
per KVL.

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Step 6: We can take the help of complex algebra to make calculations. Imagine
that the phasor diagram is drawn in the complex plane. That is, mark the reference direction
(+x-axis) as the positive real axis and the y-axis as the imaginary axis.
I =I ∟0⁰; VR = IR and VL =j I XL = I j XL = I j ωL
V = VR + VL = I R + I j ωL = I (R + j ωL)
Complex Impedance
For an ac circuit, the ratio of the voltage phasor to the current phasor is a complex quantity,
called complex impedance Z. The real part of impedance is resistance and imaginary part is
reactance.
Complex impedance = (resistance) +j(reactance)
Z=R+jX

For the series RL circuit,

Where and

From the phasor diagram we can separate the voltage triangle OAB.

If each side of this triangle is divided by I, the result is the impedance triangle.
Note: an inductive circuit has an impedance triangle in the first quadrant of complex plane
Voltage Phasor as Reference
When we are given the source voltage and we are required to find resulting current in a
circuit, we take the voltage as reference.

The resulting current

For a given ac voltage v = Vm sin ωt volts, the equation of the resulting current is

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2. SERIES R – C CIRCUIT
For the series RC circuit, KVL gives

Z is the complex impedance.

, The current in the resistor and the voltage will be in phase with each other.
, The voltage across a capacitor lags the current by 90°,
This shows that the current lags the applied voltage by an angle θ,
Phasor diagram
Since the current is common to both the resistor and the capacitor, we take current phasor I as
reference. For the resistance, the voltage VR is drawn in phase with the current I. For the
capacitance, the voltage Vc is drawn lagging the current I by 90°.

The supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and Vc. From the phasor diagram, we can
obtain the impedance triangle.
Note: a capacitive circuit has an impedance triangle in fourth quadrant.
Voltage Phasor as Reference
With the voltage as reference, the current in the circuit leads the voltage by 90⁰ . When we
are given the source voltage and we are required to find resulting current in a circuit, we take
the voltage as reference.

The resulting current

For a given ac voltage v = Vm sin ωt volts, the equation of the resulting current is

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Complex Power
For the terminal voltage, and the current in an ac circuit, the power
absorbed is P = V I cos(θ – ϕ)

The first term is the voltage phasor and the second term is the complex conjugate of the
current phasor.
The real power

The apparent power

The reactive power
NAME SYMBOL VALUE UNITS
APPARENT POWER S VI VOLT AMPERE

AVERAGE POWER P V I Cos(θ – ϕ) WATT

REACTIVE POWER Q V I Sin(θ – ϕ) VOLT AMPERE

REACTIVE

POWER IN SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

An ac voltage source is delivering power to a load.
Assume that the current i lags the voltage v by an angle θ
V = Vm / √2 be the effective value of the voltage across
the load, and I = 1m /√2 be the effective value of the
current through the load. The power going to the load
equal to VI, called apparent power. At any instant,
the power p consumed by the load is given as the product v(t) i(t)..

If you multiply the value of v and the value of i from instant to instant we get instantaneous
power p(t). The power curve is as shown.

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At points O, A, B, C and D, either the voltage or the current has zero value.
Hence, a these points the power is zero. During the period form a to A, the voltage v has
positive values but the current i has negative values. Therefore, the power has negative values
From A to B, both the voltage v and current i have positive values. Hence the power p is
positive. From B to C, voltage is negative and current is positive; hence the power is again
negative. From C to D, both the voltage and current are negative; hence power is again
positive. The average power going into the load is the average of the waveform of
instantaneous power.

The second term in the above expression represents a sinusoidal waveform of angular
frequency 2ω. Its average value is zero. The first term VI cos θ is constant with time t and
represents the average value of power Pav delivered to the load. The average power or actual
power or real power consumed by the load in an ac circuit is P = VI cos θ.
Power factor
The power factor is defined as the factor by which the apparent power is to be multiplied so
as to get the real power. Power factor (Pf) = cosθ where, angle θ is the phase angle. If the
current i lags the voltage v, the pf is called lagging pf and is assigned a positive sign. If the
current i lead the voltage v, the pf is called leading pf and is assigned a negative sign. The
magnitude of power factor varies from 0 to 1. It can also be expressed in percentage. A power
factor of 0.8 can be expressed as power factor of 80 %. In case the phase angle is zero, the
circuit is said to have unity power factor.

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PARALLEL R – L CIRCUIT
For the circuit shown:

the current through the resistance,

the current through the inductance,

The total current according to Kirchhoff's current law is

The total current

Y is called the admittance of the parallel R – L circuit

Real part of Y is called conductance, G and imaginary part is called susceptance, B.

Admittance Y = G + j B = conductance + j susceptance =

The current I = V Y = V .

The current lags behind the voltage by angle

Phasor diagram
For a parallel circuit, the voltage V is the common
quantity. Hence, we start the phasor diagram by taking
the voltage phasor as reference. The current IR is in phase
with V. The current IL lags voltage V by 90°.
The resultant current phasor I is addition of phasors IR and lL.

PARALLEL R – C CIRCUIT
For the circuit shown:

the current through the resistance,

the current through the inductance,

The total current according to Kirchhoff's current law is

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The total current

Y is called the admittance of the parallel R – C circuit

Real part of Y is called conductance, G and imaginary part is called susceptance, B.

Admittance Y = G + j B = conductance + j susceptance =

The current leads the voltage by angle

Phasor diagram
Voltage V is reference,
The current IR is in phase with voltage V
The current IC leads voltage V by 90°. The resultant current phasor I = IR + IC
SERIES R – L – C CIRCUIT

For the series RLC circuit, writing KVL equation, applied voltage V is:

Z is the complex impedance of the circuit.

Taking the applied voltage as reference, the current I in the circuit is

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In a series RLC circuit, the phase angle between voltage

and current depends upon the relative values of the terms
ωL and 1/ωC.
1. When ωL> 1/ωC
The phase angle of the current phasor is negative. The current lags the voltage. The circuit
behaves as an inductive circuit.
2. When ωL < 1/ωC
The phase angle of the current phasor is positive. The current leads the voltage. The circuit
behaves as a capacitive circuit.
3. When ωL = 1/ωC
The phase angle of the current is in phase with voltage. The circuit behaves as a purely
resistive circuit. The circuit is said to be at resonance.

PARALLEL R – L – C CIRCUIT
For the parallel R – L – C circuit Kirchhoff’s current law gives Total current

The complex admittance of the circuit is

With the applied voltage as reference, the current

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PROBLEMS ON SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Problem 1
A coil of 100 turns is rotated at 1500 rev/min in a magnetic field having a uniform
density of 0·05 T, the axis of rotation being at right angles to the direction of the flux.
The mean area per turn is 40 cm2• Calculate (a) the frequency, (b) the period, (c) the
maximum value of the generated e.m.f. and (d) the value of the generated e.m.f. when
the coil has rotated through 30° from the position of zero e.m.f.
Solution:
(a) Since the e.m.f. generated in the coil undergoes one cycle of variation when the coil
rotates through one revolution,
frequency =no. of cycles/second
= no. of revolutions/second
= 1500/60 = 25 Hz.
(b)Period = time of 1 cycle = 1/25 = 0·04 s.
(c) The maximum value of generated e.m.f = 2πBAnT
Em = 2π x 0·05 x 0·004 x 100 x (1500/60)
= 3.14volts.
(d) For θ= 30⁰, sin 30° = 0.5,
e = 3·14 X 0·5 = 1·57 volts
Problem 2
A coil is wound with 300 turns on a square former having sides 50 mm in length.
Calculate the maximum value of the e.m.f. generated in the coil when it is rotated at
2000 rev/min in a uniform magnetic field of density 0·8 Tesla. What is the frequency of
this e.m.f?
Solution:
The maximum value of the generated e.m.f =
2π x flux density x Area of coil x no. of turns x Velocity of the coil in rev/second
= 2π x 0.8 x (50x50/ 10 6) x300 x (2000 /60)
=125.6 volts
= frequency = no. of cycles per second
= 2000 /60 = 33.33Hz

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Problem 3
A square coil of side 10 cm, having 100 turns, is rotated at 1200 rev/min about an axis
through the centre and parallel with two sides in a uniform magnetic field of density 0.4
T. Calculate: (a) the frequency; (b) the root-mean-square value of the induced e.m.f. (c)
the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. when the coil is at a position 40 degrees
after passing its maximum induced voltage.
Solution:
At a position 40 ⁰ after passing maximum value
θ = 90 + 40 =130⁰
Instantaneous value at this instant
= 50.265 x sin 130 = 38. 5 volts
Problem 4
An alternating voltage had the following instantaneous values, in volts, measured at
equal intervals of time over half cycle: 0, 30, 40, 45, 55, 80, 90, 56, 0. Determine the
average and the root-mean-square values of the voltage.
Solution:
Average value = (0 + 30 + 40 + 45 + 55 + 80 + 90 + 56 + 0)/ number of voltages
= 44
Rms Value = square root of (sum of squared voltages / no. of voltages)
= 52.9 volts
Problem 5
A moving-coil ammeter, connected in series with a resistor across a 1l0-Va.c. supply.
The circuit has a resistance of 50 Ohm to current. Calculate: (a) the readings on the
ammeter, and (b) the form and peak factors of the current wave. Assume the supply
voltage to be sinusoidal.
Solution:
Maximum value of the voltage = 110 / 0.707
= 155·5 V
maximum value of the current = 155.5 / 50 = 3·11 A.
Reading on the ammeter = RMS value = Max. Value / √2 = 2.199 A
Average value of current over the positive half-cycle = 0.637 X 3.11
=1·98 A.
Peak factor = Max. Value/ RMS value = 3.11/ 2.199 = 1.414
Form factor = RMS Value / Average Value = 2.199 / 1.98 = 1.11

23
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 6
An alternating current i is represented by: i = 10sin 942t amperes. Determine (a) the
frequency, (b) the period, (c) the time taken from t = 0 for the current to reach a value
of 6 A for a first and second time, (d) the energy dissipated when the current flows
through a 20 ohm resistor for 30 minutes
Solution:
i = 10sin 942t amperes
For the current ω = 2πf = 942 rad/sec. frequency f = 942/2π = 150 Hz
Period T = 1/f = 6.67 milli seconds
Time taken for the current to reach 6 A in first attempt: 6 = 10 sin 942t
t = {sin-1(0.6) x (π/180)}/942 = 0.683milli seconds
Time taken for the current to reach 6 A in second attempt:
6 = 10 sin (942t - (90xπ/180))
6 = 10 sin (942t - 1.57)
(942t - 1.57) = {sin-1(0.6)x(π/180)}=0.6435
t = (0.6435 + 1.57)/942 = 2.35milli seconds
the energy dissipated when the current flows through a 20 ohm resistor for 30 minutes
= (rms current)2 x resistance x time in hour
= (10/√2)2 x 20 x (30 / 60)
= 499.849 Watt hour
= 0.5 kilo Watt hour

Problem 7
An ac current is given by i(t) =10 sin ωt + 3sin 3ωt + 2 sin 5ωt. Find the r.m.s value of
the current.
Solution:
R.M.S value of the current = square root of mean of all squared currents
= √ [ (I12/2) +(I32/2)+(I52/2)]
= 7.516 Ampere

24
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 8
For the current wave shown in Figure find a) Peak current b) Average value
c) Frequency d) Periodic time e) Instantaneous value at t = 3ms.

Solution:
By observing the waveform, we have:
The instantaneous value of the current is:
Frequency f = 1/T 1/(1/100) = 100 Hz.
i(t) = Im sin(2πt/T) = Im sin(2πft) = 20 sin 100πt.
Periodic time = T = 1/100 = 0.01 sec
Instantaneous value at t= 3 milliseconds is
i(t) = 20 sin 100 π 3x10 – 3 = 20 sin 54⁰ = 16.18 A.

Problem 9
An alternating voltage of 80 + j 60 V is applied to a circuit and the current flowing is
- 4 + j 10 A. Find a) the impedance of the circuit, b) the power consumed and the power
factor angle. Given v =200 sin 377t volts and i = 8 sin(377t - 30°) amps for an a.c. circuit,
determine a)Power factor b)True power c)Apparent power d)Reactive power indicate
the unit of power calculated.
Solution:
rms value of voltage = 200/√2 = 141.42 volt
rms value of current = 8/√2 = 5.6568 Amp
Phase angle between voltage and current = - 30⁰
a) Power factor = cos 30⁰ = 0.866 (lagging)
b) True power = VI cos 30⁰ = 692.8 watt
c) Apparent power = VI = 800 V0lt Ampere
d)Reactive power = VI sin 30⁰ = 400 Volt Ampere reactive

25
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Problem 10
Find an expression for the current and calculate the power when a voltage represented
by v = 283 sin 100πt is applied to a coil having R = 50 Ω and L = 0.159 H.
Solution:
Voltage v(t) = 283 sin 100πt is applied
Coil resistance R = 50 Ω and inductance L = 0.159 H.
The frequency of the voltage ω = 100π radians/ sec
Inductive reactance XL = ωL = 314 x 0.159 = 50 Ω.
Impedance Z = R + j XL = 50 +j 50 = 70.71∟45⁰
Current I = V/ Z = (283/√2)/70.71∟45⁰ = 2.83 ∟45⁰ Amp
Expression for current i(t) = Im sin(100πt - 45⁰)
= (2.83 x √2) sin(100πt - 45⁰) = 4 sin(100πt - 45⁰) Amp
Power = VI cos (V, I) = 200 x 2.83 x cos 45 = 400.22 watt.
Problem 11
A current of average value 18.019 A is following in a circuit to which a voltage of peak
value 141.42 V is applied. Determine Impedance in the polar form and Power. Assume
voltage lags current by 30°.
Solution:
Average value of current = 18.019 A
peak value of voltage = 141.42 V
voltage lags current by 30°.
Impedance = peak value of voltage / peak value of current
= 141.42/(18.091/0.637) = 4.979∟-30⁰ ohm
Power = ½(Vm Im cos(V,I)) = 1739.14 watt.
Problem 12
An inductor coil is connected to supply of 250 V at 50Hz and takes a current of 5A. The
coil dissipates 750 W. Calculate power factor, resistance and inductance of the coil.
Solution:
supply voltage = 250 V , Frequency = 50Hz
current = 5A.
Power dissipated = 750 W.

26
___________________________________________________________________________

Power = rms voltage x rms current x power factor,

Power factor = power / (rms voltage x rms current)
= 750 / (250 x 5) = 0.6 lagging
Since inductance do not consume any average power, power dissipated = I2 R,
where R is the resistance of coil.
R = P / I2 = 750 / 25 = 30 ohm.
Impedance Z = V/I = 250 / 5 = 50 ohm
|Z| = √(R2 + XL2)
XL = √(Z2 - R2) = 40 ohm
Inductance of the coil = XL/ 2πf = 40 / 314 = 0.1274 Henry
Problem 13
A current of 10 A flows in a circuit with a 30 ᵒ angle of lag when the applied voltage is
100 V. Find a) the resistance, reactance and impedance; b) the conductance,
susceptance and admittance
Solution:
Current =10∟-30ᵒ
Applied voltage V =100 ∟0ᵒ V.
Impedance Z = V/ I = 100 ∟0ᵒ /10 ∟-30ᵒ = 10 ∟30ᵒ
Resistance R = Z cos30 = 8.66 ohm
Reactance X = Z sin30 = 5 ohm
Admittance Y = 1/Z = 0.1∟-30ᵒ mho = 0.0866 – j 0.05
Conductance G = 0.0866 mho
Susceptance B = 0.05 mho.
Problem 14
A resistor of 100 Ohm is connected in series with a 50 µF capacitor to a supply at 200 V,
50Hz. Find the impedance, the current, the power factor, the voltage across the resistor
and across the capacitor.
Solution:
Resistance = of 100 Ohm
Capacitance = 50 µF. supply voltage = 200 V, 50Hz.
Capacitive reactance Xc = 1/(2πfC) = 63.694 ohm.
Impedance Z = R – jXc = 100 – j 63.694 = 118.562∟-32.5⁰

27
___________________________________________________________________________

The current = V/Z = 200/118.562 = 1.6868 ∟32.5⁰,

Power factor = cos(32.5) = 0.8434 leading
The voltage across the resistor = IR = 1.6868 x 100=168.68 V
Voltage across the capacitor = -j IXc = -j1.6868 x 63.694
= - j 107.44 volts.
Problem 15
A non inductive resistor of 10 Ω is in series with a capacitor of 100 µF across 250 V,
50Hz, A.C. supply. Determine the current taken by the capacitor and power factor of
the circuit.
Solution:
Resistance R =10 Ω
Capacitance C = 100 µF
A.C. supply voltage = 250 V, frequency f = 50Hz.
Capacitive reactance Xc = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC = 31.847 ohm
Impedance of the circuit Z = R – j Xc = 10 – j 31.847
= 33.38∟-72.567⁰
Current taken by the capacitor = V/Z = 7.4895∟72.567⁰ A
Power factor of the circuit = cos(V,I) = cos(72.567)
= 0.299 Leading.
Problem 16
A series RLC circuit is connected across a 50 Hz supply R=100 Ω, L=159.16mH and
C=63.7 µF. If the voltage across ‘C’ is 150 -90° V. Find the supply voltage.
Solution:
A series RLC circuit is connected across a 50 Hz supply Resistance =100 Ω, inductance
L=159.16mH and Capacitance = 63.7 µF.
Impedance of the circuit Z = R + j (ωL – 1/ωC)
ω = 2 πf = 314 rad /sec
Z = 100 + j (314 x 159.16 x 10 – 3 – 1/(314 x 63.7 x 10 – 6))
= 100 + j (50 – 50) = 100 +j 0 = 100 Ohm
The inductive reactance is cancelled by the capacitive reactance . Therefore the circuit
behaves like a pure resistor
The voltage across Capacitor = 150 -90° V.

28
___________________________________________________________________________

Current in the capacitor = voltage / capacitive reactance Xc

= 150 - 90 / 50 -90°= 3 Ampere
For the series R – L – C circuit, we have V = VR + j VL – j VC
= IR +j IXL – j IXC = I[ R – j(XL – XC)] = IR = 3 x 100 = 300 V
The supply voltage V = 300 volts.
Problem 17
A circuit consists of resistance of 10Ω, an inductance of 16mH and capacitance of 150
µF connected in series. A supply of 100 V at 50Hz is given to the circuit. Find the
current, power consumed by the circuit.
Solution:
Series RLC circuit.
Supply voltage = 100 V, frequency = 50 Hz.
Resistance =10 Ω, inductance L=16mH and
Capacitance = 150 µF.
Impedance of the circuit Z = R + j (ωL – 1/ωC)
ω = 2 πf = 314 rad /sec
Z = 10 + j (314 x 16 x 10 – 3 – 1/(314 x 150 x 10 – 6))
= 10 + j (5.024 – 21.23) = 10 – j 16.206 = 19.043∟-58.32 Ohm
Supply current, I = V/Z = 100/19.043∟-58.32
= 5.25 ∟58.32 Amp.
Since the capacitive reactance is more than the inductive reactance the circuit is
behaving like a R – C circuit and the current is leading the voltage.
Power consumed = VI cos(V,I) = 100 x 5.25 cos(58.32)
= 275.71 watt
Power is also given by I2 R = (5.25)2 x 10.
Problem 18
A series RLC circuit is composed of 100 Ohms resistance,1.0 H inductance and 5µF
capacitance. A voltage v(t)=141.4 Cos377t volts is applied to the circuit. Determine the
current and voltages VR , VL and VC.
Solution:
Series RLC circuit.
Supply voltage = v(t)=141.4 Cos377t ,

29
___________________________________________________________________________

frequency ω = 377 rad / sec.

Resistance =100 Ω, inductance L = 1H and
Capacitance = 5 µF.
Impedance of the circuit Z = R + j (ωL – 1/ωC)
Z = 100 + j (377 x 1 – 1/(377x 5 x 10 – 6))
= 100 + j (377 – 530.50) = 100 – j 153.5 = 183.2∟-56.97 Ohm
Current in the circuit, I = V/Z = (141.4/√2)/ 183.2∟-56.97
= 0.5458∟56.97 Ampere
VR = voltage across resistor = I R = 0.5458 x 100 = 54.58 volts
VL = voltage across inductor = I XL = 0.5458 x 377 = 205.76 volts
VC = voltage across capacitor = I XC = 0.5458 x 530.50 = 289.54 volts
Problem 19
A coil of power factor 0.6 is in series with a 100µF capacitor. When connected to a 50
Hz supply, the p.d. across the coil is equal to the p.d. across the capacitor. Find the
resistance and inductance of the coil
Solution:
Coil of power factor = 0.6
capacitance = 100µF
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
the p.d. across the coil is equal to the p.d. across the capacitor.
If R is the resistance of the coil and L is the inductance, the p.d across the coil = IZ =
I|(R + jXL)|
The pd across the capacitor = IXC = I/ωC
If we consider the impedance triangle for coil
We have power factor of coil, cosθ = R/Z
R = Z cosθ and XL = Z sinθ
As we the p.d. across the coil is equal to the p.d. across the capacitor
IZ = IXC
= I/ωC or
Z = 1/ ωC = 1/2πfC
= 1/(314 x 100 x10 – 6) = 31.847 ohm

30
___________________________________________________________________________

R = Z cosθ = 31.847 x 0.6 = 19.1 ohm

XL = Z sinθ = 31.847 x 0.8 = 25.4776 ohm
Inductance L = XL / ω = 25.4776/314 = 0.081 H.
Problem 20
A Parallel circuit comprises a resistor of 20 Ohm in series with an inductive reactance
of 15 Ohm in one branch and a resistor of 30 Ohm in series with a capacitive reactance
of 20 Ohm in the other branch. Determine the current and power dissipated in each
branch, if the total current drawn by the parallel circuit is 10 -30° Ampere.
Solution:
Total current IT = 10∟-30⁰ A = (8.66 – j 6) A
Current in inductor circuit
IL = IT[ ZC/(ZL + ZC)]
Current in capacitor circuit
IC = IT[ ZL/(ZL + ZC)]
or IT – IL
ZL = RL + j XL = 20 + j 15
ZC = RC – j XC = 30 – j 20
IL = IT[ ZC/(ZL + ZC)]
= 10 -30° x {(30 – j 20)/[(20 + j15) + (30 – j 20)]} = 10 -30° x {(30 – j20)/(50 – j 5)}
= 10 -30°x {(36.05∟– 33.69⁰)/(50.24∟–5.71⁰)}
= 7.175∟- 57.98⁰ A = (3.8043 – j 6.083)
Current in capacitor circuit IC = IT[ ZL/(ZL + ZC)]
= (8.66 – j 6) - (3.8043 – j 6.083) = 4.8557 + j 0.083
= 4.856∟0.979 A
Problem 21
Two circuits A and B are connected in parallel across 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Circuit A
consists of 10 Ω resistance of 0.12 H inductance in series while circuit B consists of 20 Ω
resistance in series with 40 µF capacitance. Calculate i) Current in each branch ii)
Supply current and iii) Total power factor. Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution:
Supply voltage = 200V, frequency = 50Hz
Circuit A inductance = 0.12 H

31
___________________________________________________________________________

Inductive reactance = 2 π f L = 2 π 50 x 0.12 = 37.68 Ohm

Resistance RA = 10 Ohm
Impedance of the circuit ZA = RA + j XL = 10 + j 37.68 = 38.984∟75.136⁰ Ohm
Capacitance of the circuit B = 40 μ F
Capacitive reactance = 1/(ω C) = 1/(2 π f C) = 1/(314 x 40 x 10 – 6) = 79.61 Ohm
Impedance of circuit ZB = RB – j XC = 20 – j 79.61 = 82.08∟- 75.89⁰ Ohm
IA, Current in circuit A = V / ZA = 200 / (38.984∟75.136⁰ ) = 5.13 ∟- 75.136⁰ A
The current IA lags behind the voltage V by 75.136⁰
IB, Current in circuit B = V / ZB = 200 / (82.08∟- 75.89⁰ ) = 2.436 ∟75.89⁰ A
The current IB leads the voltage V by 75.89⁰
Supply current I = IA + IB = 5.13 ∟- 75.136⁰ + 2.436 ∟75.89⁰
= (1.316 – j 4.958) + (0.5928 + j 2.358) = 1.9088 – j 2.599
= 3.224 ∟- 53.70⁰ A. The total current lags behind the voltage by 53.7⁰ .
The phasor diagram is as shown.
IB

75.88⁰

- 53.136⁰ V
-75.136⁰
I

IA
Problem 22
An impedance coil in parallel with a 100 µF Capacitor is connected across a 200 V, 50
Hz supply. The coil takes a current of 4A and the power loss in the coil is 600W.
Calculate a) The resistance of the coil b) The inductance of the coil c) The power factor
of the entire circuit.
Solution:
Supply voltage = 200 V,
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
ω = 2 π f = 2 x π x 50 = 314 radians / sec
Current drawn by coil, I = 4 A

32
___________________________________________________________________________

Power loss in the coil = I2 R = 600 W

a) Resistance of the coil, R = 600 / 4 2 = 37.5 Ohm
impedance of the coil Z = V/ I = 200 / 4 = 50 Ohm

For the coil = 50

Inductive reactance = 33.07 Ohm

b) Inductance of the coil, L = XL / ω = 33.07 / 314 = 0.105 Henry.
To determine the power factor of the circuit we need to calculate the total impedance of the
parallel combination of capacitor and the coil.
Capacitance = 100 μ Farads
Capacitive reactance XC = 1/( ωC) = 1/ ( 314 x 100 x 10 – 6)
= - j 31.847 Ohm
Total impedance of the circuit = Z || XC

Ohm

c) the power factor of the circuit = cosine of impedance angle = cos (50.468) = 0.6365.
Since the sign of the angle is negative the current will have a positive angle of same
magnitude. Hence the current in the circuit leads the voltage by 50.468 degree. The power
factor is leading.
Problem 23
A capacitor of 50µF shunted across a non inductive resistance of 100Ω is connected in
series with a resistor of 50 Ω to a 200 V, 50Hz supply. Find current and power factor
Solution:
The circuit is a parallel – series circuit.
Resistor R1 = 100 Ohm in parallel with 50µF capacitor. This combination is in series
with resistor of 50 Ohm.
Supply voltage = 200 V,
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
ω = 2 π f = 2 x π x 50 = 314 radians / sec
Capacitive reactance, XC = 1/( ωC) = 1/ ( 314 x 50 x 10 – 6) = 63.69 ohm
Resistance R1 = 100 Ohm

33
___________________________________________________________________________

Impedance of the parallel combination =

Ohm

This impedance is in series with resistor R2.

Total impedance of the circuit = 28.86 – j 45.31 + 50 = 78.86 – j 45.31
= 90.95∟- 29.88 Ohm.
The current in the circuit = V / Z = 200 /(90.95∟- 29.88)
= 2.2 ∟29.88 Ampere.
The power factor of the circuit = cos(29.88) = 0.867 leading.
Problem 24
A circuit having a resistance 20 Ω and inductance of 0.07 H is connected in parallel with
a series combination of 50 Ω resistor and 60 µF capacitor. Calculate the total current,
when the parallel combination is connected across 230 V, 50 Hz, supply as shown in
Figure.

Solution:
Supply voltage = 200 V,
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
ω = 2 π f = 2 x π x 50 = 314 radians / sec
Capacitance C = 50 μ F.
Capacitive reactance, XC = 1/( ω C) = 1/ ( 314 x 60 x 10 – 6) = 53.08 ohm
Resistance RC = 50 Ohm
Impedance Z1 = RC – j XC = (50 – j 53.08) ohm = 72.92∟- 46.71⁰ ohm
Inductance L = 0.07 Henry
Inductive reactance XL = ω L 314 x 0.07 = 21.98 Ohm
Resistance RL = 20 Ohm
Impedance Z2 = RL + j XL= (20 + j 21.98) Ohm = 29.71∟47.7⁰
Current in Capacitor IC= V / Z1 = 230 / 72.92∟- 46.71⁰
= 3.154 ∟46.71⁰ = 2.162 + j 2.295 Ampere
Current in inductor IL= V / Z2 = 230 / 29.71∟47.7⁰
= 7.742 ∟- 47.7 ⁰ = 5.2172 – j 5.734 Ampere
Total current = IL + IC = (5.2172 – j 5.734) + (2.162 + j 2.295) = (7.379 – j 3.439) Ampere
34
___________________________________________________________________________

= 8.141∟– 24.98⁰ Ampere.

OR
Supply voltage = 200 V,
Supply frequency = 50 Hz
ω = 2 π f = 2 x π x 50 = 314 radians / sec
Capacitance C = 50 μ F.
Capacitive reactance, XC = 1/( ω C) = 1/ ( 314 x 60 x 10 – 6) = 53.08 ohm
Resistance RC = 50 Ohm
Impedance Z1 = RC – j XC = (50 – j 53.08) ohm = 72.92∟- 46.71⁰ ohm
Inductance L = 0.07 Henry
Inductive reactance XL = ω L 314 x 0.07 = 21.98 Ohm
Resistance RL = 20 Ohm
Impedance Z2 = RL + j XL= (20 + j 21.98) Ohm = 29.71∟47.7⁰
The impedances Z1 and Z2 are in parallel
Equivalent Impedance Z = Z1 || Z2
– ⁰
–

⁰
⁰ ohm
⁰

Total current in the circuit = V / Z = 230 / ( ⁰)

= 8.132∟- 24.94⁰ Ampere.
Problem 25
The circuit shown is operating at ω = 50 radians /sec. Construct two phasor diagrams
one for 3 Voltages and other for 3 currents

Solution:
Supply frequency, ω = 50 radians / sec
Capacitance, C = 0.01 F.
Capacitive reactance, XC = - j / ( ω C) = - j / ( 50 x 0.01) = - j 2 ohm
Resistance R = 2 Ohm

35
___________________________________________________________________________

Inductance, L = 0.02 H
Inductive reactance, XL = j ω L = j 50 x 0.02 = j 1 Ohm
Total current, I = 2 Ampere.
We use current division between parallel circuits to calculate current in resistor and capacitor.
Current in Resistor, IR = Total current x (impedance of the opposite branch/ sum of the
impedances in parallel)

Ampere.

Current in the capacitor IC = Total current x (impedance of the opposite branch/ sum of the
impedances in parallel)

Ampere.

OR

Current in the capacitor IC = Total current - Current in the resistor

Ampere.

The voltage across the inductor, VL = I x XL = 2 x j 1 = j 2 = 2∟90⁰ Volts

The voltage across the Capacitor, VC = IC x XC = 2 x = 2.828 Volts.
The voltage across the resistor, VR = IR x R = x 2 = 2.828 Volts
The phasor diagrams for the current and voltages are as shown below. The phasor diagrams
are drawn taking the total current I as reference.
IC VL

45
VC Phasor diagram for voltages
⁰
I
-45⁰ 45
⁰
IR Ref
-45⁰
Phasor diagram for currents
VR
Problem 26
In the arrangement shown, calculate the impedance AB and the phase angle between
voltage and current.

Solution:
In the given circuit, the impedance Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel and the impedance Z3
is connected in series with the parallel combination of Z1 and Z2.

36
___________________________________________________________________________

Impedance Z1 = 8 + j 10 = 12.806∟51.3⁰ Ohm

Impedance Z2 = 7 – j 9 = 11.4∟- 52.12⁰ Ohm
Total Impedance, ZAB = Z1 + Z2 = 15 + j 1 = 15.03∟3.814⁰ Ohm

Equivalent impedance of the parallel combination ZP

⁰
= 9.713∟- 4.634⁰ ohm.
⁰ ⁰

The total impedance = 9.713 Ohm and the impedance angle = phase angle between voltage
and current = 4.634, with current lagging behind the voltage.
Problem 27
In the circuit shown determine what 50 Hz voltage must be applied across AB in order
that a current of 10 A flow in the capacitor

Solution:
In the given circuit, the impedance Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel and the impedance Z3
is connected in series with the parallel combination of Z1 and Z2.
Supply voltage, V = to be calculated.
Supply frequency, ω = 2 π f = 2 x π x 50 = 314 radians / sec
Inductance L1 = 0.0191 H
Inductive reactance = j XL1 = j ω L1 = j 314 x 0.0191 = j 6 Ohm.
Impedance Z1 = 5 + j 6 = 7.81∟50.194⁰ Ohm
Capacitance, C = 398 μ F
Capacitive reactance = - j / (ω C) = - j / (314 x 398 x 10 – 6) = - j 8 ohm
Impedance Z2 = 7 – j 8 = 10.63∟- 48.814⁰ Ohm
Impedance, Z = Z1 + Z2 = 12 - j 2 = 12.16∟- 9.462⁰ Ohm

Equivalent impedance of the parallel combination Z12

⁰
= 6.827∟11.588⁰ = 6.687 + j 1.371 Ohm
⁰ ⁰

The equivalent impedance is in series with the impedance Z3.

Inductance L2 = 0.0318 H
Inductive reactance XL2 = j ω L2 = j x 314 x 0.0318 = j 9.9852 Ohm
Impedance Z3 = 8 + j 9.9852

37
___________________________________________________________________________

Impedance across the terminals A and B ZAB = Z12 + Z3

= (6.687 + j 1.371) + (8 + j 9.9852) = 14.687 + j 11.3562 = 18.565∟37.71 Ohm.
The voltage to be applied across AB = current X impedance = 10 X 18.565 = 185.65 Volts

Problem 28
In the circuit shown in the Potential difference across the various element are shown.
What is the source voltage V?
R L C

50 V 50 V 50V

Solution:
If I is the current in the circuit, taking the current as reference vector we can draw the
following phasor diagram.
The drop across the resistor is in phase with the current
The voltage drop across the inductor leads the current by 90⁰
The voltage drop across the capacitor lags behind the current by 90⁰
As the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor are equal and opposite they cancel
each other.
V = VR + j VL – j VC = 50 + j 50 – j 50 = 50 Volt

Hence it appears that complete supply voltage is dropping across R.

The supply voltage = drop across the resistor = 50 V

38
 ___________________________________________________________________________

Questions on Single phase AC circuits:

1. Define and derive an expression for root mean square value of an alternating quantity.
2. Show that current leads voltage in R-C Series circuit.
3. Derive r.m.s value of sinusoidal voltage in terms its maximum value.
4. Define RMS value of an alternating quantity.Obtain an expression for it in terms of maximum
value.
5. Sketch the sinusoidal alternating current wave form and denote as well as define the following term:
a)Instantaneous value, b)Peak to peak value, c)Peak amplitud
6. Obtain an expression for power in a series RLC circuit.
7. For R-L-C series circuit, discuss the nature of power-factor for
I. XL > XC ii) XL < XC iii) XL = XC
8. Prove that the current in a purely inductive circuit lags behind the applied voltage by 90°.
9. Define the following terms as applied to AC circuit and write expressions to each of them of
‘R’ and ‘X’ if the impedance Z=R+jX
i) Conductance ii) Susceptance iii) Power factor.
10. Obtain the form factor of a half rectified sine wave.
11. Prove that current in a purely capacitive circuit leads applied voltage by 90°.
12. Show that power in a single phase circuit is P = VI Cos θ, where V is the rms value of voltage I is
the rms value of current and θ is the angle between voltage and current.

39
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Module 3 (b)
DOMESTIC WIRING

CONTENTS:
1. Service mains, meter board and distribution board.

2. Brief discussion on concealed wiring

3. Two- way and three – way control.

4. Elementary discussion on circuit protective devices: fuse, miniature circuit breaker(MCB)

5. Electric shock, precautions against shock

6. Objectives of earthing, types of earthing: pipe and plate earthing, residual current circuit breaker
(RCCB).

Service mains, meter board and distribution board:

Service mains:
A small cable that connects the distributor to the consumers meter. It is the connecting link between the
distributor and consumer terminal.
meter board:
is a component of an electricity supply system, in which the instrument to measure the energy drawn
( energy meter) is placed. The supply mains are connected to the meter through the protective devices
like fuse, MCB etc. in the meter board.
A distribution board (also known as panel board or breaker panel)
is a component of an electricity supply system that divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary
circuits, while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure.
Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual-current devices (RCD) or residual
current breakers with over current protection (RCBO), are also incorporated
Brief discussion on concealed wiring:

Concealed wiring is used for domestic and commercial installations. It provides protection to the
installation against fire hazards, electrical shock mechanical damage and uses PVC insulated cables
carried through PVC pipes called conduit. Standard size of conduits available: ½′′, 5/8′′, ¾′′, 1′′, 11/4′′, 1
½′′, 2′′ and 2 ½′′. Size used for wiring depends upon the number of wires to be drawn. Complete
conduit system for each circuit is built before putting any cables through it. Sufficient number of
inspection boxes and draw boxes are provided at suitable points along the run of conduits. The conduits
are continuous across all the junctions and joints. For joining of conduits, L – coupler and T – couplers
are used. For concealed conduit wiring ceiling roses, lighting points, power points, switches, socket
outlets are accurately fixed. Before drawing the wires the conduits are thoroughly swabbed out using
fish wire( A GI wire of 18SWGwhich had been left in the conduit system during its erection. If the
building is already constructed, concealed wiring system can be made by chiseling channels in the walls
and ceilings and then sinking the conduits into the surface.

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Two- way and three – way control

Two-way control

When a single lamp is to be controlled from two different places we use two – way control.

Examples: 1. A lamp provided on stair case of an apartment building is controlled by two switches one
installed at the top floor and the other at bottom floor.

2. When a bath-room is common for two rooms, the lamp fitted in the bath-room can be controlled by
the switches installed in the two rooms. The wiring diagram for two way control of the lamp is as shown
below. To control a lamp from two different positions it requires two, 2 way switches

Switching table for the two way control is as shown below::

S. No. Position of Position of Condition

Switch S1 Switch S2 of Lamp

1. A1 – C1 A2 – B2 OFF

2. A1 – B1 A2 – B2 ON

3. A1 – B1 A2 – C2 OFF

4. A1 – C1 A2 – C2 ON

Three way control

When a big verandah has access to many living rooms, to control a lamp in verandah from the living
rooms we can use three way control. We need two 2- way switches and one double pole double throw

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switch(DPDT) switch to control a lamp in a verandah from three different rooms. DPDT will be placed in
the middle room.

The wiring diagram for two way control of the lamp is as shown below.

Switching table for three way control of lamp is given below

S. No. Position of Position of DPDT Position of Condition

switch S1
switch S1 switch of Lamp

1 A1 – B1 A3 – A4 & A5 – A6 A2 – B2 ON

2 A1 – B1 A3 – A6 & A5 –A 4 A2 – B2 OFF

3 A1 – B1 A3 – A6 & A4 –A 5 A2 – C2 ON

4 A1 – B1 A3 – A4 & A5 – A6 A2 – C2 OFF

5 A1 – C1 A3 – A4 & A5 – A6 A2 – C2 ON

6 A1 – C1 A3 – A6 & A5 – A4 A2 – C2 OFF

7 A1 – C1 A3 – A6 & A5 – A4 A2 – B2 ON

8 A1 – C1 A3 – A4 & A5 – A6 A2 – B2 OFF

By increasing the number of DPDTs we can control a lamp from may number of rooms.

Circuit protective devices: Fuse, Miniature Circuit Breaker(MCB)

FUSE

A fuse is a piece of conducting wire having low melting point rated for certain current. It is used for
protection of entire wiring system. Fuse is always put in live wire. When the current any sub-circuit
exceeds the rated current, fuse melts and breaks the circuit. This is the cheapest way of protection.

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For fuses of current rating up to 10 A – Lead –Tin alloy(36:64), for higher rating, copper, zinc, lead, tin,
aluminum are used.

Never use a fuse of rating higher than the circuit is meant for.

M C B (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

A MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) is, used for low voltage application in domestic or industrial area,
where the rated current is not more than 100mA. There are two arrangement of operation of miniature
circuit breaker. One due to thermal effect of over current and other due to electromagnetic effect of
over current.

The thermal operation of miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip. Whenever
continuous over current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending
This deflection of bimetallic strip releases a mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with
operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts. But during short circuit
condition, sudden rising of electric current, causes electromechanical displacement of plunger associated
with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing immediate release of
latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts.

Electric shock, precautions against shock

Electric shock

Contact with a live wire gives a electric shock. Mild shocks produce nervousness. Severe shocks may
produce convulsions which may lead to unconsciousness and death. When a person came in contact
with a live wire, the current finds a path through the body to the earth. Human body can withstand
maximum of 30 mA for duration about 25 milli sec.

If the current is high and persists for long, it adversely effect the nervous system, the heart and
respiratory system. 6. Current in the body during shock depends on the voltage and the body resistance.

Wet body 1 kilo Ohm

Moist body About 5 kilo Ohm

Dry body About 100 kil ohm

The severity of electric shock depends on:

 Magnitude of current passing through the body

 Time for which the current passes through the body

 Frequency of the current

 Physical and psychological condition of the victim.

Precautions against shock: Following are the precautions against shock:

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1. Make sure that all metallic parts of the electrical equipments are effectively earthed.

2. replace broken switches, plugs etc., immediately.

3. Use line tester to check whether a terminal is live.

4. During maintenance always switch off the supply.

5. Use rubber – sole shoes while repairing /testing electrical equipments. Or avoid direct contact with
earth by standing on a dry wooden platform.

6. Use rubber gloves while touching any terminal or while removing insulation from a live conductor.

7. In case of electric fire, disconnect the supply and through sand on fire.

Earthing, Objectives of earthing, Types of earthing: pipe and plate earthing

Earthing

Earthing is connecting the outer frame of an equipment and its other parts not carrying any current to
earth so as to attain as nearly zero potential as possible.

The purpose of earthing is to ensure that all parts of the system other than live parts (parts which are
carrying currents) are maintained at the earth potential at all times.

Earthing provides safety

Objectives of earthing

1. To provide safety of operation

When the insulation provided in the machines becomes weak, a part of the operating current gets
diverted to the surface. If a person touches such machine, the surface current finds a path through his
body to earth. If this leakage current is high, the person gets a shock. By earthing the machine, the shock
hazard is avoided as the leakage current gets an outlet to earth.

2. Earthing can save conducting material.

Earth provides the return path for the current. in case of automobiles and electronic equipment
avoiding complications in lying the return wire.

3. Earthing helps in protecting high rise building from atmospheric lightning.

A forked metal rod called lightning conductor sticking out from the top of the building and buried deep
into the ground allows the current due to lightning to pass directly to the earth, protecting the building

Methods of earthing

Earthing should be done in a way so that on short circuit, the earth loop impedance is low enough to
carry 3 times the currents if fuses are used and 1.5 times the current if MCB are used.

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Earthing requires a metallic plate or pipe (earth electrode)to be embedded in the earth. Galvanized iron
is used as earth electrode. Effective earthing requires the a low resistance offered by the earth electrode
along with the soil. To increase the conductivity of the soil around the earth electrode, alternate layers
of common salt and charcoal are filled.

Plate earthing

Figure shows the details of plate earthing. Plate earth electrodes when made of galvanized iron or steel
should not be less than 6.3 mm in thickness and of copper should not be less than 3.15 mm in thickness.
They should be of at least 60 cm x 60 cm size.

The plate should be buried such that the top edge is at a depth not less than 1.5 m from the surface of
the ground. The earth electrode is placed with its face vertical at a depth of 3-4 m in a pit.

The space around the electrode is filled with alternate layers, each of 150 mm height, of charcoal and
common salt. A G.I. pipe of 12.7 mm diameter is connected to the earth electrode. This G.I. pipe carries
the earth wire which is fixed to the earth electrode with nuts and bolts.
A G.I. pipe connects the charcoal and salt filled pit to the concrete housing in which a funnel with
wire mesh is provided. The concrete housing has a cast iron lid. About 3 to 4 buckets of water should
be poured into the funnel' every few days to improve the soil conductivity. This becomes more essential
especially during summer when the soil conductivity tends to decrease due to decrease in the soil
moisture.

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Pipe earthing
Figure shows the details of pipe earthing. The electrodes are made of metal rod or pipe having
clean surface not coated by at least 16mm in diameter and those of copper should be at least
12.5 mm in diameter. Pipe electrodes should not be smaller than 38 mm internal diameter if
made of galvanized iron or steel and 100 mm internal diameter if made of cast iron. Pipes or
rods as far as possible should be of one piece and not less than 2.5 m in length. These should be
driven to a depth of at least 2.5 m. To increase soil conductivity, artificial soil treatment is ne.
The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by broken pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance of
about 15 cm around the pipe.
A cement concrete work is also done so that 3 to4 buckets of water can be poured through the
funnel to moist the earth. The earth wire is carried in a GI pipe of 12.7 mm diameter at a depth
of 60 cm below ground and connected to the pipe electrode using G.I. nuts and washers.

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Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB)
Current based ELCB is referred as RCD or RCCB. Here one CT core is energized from both
phase wise and neutral wire. The polarity of the phase winding and neutral winding on the core is
so chosen that, in normal condition mmf of one winding opposes that of another. As it is
assumed that, in normal operating conditions the current goes through the phase wire will be
returned via neutral wire if there's no leakage in between.
As both currents are same, the resultant mmf produced
by these two currents is also zero-ideally.
The relay coil is connected with another third winding
wound on the CT core as secondary. The terminals of
this winding are connected to a relay system.
In normal operating condition there would not be any
current circulating in the third winding as here is no
flux in the core due to equal phase and neutral current.
When any earth leakage occurs in the equipment, there
may be part of phase current passes to the earth, through
the leakage path instead of returning via mental wire.
Hence the magnitude of the neutral current passing through
the RCCB is not equal to phase current passing through it.
When this difference crosses a predetermined value, the
current in the third secondary winding of the core becomes
sufficiently high to actuate the electromagnetic relay attached
to it.
This relay causes tripping of the associated circuit breaker Fig. Single phase
residual to disconnect the power supply to the equipment . current circuit breaker
under protection

Fig.: Three phase residual

current circuit breaker.

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Questions on Domestic wiring
1. What is the necessity of earthing? Explain any one type of earthing/pipe earthing with
neat diagram
2. With neat diagram explain the plate earthing.
3. Why earthing of electrical apparatus is required? Explain
4. What is fuse ?Why is it used in electric circuits
5. What is the purpose of fuse ?what are the requirements of the good fuse
6. Describe with a circuit the method of controlling a lamp from 3 switches.
7. Write the circuit diagram & switching table for 2-way & 3-way control of lamp? Where
is it used?
8. With a neat connection diagram & switching table, explain the two point control of a
lamp.
9. Explain staircase wiring.
10. Mention the factors on which the effects of electric shock depend. What are the
precautionary measures to be taken against electric shock.
11. List out some safety measures against electric shocks.
12. Mention different types of wiring used in domestic dwellings