CBLM TLE-AFA LG GR. 9 Horticulture

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Department of Education
PUBLIC TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Unit of Competency: CONDUCT PRE-HORTICULTURAL FARM
OPERATIONS
Module No. 1 Module Title: CONDUCTING OF PRE-
HORTICULTURAL FARM OPERATIONS
1
HORTICULTURE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
MODULE 1 - Conducting Pre-horticultural Farm

Operations
Lesson 1 – Prepare farm tools, implements, and simple
equipment for horticultural farm operations
Lesson 2 – Maintain farm facilities
Lesson 3 - Observe safety precautions in horticultural
farm operations
MODULE 2 - Preparing the Land for Planting

Vegetable Crops
Lesson 1 – Prepare the land for planting vegetable

crops
Lesson 2 - Prepare the land for planting vegetable crops
MODULE 3 - Growing of Seedlings
Lesson 1 - Select quality seeds

Lesson 2 – Prepare growing media and sow seed
Lesson 3 - Demonstrate care and management of
seedlings
MODULE 4 – Direct Planting and Transplanting of

Seedlings
Lesson 1 –Perform direct planting of vegetable crops

Lesson 2 -Practice transplanting of vegetable seedlings
MODULE 5 – Maintaining the Growth of Vegetable

Crops
Lesson 1 – Apply recommended kind and rate of fertilizer
Lesson 2 – Perform irrigation and drainage practices
Lesson 3 – Practice weeding and cultivation
Lesson 4 – Control of insect pests and diseases
Lesson 5 – Perform mulching
MODULE 6 – Harvesting of Vegetable Crops

Lesson 1- Determine the maturity indices of
vegetable crops
Lesson 2 – Practice proper ways of harvesting
vegetable crops
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MODULE 7 – Performing Post-Harvest Operations
of Major Lowland And Semi-Temperate Vegetables
Lesson 1 – Apply post-harvest technologies

Lesson 2 – Market vegetable products
MODULE 8 – Keeping Farm Records and Accounts
Lesson 1- Keep farm records and accounts
3
MODULE I
QUALIFICATION : HORTICULTURE NC II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : CONDUCT PRE-

HORTICULTURAL
FARM OPERATIONS
MODULE TITLE : CONDUCTING PRE-
HORTICULTURAL FARM
OPERATIONS
NOMINAL DURATION : 15 HOURS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in

preparing farm tools, implements, and simple equipment for horticultural
farm operations. It also includes maintenance of farm facilities and safety
precautions to be observed in horticultural farm operations.
EXPECTED OUTCOME
After completing this module, you should be able to:

1. prepare farm tools, implements, and simple equipment for
horticultural operations;
2. maintain farm tools and facilities; and
3. observe safety precautions in horticultural farm operations.
4
PRE TEST
A. Identification. Identify the words being described by each of the

sentences below. Choose your answer from the given choices in the box.
Write the letter of your answer in your quiz notebook.
a. shop building e. wheel barrow i. bolo

b. green house f. shovel j. pick mattock
c. storage barn g. disc harrow k. exposure
d. safety h. nursery shed l. native plow
m. spade
1. A structure where agricultural chemicals are being kept

2. It is a light structure where seedlings are being cared for before
planting.
3. A more sophisticated building in which seedlings are being started
4. A building where hand tools are being stored.
5. A tool used for removing trash or soil, digging canals or ditches, and
mixing soil media.
6. A hand tool that is used for digging smaller size of hole
7. It refers to the physical or environmental conditions of work which
allow the workers to perform their job without or within the
acceptable level of exposure to hazards.
8. A tool used for digging canals, stones, and stump.
9. A tool with one end of its blade flattened and the other pointed at the
right angle toward its handle
10. This tool resembles the appearance of a spoon and is used for
transferring soil.
11. An implement being pulled by a working animal that is used to till
the land
12. An implement attached to a tractor that is used to pulverize the
newly plowed soil
13. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an open
container with a single wheel at the front and two handles at the
back
B. Read and answer the questions carefully. Write only the letter of your
your choice in your quiz notebook.
1. Which tool is used for cutting grasses?
a. shovel
b. bolo
c. crowbar
d. pick mattock
2. What tool does NOT belong to the group?
a. crowbar
b. mattock
c. shovel
d. pruning shear
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3. Proper care and maintenance of farm tools are necessary in order
to _____.
a. prolong the serviceability of the tools
b. be available for use
c. save time and effort
d. all of the above
4. What is the importance of using farm tools, implements, and
equipment in pre-horticultural operations?
a. Because they make work easier
b. They make work faster
c. They save time and effort
d. All of these
5. What work hazard is NOT possible in the repair of the roof of a
nursery shed?
a. exposed to hazardous liquid
b. face exposed to extreme heat
c. prone to fall
d. bodies exposed to sharp or rough surfaces
6. What preventive action can a student apply when he/she is
exposed to dust? He/She will wear _____.
a. eye and respiratory protection
b. hearing protection
c. safety footwear
d. hard cap
7. The environmental impact of improperly disposed waste and
agricultural chemicals is the following EXCEPT _____.
a. air pollution
b. water contamination
c. dirty and ugly surroundings
d. friendly and healthy surroundings
8. What equipment in horticultural operations is used to draw water
from a source?
a. water pump
b. sprinkler
c. water pail
d. sprayer
9. Why do we need to conduct a pre-operative check-up of tools,
implements, and equipment before use?
a. To check if the tools are serviceable
b. To determine the functionality of tools and implements
c. To repair defective tools
d. All of the above
10. What preventive structure shall we provide if the area of our

horticultural farm is prone to run off?
a. fire hydrant
b. wind breaks
c. drainage canal
d. water sealant
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11.Why is it necessary to apply oil to the metal parts of tools and
implements when they will be stored for a long time?
a. To prevent them from rusting
b. To retain their shiny look
c. To clean the tools
d. All of the above
12.What facility shall we construct if the problem is on stray animals?
a. nursery shed
b. vicinity fence
c. storage barn
d. farm shop
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LESSON 1
PREPARE FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND SIMPLE EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The lesson deals with the identification and pre-operative check up

of farm tools, implements, and equipment for horticultural farm
operations.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Appropriate tools and farm equipment are identified and sorted

according to use.
2. Operative checking of tools and equipment according to
manufacturer’s manual is conducted.
3. Defective tools are segregated and repaired according to
maintenance plan and procedures.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Hand tools – objects that are usually light and are used without the
help of animals and machines
2. Farm implements – accessories pulled by animals or mounted to
machineries to make the work easier
3. Equipment – powered tool machine used in farming
4. Repair – to restore good condition something broken or damaged
5. Prepare – to take the necessary action to put something into a state
where it is fit for use or for a particular event or purpose.
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INFORMATION SHEET 1.1
Farm tools, implements, and equipment play a very important role in

horticultural operations. Their presence makes the work much easier
and faster. However, even if one may have the most sophisticated tools
and implements, if he does not know how to use them, they are useless.
In order to do horticultural operations successfully, one must have a
good working knowledge of the tools, implements, and equipment before
using them.
Hand Tools
Hand tools are usually light and are used without the help of
animals or machines. They are used in performing farm activities that
involve small areas like school garden and home garden.
Examples:
1. Bolo is used for cutting grasses

and weeds, loosening and
pulverizing the soil, digging small
holes for planting, post
construction, and breaking the
topsoil in preparing garden plots if
no other tools are available.
2. Crowbar is used for digging big

holes and for digging out big stones
and stumps.
3. Pick-mattock is used for digging

canals, breaking hard topsoil, and
digging up stones and tree stumps.
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4. Grub-hoe is used for breaking hard
topsoil and pulverizing soil.
5. Spade is used for removing trash

or soil, digging canals or ditches,
and mixing soil media.
6. Shovel is used for removing trash,

digging loose soil, and moving soil
from one place to another and for
mixing soil media.
7. Rake is used for cleaning the

ground and leveling the topsoil.
8. Spading fork is used for loosening

the soil, digging out root crops, and
turning over the materials in a
compost heap.
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9. Light hoe is used for loosening and
leveling soil and digging out
furrows for planting.
10. Hand trowel is used for loosening

the soil around the growing plants
and putting small amounts of
manure in the soil.
11. Hand cultivator is used for

cultivating the garden plot by
loosening the soil and removing
young weeds around the plant.
12. Hand fork is used for inter-row

cultivation.
13. Pruning shears is used for cutting

branches of planting materials and
unnecessary branches of plants.
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14. Axe is used for cutting bigger post.
15. Knife is used for cutting planting

materials and for performing other
operations in horticulture.
Farm Implements
Farm implements are accessories pulled by working animals or

mounted to machineries that are usually used in the preparation of wide
land. They are usually made of a special kind of metal.
Examples:
1. Plows. They refer to farm implements used in horticultural

operations, either pulled by a working animal or a tractor. The plow
is specifically used for tilling large areas, making furrows, and
inter- row cultivation.
Plows pulled by working animals are made of either a
combination of metal or wood or pure metal. They are used to till
areas with a shallower depth than that of the disc plows which are
pulled by tractors.
Native Plow Disc Plow
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2. Harrow. The native wooden harrow is made of wood with metal
teeth and pulled by a carabao while the disc harrow is a metal
mounted to a tractor. Harrows are used for tilling and pulverizing
the soil.
Native Wooden Harrow Disc Harrow
3. Rotavator. The rotavator is an implement mounted to a tractor

used for tilling and pulverizing the soil.
Equipment
Equipment is machineries used in horticultural operations

especially in vegetable production. They are used in land preparation and
in transporting farm inputs and products. To use these machineries,
highly skilled operators are needed.
1. Hand tractor is used to pull a plow and harrow in preparing a large

area of land.
2. Four wheel tractors are used to pull disc plow and disc harrow in
preparing a much bigger area of land.
3. Water pumps are used to draw irrigation water from a source.
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Hand Tractor Four Wheel Tractor Water Pump
Other Materials, Tools, and Equipment
1. Water pails – are used for hauling water, manure, and fertilizers
2. Sprinklers – are used for watering seedlings and young plants
3. Wheel barrow- is used for hauling trash, manures, fertilizers, planting
materials, and other equipment
4. Sprayers – are used for spraying insecticides, foliar fertilizers,
fungicides, and herbicides
Water Pails Sprinklers Wheel Barrow
Trigger Sprayer Knapsack Sprayer Power Sprayer

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It was mentioned earlier that tools, implements, and equipment
facilitate work conveniently, but a user must bear in mind that
knowledge on the use of these tools leads to a safe and successful
endeavor. Before using any of the tools, implements, and equipment, it is
important to always check whether or not they are still usable or
serviceable. It is also a good practice to always check with or refer to the
manual of operations as prescribed by the manufacturer. The assistance
of a skilled operator should also be sought whenever necessary.
Tools that are defective should be segregated and be fixed

immediately to avoid accident.
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PRE-OPERATIVE CHECK UP OF FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND

EQUIPMENT
Imagine that the long, hot summer vacation has finally come to an
end. It is the beginning of the school year and you are ready to start
working in your vegetable gardens. But before that, check first the tools,
implements, and equipment you are going to use.
Armed with your working clothes and personal protective

equipment (PPE), please proceed to the shop to retrieve your tools so that
you can start clearing away the last remnants of the summer and begin
breaking the soil for a new year. Imagine your frustration as you start to
see that they are covered with rust and dirt from last vacation. It seems
that on this nice day, you are going to spend more time cleaning and
repairing tools than actually using them.
SELF CHECK
A. Read the questions carefully and select the correct answer. Write
only the letter of your choice in your quiz notebook.
1. A bolo is used for______.
a. breaking hard top soil
b. cutting grasses and weeds
c. digging up stones and tree stumps
d. removing trash or soil
2. Axe is used for ______.
a. cutting bigger posts
b. cutting planting materials
c. trimming small branches
d. cutting grasses
a. crowbar
b. pick mattock
c. shovel
d. pruning shear
4. Farm tools, implements, and equipment are very important in pre-
horticultural operation because they ______.
a. make work easier
b. make work faster
c. save time and effort
d. all of the above
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5. ______ is a tool with one end flattened and the other pointed at
right angle toward its handle is
a. pick mattock
b. crow bar
c. bolo
d. spade
6. ______ is a tool which resembles the appearance of a spoon and is
used for transferring soil.
a. spade
b. shovel
c. spading fork
d. grub hoe
7. A wheel barrow is used for______.
a. hauling
b. pulling
c. digging
d. cutting
8. When is the time to perform operative check-up of tools, implements,
and equipments?
a. during the cropping season
b. after the cropping season
c. before the start of the growing season
d. after the harvest season
from a source?
a. sprinkler
b. sprayer
c. water pail
d. water pump
10. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an open
container with a single wheel in front and two handles at the back is
called ________.
a. hand tractor
b. four-wheeled tractor
c. basket
d. wheel barrow
Answer the question below. (10 points)
What benefit/s do you get if you familiarize yourself with the uses of the
different tools, implements, and equipment in horticultural operations?
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ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
Conduct a practical test in the farm shop. Proceed to the farm shop
and identify, classify or sort out the farm tools, implements and farm
equipment according to their uses. Then, complete the table below. Write
your answers in your quiz notebook.
Classification of
Name Uses
Tools
Tools 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Implement 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Equipment 1.
2.
3.
Other Materials 1.
2.
Rubric Score Card for the test on identification of tools, implements, and
equipment
Name ___________________________ Date ___________________

Yr. & Sec. _______________________
Activities Weight Score Points (weight x score)

Mastery of the identity 40%
of tools/implements
and equipment
Mastery of the uses of 60%
each tool, implement,
and equipment
TOTAL POINTS EARNED
LEGEND:
Points Earned - Descriptive Rating

25 - 30 - Outstanding
18 - 24 - Very Satisfactory
11 - 17 - Satisfactory
1 - 10 - Needs Enrichment
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RESOURCES
Pruning shear
Pick-Mattock
Grab-hoe
Wheel barrow
Bolo
Spade
Axe
Shovel
String
Knife
Cutting saw
Rake
CBLM
Water pump
Plow
Sprayer
Sprinkler
Harrow
Tractor and its accessories
Nursery shed or
greenhouse
Bodega or Farm shop
building
REFERENCES
Agricultural Arts for Secondary

Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP,
NSEC series) by Ramon G.
Asuncion et al.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by
Phipps, McColly, Scranton,
& Cook p.393 – 689
Growing Vegetables by Tony
Biggs p.6 – 7
Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in
Harmony with Nature, vol.
1 by Jef Van Haunte-Lyds
Quileste Van Haunte
p.117-120
http://www.antiquefarmtools.inf
o
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/
01-111b
http://www.ebc.com.au
19
LESSON 2
MAINTAIN FARM FACILITIES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the maintenance of farm facilities. It

includes cleaning and repairing of defective farm tools, implements, and
equipment.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Simple repair and modification of farm tools, implements,

and equipment are performed.
2. Preventive structures are installed.
3. Post check-up of tools, implements, and equipment is
conducted.
4. Farm tools, implements, and equipment are stored and
maintained properly.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Facility – something designed or created to provide a service or

fulfill a need
2. Nursery – a light structure where seedlings are cared for before
planting. The shed also provides shade to growers while raising
seedlings
3. Greenhouse – a more sophisticated building in which seedlings
are started before they are brought in to the nursery shed. In most
green houses, environmental condition is controlled.
4. Storage barn – a building where agricultural chemicals are being
stored
5. Shop building – a building where hand tools are stored and
repaired
6. Manual handling – any activity that requires a person to use force
to push, hold, restrain, or carry an object
7. Maintenance – work that is done regularly to keep a machine,
building, or piece of equipment in good condition and working
order
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Maintaining Farm Facility
The most common facility in horticulture is the nursery shed or the

greenhouse. It must be thoroughly cleaned and organized. Users are
required to help in the general cleaning to maintain safe, sanitary, and
orderly work environment.
General housekeeping requires that users:
• clean worktables and/potting benches;
• clean floors and benches during and after work;
• use compost and trash cans;
 replace lids to keep out insect and growth of bacteria; and
• clean sinks after each use and limit the amount of soil going down
the drains.
In cooperation with the users, the staff should:

• wash and/or sweep floors of greenhouses and potting areas at least
once per week;
• empty trash and compost cans regularly;
• sanitize and disinfect work areas as the need arises; and
• dispose empty bottles or containers of chemicals and other
unusable materials properly following the practices in the waste
management act.
For productive, cost-efficient, and effective farm facilities, here are

activities that you can immediately implement:
 Schedule a regular clean up at least twice a year. This is also

the time to undertake a general inspection of machines and
equipment. The activities include removing all cobwebs, thorough
scrubbing of the ceiling, walls, and floor, and cleaning of machines.
Segregate unserviceable tools, implements and equipment that are
beyond repair from those that can be repaired.
 Schedule clean-up activities twice a month. This includes
wiping lighting fixtures and windows, scrubbing of rest rooms,
cleaning and oiling of metal parts of farm tools, and applying
lubricants to the moving parts of machines. Repair defective tools,
implements, and equipment immediately.
 For regular clean-up chores, give workers about five minutes
daily to tidy up the work station. The clean up involves cleaning
of the tools, farm implements, machines and equipment the
workers have used. They should do this before they go home. This
enables the next workers (if they operate in shifts) to start work
immediately. This is also a subtle way of developing in them the
housekeeping routine.
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 Cultivate the habit of collecting waste even before it touches
the floor. Provide a sack or garbage bag in one or two corners of
the workplace where you can throw your garbage. At the end of the
day, the workers can just put their wastes in the designated places
for disposal as scheduled.
How to Clean Your Tools
Let us start with the basics. Your use of the shovel, spade, hoe, or
even the blades on a hedge trimmer will be a lot easier if you take a few
minutes to knock some of the rust off the blade. Not only will this extend
the life of the tool, but it will also make the tool cut through the soil
better. Thus, it will require less effort to use. It is a good idea to keep a
large whetstone in your shop to sharpen the blades of your garden tools.
This tool can be purchased from many hardware stores. A whetstone is
an ideal tool to use to keep all of the cutting edges on your garden tools
honed. It will work well on your shovel as well as on many other common
garden tools
The best way to use the whetstone is to find a way to stabilize the
tool that you want to work on. A bench vise is ideal. You will be able to
clamp the tool into place at an angle, so you can work on it. Clamping
the garden tool into place with a vise frees both of your hands to use the
whetstone and gives you more control over what you are doing.
Apply lubricating oil to the end of the tool and carefully begin to
work the stone over the blade. Maintain a 30-degree angle between the
stone and the blade to form the ideal cutting edge for your tool. Not only
will the edge become sharper, but you will also be removing any pitting
and rust that has formed at the edge of your tool’s blade.
In instances where the moving parts of your
garden tools (e.g. pruning shears, and loppers) have
frozen in place, like springs and pivot joints, you
should disassemble them carefully. Clean and make
them free from rust and dirt that keep the tools from
functioning properly. Remove stubborn rust with fine
steel wool or wire brush. Using an old toothbrush with
some lightweight lubricating oil is a great way to work
fresh oil into the joints of most garden tools. Fresh oil
will not only help your tool work as it is intended but
will also prevent the formation of rust. Use medium-grit sandpaper to
remove rust on larger tools such as shovels, spades, and hoes.
Once your tools are clean, they are ready to be sharpened. When
sharpening, try to maintain the original factory
bevel or angle. For pruners, use a whetstone
because it produces a very sharp cutting edge.
Depending on the type of whetstone, apply a few
drops of oil or water to the stone. With the beveled
side of the blade against the stone, rub the sharp
edge of the blade toward the stone in a curved
motion, as if you were trying to shave off a thin slice from the stone.
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When working with a file, stabilize the blades in a vise or against a
solid surface such as a work bench to avoid injury and ensure an even
stroke. Always push the file across the blade in a motion away from your
body. Move the file diagonally, so that its cutting teeth are biting into the
metal on the tool. When sharpening with a file, do not use oil; metal
filings will accumulate and clog the file's serrations.
Farm implements like ordinary plow and wooden harrow should be

checked thoroughly before use. Loosened bolts and nuts should be
tightened firmly. Disc plow and harrow should also be lubricated on their
moving parts like bearings. Tractors should be tuned-up very well by a
skilled operator, checking on their oil, lubricant, fuel, and cooling system.
Tools that are defective should be separated and be fixed

immediately to avoid accident.
Simple Repair and Modification of Tools and Implements

Simple garden tools are easy to repair. Spend a little time checking
your garden tools for things to fix and recycle.
To replace a tool handle:

1. Clamp the tool blade in a bench vise.
2. Remove the handle from the hasp using a drill, hammer, or other
tools as needed.
3. Insert the new handle into the hasp.
4. Tighten the handle in the hasp using fasteners. Use a screw and
screwdriver to firmly attach the handle to the tool head.
To fix a leaky hose:

1. Cut through the hose on either side of the bad section using a
sharp knife.
2. Attach male and female hose couplings to the cut ends,
following the directions that come with the couplings. If the new
hose fittings don't slide in easily, try softening the ends of the
hose in hot water or lubricating them with soap or cooking oil.
To fix a broken tooth of rake/fork:

Bring this to the shop and weld the broken portion of the tools.
Do the same with the other tools and implement that need
welding. For farm machineries that need repair, contact expert
mechanics to do the job.
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Installation of Preventive Structure
It has been observed that as we go on with our horticultural work,
we often experience the occurrence of inclement weather. Before it is too
late, think of anything that you can do to safeguard your crops, tools,
and other facilities. We should not only focus our attention on the
occurrence of inclement weather, but we have to consider also other
elements that may cause loss or damage to our property (e.g., stray
animals, fire, and thieves).
Let’s take a look at our facilities, such as the nursery shed, storage
house, and farm shops. Examine their physical conditions (roofing,
sidings, or floorings). Can they survive any disaster that may occur? Are
the things inside safe? If not, what preventive structures should you
undertake?
Below is a table indicating the facilities, physical conditions,
possible calamities or disaster that may occur and the suggested
preventive structures or contingency measures to be undertaken.
Facilities Physical Calamities/ Suggested

conditions Disaster preventive/
contingency measure
Nursery Weak posts Typhoon Put braces
shed
Storage Leaking roofing Heavy rains Put water sealant
barn (vulcaseal)
Farm shop Unsafe Thieves/burglars Put grills and heavy
windows and duty padlocks
doors
Fires Provide fire hydrants
call fire department
Run off Construct drainage
canal
Vicinity Dilapidated Astray animal Reconstruct fence
fence
Prepare Farm Facilities and Equipment for Storage

After quite a long time, farming operations finally come to an end.
At this time, we have to check the tools, implements, and equipment we
used and prepare them for storage.
Regarding the preparation of garden tools for long storage, you can
adopt some of these practices:
 Begin by gathering all hand tools and removing any dirt or rust
with a wire brush, steel wool, or light sandpaper. An old pro’s tip is
to keep a galvanized tub with sand and waste oil in which to clean
tools in. By inserting the shovels, spades and forks into the
mixture and moving them up and down, they get a good scrubbing
with the abrasive sand as well as a coat of lubricant.
 Sharpen the tools using a file that is made specifically for this task.
Remember to move the file in one direction only, and at a 45-degree
angle.
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 Sand wooden handles with sandpaper and follow up with a coat of
paste wax or linseed oil if necessary.
 Spray all metal parts with a good coat of lubricating oil. This will
discourage rust as your tools are stored in your tool shed or
garage.
 Store your tools up off the ground and in a dry spot.
 Drain water hoses and hang them in the garage.
 Don’t forget about the lawnmower. If you don’t have the chance to
use up the gas before storing it, add a gas stabilizer to the fuel tank
to prevent corrosion.
 Store pesticides out of reach of children and pets. Store dry
pesticides in plastic bags. Liquid pesticides should be stored in a
location that will stay above 40 degrees F.
By following these few basic preparatory steps, you can ensure that
on the following year, you’ll be working in your garden instead of working
on your garden tools. With proper care of the farm tools, implements, and
equipment, you can also save yourself from buying new ones.
For proper care and maintenance of farm hand tools and
equipment, the following guidelines should be observed:
1. Hand tools must always be kept dry in a tool rack when they are
not in use.
2. Tools should be washed or cleaned before keeping them in the tool
rack.
3. The iron parts of tools should be oiled, greased, or painted with
coal tar when they are to be stored for a long time.
4. Defective tools should be repaired immediately. Those tools,
implements, and equipment which are beyond repair should be
disposed properly.
5. Cutting and digging tools (bolos, scythe, hoes and axes) should be
sharpened frequently.
SELF-CHECK
Answer the following questions:
 What should you do to your tools after their use? Why? (5 pts.)
 Why is there a need to construct preventive structures in your
work place? (5pts)
 What preparations should you do before you store the farm
facilities? (5pts)
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ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
A. Conduct a post-operative check up of farm tools, implements,

and equipment in the tool room. Fill in the boxes below.
Name Functional Need Clean Unclean

(No.) repair (No.) (No.)
(No.)
Hand tools/Garden
tools
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of Implements
1.
2.
3
Name of Equipment
1.
2.
3.
B. Perform the following:

1. Segregate the damaged tools from the good ones.
2. Clean the tools and place them in their rack.
3. Repair tools with slight damage and ask assistance in repairing
the heavy damaged tools.
4. Observe safety precautions while doing the tasks.
RESOURCES
Pruning shear Rake
Pick-Mattock CBLM
Grub hoe Water pump
Wheel barrow Plow
Bolo Sprayer
Spade Sprinkler
Axe Harrow
Shovel Tractor and its accessories
String Nursery shed or greenhouse
Knife Bodega or Farm shop building
Cutting saw
26
REFERENCES

Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP, NSEC series) by Ramon G. Asuncion
etal.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by Phipps, McColly, Scranton, & Cook p.393 –
689
Growing Vegetables by Tony Biggs p.6 – 7
Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, vol. 1 by Jef Van
Haunte-Lyds Quileste Van Haunte p.117-120
A Practical Safety Guide for the Horticulture Industry in the Murray
Valley
http://www.antiquefarmtoolsinfo
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/01-111b
http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/safe@work/workplace_hazards.asp
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/iacl102.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc165.pdf
http://www.farm-garden.com/growing-vegetables/artichokes
27
LESSON 3
OBSERVE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HORTICULTURAL FARM

OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the safety precautions in horticultural farm

operations. It includes risk management, classes of hazards, and possible
hazards in horticultural farm operations.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Safety precautions while doing the horticultural farm

operations are observed.
2. Hazards in the workplace are identified.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Safety – the physical or environmental conditions of work which

comply with the prescribed Occupational Health Safety
(OHS) standards and which allow the workers to
perform his or her job without or within acceptable
exposure to hazards
2. Occupational safety – the practices related to production and
work process
3. Health – a sound state of the body and mind of the worker that
enable him or her to perform the job normally
28
Safety Precautions in Handling Farm Facilities
Horticultural farm operations deal with a lot of activities to be done

in the different workplaces. While performing these activities, we expose
ourselves to a lot of risks. Workplace hazard is a major cause of accident,
injury, or harm to a worker who performs such task. These hazards
should be the major concern of all who are involved in a certain job or
work.
When undertaking risk management, it is important to distinguish
hazard, risk, and exposure
o Hazard is the potential for harm, or adverse effect on an employee’s

health. Anything which may cause injury or ill health to anyone at
or near a workplace is a hazard.
o Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause injury or ill health to
anyone at or near a workplace. The level of risk increases with the
severity of the hazard and the duration and frequency of exposure.
o Exposure occurs when a person comes in contact with a hazard.
Risk management
Risk management is a four-step process
1. Identify the hazard

The first step in reducing the cause of an accident is hazard
identification. Hazard identification is identifying all situations or
events that could cause injury or illness. Eliminating or minimizing
workplace hazards needs a systematic approach. It is essential to
try and anticipate all possible hazards at the workplace known as
the ‘what if?’ approach.
Methods for identifying hazards

There are many methods that are useful in identifying hazards.
These include:
o reviewing your workers’ compensation data and checking the
incidence, mechanism and agency of injury, and the cost to the
organization. These statistics can be analyzed to alert the
organization on the presence of hazards
o staying informed on trends and developments in workplace health
and safety, for example via the internet or OHS publications
o reviewing the potential impact of new work practices or equipment
introduced into the workplace in line with legislative requirements
o doing walk-through surveys, inspections or safety audits in the
workplace to evaluate the organization’s health and safety system
o considering OHS implications when analyzing work processes
o investigating workplace incidents and ‘near hits’ reports - in some
cases there may be more than one hazard contributing to an
incident
29
o getting feedback from employees who often provide valuable
information about hazards, because they have hands-on
experience in their work area
2. Assess the risk associated with the hazard

This step involves gathering information and making
decisions. It is important to consider the causes and impact of
hazards in a workplace. To avoid risking the workers’ health,
introduce some precautionary measures.
3. Control the risk
The third step in effective risk management involves

establishing and maintaining systems which give opportunity for
regular evaluation and review procedures. Evaluation means
examining control measures to ensure that risks are eliminated or
reduced. They should not have caused new hazards.
There are three categories of control measures you might
take. You can eliminate the hazard, minimize the risk, and
introduce ‘back-up’ controls (when all other options in the previous
categories have been exhausted).
4. Review the process.
The review system applies to the overall risk management

process. It checks if the process is working effectively.
Classes of Hazard
Hazards are classified into five different types.
1. Physical - includes floors, stairs, work platforms, steps, ladders,

fire, falling objects, slippery surfaces, manual handling (lifting,
pushing, pulling), excessively loud and prolonged noise, vibration,
heat and cold, radiation, poor lighting, ventilation, and air quality
2. Mechanical and/or electrical - includes electricity, machinery,

equipment, pressure vessels, dangerous goods, forklifts, cranes,
hoists
3. Chemical - includes chemical substances such as acids or poisons

and those that could lead to fire or explosion, like pesticides,
herbicides, cleaning agents, dusts and fumes from various
processes such as welding
4. Biological - includes bacteria, viruses, mold, mildew, insects,

vermin, animals
5. Psychosocial environment - includes workplace stressors arising

from a variety of sources.
30
List of Possible Hazards in Horticultural Farm Operations
Possible Supervisor Preventative
Possible Harmful
Action to Prevent Action Students
HAZARD Effects
Injury / Illness Can Take
Handling of farm Wounds/cuts  Provide necessary safety  Observe safety
tools precautions precautions
Unleveled terrain Falls  Place appropriate safety  Observe safety signs
Cuts signs  Wear PPE
 Require appropriate PPE
Dust Foreign body in eye  Provide eye and  Wear eye and
Respiratory effects respiratory protection respiratory protection
Fertilizers Skin contact may result  Use least hazardous  Use PPE
into allergic reaction product for the task  Follow safe working
Pesticides Swallowing of pesticides  Dispense and mix procedures when
or inhalation of fumes chemicals in well- handling chemicals
can lead to headache, ventilated areas  Clean up spills
nausea, dizziness,  Store and label chemicals immediately
Fuel vomiting, poisoning, appropriately
loss of consciousness,  Ensure the availability
and fatality. of First Aid Kit
 Provide emergency
Long-term exposure eyewash
may result to chronic  Provide appropriate PPE
(ongoing) illness  Clean up spills
including cancer immediately
Manual handling Musculoskeletal  Provide mechanical aids  Use mechanical aids
(bending, disorders, including  Provide training in safe  Seek help when you
reaching, sprains and strains manual handling think a team lift is
stretching, techniques required
pulling, lifting,  Encourage team lifts  Exercise before
repetitive starting the work
motions,
awkward posture)
Hot or cold Heat rashes, heat  Provide regular rest  Be aware of potential
weather cramps, heat stress, breaks hazards during hot or
conditions dehydration, loss of fine  Provide shade cold weather
motor controls,  Re-schedule work if the conditions that cause
sunburn, numbness, weather is extremely illness . Rest and seek
frostbite, unfavorable assistance if you feel
 Assess work hours in that heat or coldness
difficult conditions affects you.
 Provide sufficient water  Wear appropriate
during hot weather clothing and take
 Require worker to wear regular rest.
appropriate PPE
Handling soil/ Legionnaire’s disease  Minimize dust  Follow proper hygiene
Potting mixes  Provide appropriate  Wear appropriate PPE
clothing and PPE
 Observe proper hygiene
SELF-CHECK
Answer the following questions (10 points each)
1. What are the possible hazards you can identify in your workplace?
2. What preventive actions should you apply when you are going to work
with fertilizers and pesticides?
31
ACTIVITY SHEET 3.1
Proceed to the nursery shed and evaluate that workplace. Identify

and list down the possible hazards inside and outside the shed. Make
and suggest preventive measures for each hazard identified. Write your
answers in the table below. After you are done, submit your findings to
your teacher.
Hazard Preventive measure

Hazards inside the nursery shed
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
Hazards outside the nursery shed

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
RESOURCES
Pruning shear Cutting saw

Pick Mattock Rake
Grub-hoe Water pump
Wheelbarrow Plow
Bolo Sprayer
Spade Sprinkler
Axe Harrow
Shovel Tractor and its accessories
String Nursery shed or greenhouse
Knife Bodega or Farm shop building
32
REFERENCES:

Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP, NSEC series) by Ramon G. Asuncion
et.al.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by Phipps, McColly, Scranton, & Cook pp.393
– 689
Growing Vegetables by Tony Biggs pp.6 – 7
Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, vol. 1 by Jef Van
Haunte-Lyds Quileste Van Haunte pp.117-120
A Practical Safety Guide for the Horticulture Industry in the Murray
Valley
http://www.antiquefarmtoolsinfo
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/01-111b
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/iacl102.pdf
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc165.pdf
http://www.farm-garden.com/growing-vegetables/artichokes
33
POST-TEST
Let’s find out how much you have learned from the module.
A. Identification. Identify the words being described by each of the

sentences below. Choose your answer from the given choices in the box.
Write the letter of your choice in your quiz notebook.
a. shop building e. wheel barrow i. bolo
b. green house f. shovel j. pick mattock
c. storage barn g. disc harrow k. exposure
d. safety h. nursery shed l. native plow
m. spade
1. A structure where agricultural chemicals are being kept

2. It is a light structure where seedlings are being cared for before
planting.
3. A more sophisticated building in which seedlings are being started
4. A building where hand tools are being stored
5. A building where fertilizers are kept.
6. A hand tool that is used for digging smaller size of hole
7. It refers to the physical or environmental conditions of work which
allow the workers to perform their jobs within the work area
8. A tool with a flattened blade at one end and pointed at the other
end
9. This tool resembles the appearance of spoon and is used for
transferring soil
10. An implement being pulled by a working animal used in tilling the
land
11. An implement mounted to a tractor that is used to pulverize the
newly plowed soil
12. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an
open container with a single wheel at the front and two handles at
the back
B. Read the questions carefully. Write the letter of your choice in your
quiz notebook.
13. Which tool is used for cutting grasses?
a. shovel c. crowbar
b. bolo d. pick mattock
a. crowbar c. shovel
b. mattock d. pruning shear
15. Proper care and maintenance of farm tools are necessary in order
to:
a. prolong the serviceability of the tools
b. save time and effort
c. be available for use
d. all of the above
34
16. Farm tools, implements and equipment are very important in pre-
horticultural operations because they---------
a. make work easier c. save time and effort
b. make work faster d. all of the above
17. What work hazard is NOT possible in the repair of the roof of a
nursery shed?
a. exposed to hazardous liquid
b. face exposed to extreme heat
c. prone to fall from above
d. bodies exposed to sharp or rough surfaces
18. What preventive action should a student apply when he/she is
exposed to dust? He/She should wear-----------
a. eye and respiratory protection
b. hearing protection
c. safety footwear
d. hard cap
19. The environmental impact of improper disposal of waste and
agricultural chemicals are the following EXCEPT:
a. air pollution
b. water contamination
c. dirty and ugly surroundings
d. friendly and healthy surroundings
from a source?
a. water pump c. water pail
b. sprinkler d. sprayer
21. Why do we need to conduct pre-operative check up of tools,
implements and equipment before starting to work?
a. to check if the tools are serviceable
b. to determine the functionality of tools, and implements
c. to repair defective tools
d. all of the above
horticultural farm is prone to run off?
a. fire hydrant
b. wind breaks
c. drainage canal
d. water sealant
horticultural farm is prone to run-off?
a. Fire hydrant
b. Windbreak
c. Drainage canal
d. Water sealant
35
24. Why is it necessary to apply oil to the metal parts of tools and
implements before storing them for a long period time?
a. to prevent them from rust
b. to retain its shiny look
c. to clean the tools
d. all of the above
25. What facility should we construct if there are astray animals around?
a. nursery shed
b. vicinity fence
c. storage barn
d. farm shop
26. The first step in reducing the cause of an accident is_________.
a. assess the risk associated with the hazard
b. identify the hazard
c. review the process
d. control the risk
27. Which of the following is NOT an example of a physical hazard?

a. electricity
b. floors, stairs, ladders
c. heat, cold, radiation
d. excessively loud and prolonged noise
28. Which of the following is the least objective in installing preventive
structures?
a. to attain aesthetic beauty of the place
b. to safeguard crops from astray animals and thieves
c. to avoid destruction of farm facilities due to inclement weather
d. b and c
29. Which of the following is a biological hazard?
a. machinery
b. pesticides
c. bacteria
d. falling objects
30. Which of the following is NOT true about the care and maintenance
of farm facilities?
a. Hand tools must be cleaned, dried, and placed in a tool rack
when not in use.
b. Cutting and digging tools should be frequently sharpened.
c. Defective tools are segregated and brought to the junk shop.
d. Iron parts of tools should be oiled, greased, or painted with coal
tar when they are to be stored for a long time.
36
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Unit Of Competency: PRODUCE VEGETABLE CROPS
Module No. 2 Module Title: PREPARING THE LAND FOR PLANTING
VEGETABLE CROPS
37
MODULE II
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PRODUCE VEGETABLE
CROPS
MODULE TITLE : PREPARING THE LAND
FOR PLANTING
VEGETABLE CROPS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in

selecting and clearing the site for planting vegetable crops.
EXPECTED OUTCOME

1. select the site for planting vegetable crops; and
2. prepare the land for planting vegetable crops.
38
PRETEST
Let’s find out how much you already know about raising vegetable
crops, specifically selecting and preparing the site for planting vegetable
crops.
Read and understand the questions below. Select the correct
answer then write the letter of your answer in your quiz notebook.
1. Which of the following is NOT a factor in selecting the site for

vegetable production?
a. Climatic requirements
b. Topography of the land
c. Thorough land preparation
d. Availability of water supply
2. What topography or terrain of the land is best suited for
a. Water logged
b. Level or plain
c. Slightly sloping
d. Hilly/mountainous
3. Which of the following choices is NOT a factor governing
climate?
a. Water
b. Sunlight
c. Temperature
d. Presence of clouds
4. Which of the following sentences is NOT true about the

relationship of climate to plant production?
a. Crops and crop production are affected.
b. Topography and area of the land are affected.
c. Respiration, assimilation, photosynthesis and other
physiological processes in plants are affected.
d. Variation in plant and animal life are directly and indirectly
affected.
5. The soil is made up of different sizes of particles of sand, silt,

and clay. The relative amount of each of these soil components
is called _____.
a. soil profile
b. soil texture
c. soil formation
d. soil composition
6. The arrangement of soil particles from the surface soil to the

hard parent sock is _____.
a. soil profile
b. soil texture
c. soil formation
d. soil composition
39
7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of good soil for
growing vegetable plants?
a. It contains plenty of minerals.
b. It has high water-holding capacity.
c. It contains large amount of clay making the soil compact.
d. It has good aeration which allows the free movement of air
for respiration and development of roots.
8. Which is NOT true about soil testing?

a. It determines how fertilizers are to be applied.
b. Soil testing determines the pH level of the soil.
c. Soil testing determines the type and amount of nutrients
present in the soil.
d. Result of soil testing is the basis of making fertilizer
recommendations.
9. Which of the following factors is NOT necessary in the analysis

of soil samples?
a. cropping history
b. accessibility to water supply
c. past lime and fertilizer treatments
d. slope, degree of erosion, soil texture and color
10. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a prepared
land?
a. The land has big clods.
b. The land is free from stubbles.
c. The land is free from growing weeds.
d. The land is thoroughly pulverized and leveled.
11. The stirring of the soil for the purpose of facilitating the
growth of plants refers to _______.
a. tilling
b. digging
c. cultivating
d. plowing and harrowing
12. Which of the following is NOT an objective of thorough land

preparation?
a. Make possible proper utilization of nutrients by the plants.
b. Improve aeration enabling the roots to develop and branch
out rapidly.
c. Stimulate micro-organisms to act on plant residues and
animal wastes to be used by the plants.
d. Lessen the water-holding capacity of the soil.
40
13.Which of the following farm tools and implements is NOT used in
preparing the land?
a. plow and harrow
b. grass cutter, scythe, axe
c. pair of scissors and knives
d. garden hoe, shovel, pick-mattock
14.When is the best time to prepare the land? It is when the soil is
_____.
a. too dry to avoid puddling
b. too wet so that tilling would be easy
c. not too wet as to cause puddling nor too dry as to make
pulverization of the soil difficult
d. all of the above
15.The following are reasons for using appropriate tools to perform

certain task. Which one is NOT?
a. To accomplish the task well
b. To avoid the destruction of tools
c. To make the work easier and faster
d. None of the above
41
LESSON 1
SELECT SITE FOR PLANTING VEGETABLE CROPS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the different factors to consider in selecting

the site for planting vegetable crops. It also includes soil system and soil
analysis.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The site selected is appropriate for the vegetable production.

2. The site selected is accessible to roads, transportation
facilities, water supply, and market.
3. The pH level of the soil is analyzed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Climate- the average condition in a locality in relation to

temperature and moisture
2. Weather - the condition of the atmosphere with reference to
its pressure, temperature, moisture, the presence of clouds,
and the direction and velocity of the wind at any given
moment
3. Topography – the physical features of the land surface,
whether it is sloping, flat/level, or hilly/mountainous
42
Factors in Selecting a Site
In selecting land for agricultural use, look for land with the following
characteristics which contribute to its beneficial use:
A. General characteristics of a good farm land

1. Absence of squatters and other prior claimants; land with titles
are preferred.
2. Accessibility to or easily reached by motor vehicles, railroad,
farm vehicles, river transportation; near air and sea-ports
existing or proposed
3. Near sources of potable and irrigation waters
4. Near markets or sources of food
5. Near schools, churches, and health and medical facilities
6. Fertile soil
7. With level or gently rolling topography
8. Satisfactory peace and order condition
9. Adequate supply of labor, preferably cheap labor, as well as of
skilled laborers including tractor operators and mechanics
B. Other factors to consider in site selection
1. Topography of the Land
One factor to consider in site selection for vegetable production is the

topography of the land. Soil is a vital part of the earth. Without good soil,
no crops could be grown. Below are pictures of the different topographies
of the land.
A level land. Students of the Jones Rural School, Jones , Isabela plowing a
level land using draft carabao.
43
A slightly sloping land. A student of the Jones Rural School, Jones, Isabela
preparing a slightly sloping land which is best for vegetable production.
Water easily drains in slightly sloping field which is best for

vegetable growing.
A hilly topography of the land.
Hilly portion of the land could hardly be reached by irrigation; it is

also difficult to till. Irrigation for crops in the hills mainly depends on
rainfall.
2. Nearness to road and transportation facilities
Vegetables are perishable. They are best liked when they are fresh
and of good quality. If the site is accessible to all forms of transportation ,
vegetable products are easily transported without much damage.
44
3. Availability of water supply
All parts of the plant need water. No plant will survive without
water. Water is an essential factor in the production of vegetable crops.
Water dissolves plant nutrients in the soil to be supplied to the different
parts of the plant. Plants can be classified according to their water
requirements, such as hydrophytes, mesophytes, and xerophytes.
The amount and distribution of rainfall throughout the year also

have significant effects on production. For plants grown from seed
production, water is vital during the time of fertilization.
4. Climatic requirements
The climate is mainly governed by (a) temperature, (b) water, and

(c) light.
There are three basic temperatures necessary for the germination

and growth of each plant species. First, the minimum temperature limits
of the growth of plants. If the temperature goes below the minimum
temperature, the plant will not grow or will be stunted. Second, the
maximum temperature wherein the plants can still survive. Third, the
moderate temperature which is between the maximum and the minimum
temperature which will make the plants grow fast.
Plants which require cool temperature like Irish potato, peas, and
others should be planted during the cool season and in mountainous or
high places like Baguio and Benguet. Plants like peanuts, eggplant,
tomato, and pepper require a high temperature.
Temperature affects some vital processes inside the plant like

photosynthesis, respiration, absorption of water and minerals and in the
germination of seeds. Enzymes which speed up these processes are
affected by temperature. An example is in seed germination. The stored
food in the endosperm before the seeds develop should be dissolved in
order to be used as food. If the temperature is low or high for the
temperature requirement of the enzyme, they will not dissolve the stored
food.
This is also true in photosynthesis and in plant respiration. If it is
too hot, the chlorophyll present in the leaves may be destroyed. That is
why you can see burnt portions in leaves during the hot season. On the
other hand, when it is cool, the water in the soil gets a bit concentrated,
and diluted if the temperature is hot. Water and minerals can readily be
absorbed if the soil solution is diluted.
Water serves as a solvent. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and

the other food elements cannot be taken up by the plant unless there is
water in the soil, serving as a solvent for the plant food which, in the
form of a solution, is absorbed by the roots.
45
Water is present in the soil either as free water, as capillary water,
or as hygroscopic water. Free water is that which flows under the
influence of gravity. This water is not used by the plant; however, it is
injurious to certain crops and, for their proper growth, should be
removed by drainage. Capillary water is water which adheres to soil
particles and is found in the opening between them. This is the water
that is of immediate service to the plant. Hygroscopic water exists as a
film surrounding and is held firmly by the soil particles. It is only given
by soil particles when these are subjected to a very high temperature.
This water is an emergency substitute for capillary water when the latter
is not available in case of severe drought.
Light affects the growth of crop plants mainly through affecting (1)
their structural development, (2) their food production, and (3) the time
required of certain species of varieties to produce seeds. Light is
necessary for photosynthesis and is therefore required by green plants for
the manufacturing of food. Many plants are influenced by the length of
day especially with regard to flowering, fruiting, and production of seeds.
This effect of light is known as photoperiodism. Some plants are known
as long-day plants and others as short-day plants. The long-day plants
need a comparatively long day for flowering, and their vegetative growth
increases when the days are short. The short-day plants such as corn,
soybeans and sorghum achieve their vegetative growth when the days are
long. They flower and produce seeds when the days are short.
Climate is one of the most important factors which control plant
growth and influence crop yield in any given region from year to year.
Climate and Its Relation to Crop Production

 Climate affects crops and crop production.
 It affects respiration, assimilation, photosynthesis, and other
physiological processes in plants.
 A dry climate favors the growth of vegetative leaf formation.
 Climate is also important in the growing of seedlings and cuttings
because moisture favors the development of roots and water is
essential for cell growth.
Factors Affecting Climate
1. Latitude - the distance north or south of the equator. As a rule,

the farther a region is located from the equator, the cooler is its
climate.
2. Altitude - an elevation above sea level. In higher elevation, the
temperature is lower than at sea level.
3. Mountain ranges – affect wind and humidity.
4. Ocean currents - affect the temperature of neighboring areas.
5. Vegetation - More forest and vegetation are like clouding in a given
local
46
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
1. Conduct an ocular inspection of your school and select a site for

vegetable production based on what you have learned from lesson.
Accomplish the table below which you are going to use, by putting
a check mark on the space of your choice corresponds to how the
factors in site selection for vegetable crops are met.
Factors to consider in site selection Excellent Good Poor None

1. Topography of the land 5 4 2 1
2. Nearness to road and

transportation facilities
3. Availability of water supply
4. Climatic requirements
5. Conditions of neighborhood
47
Soil is defined as the loose and friable material of the earth surface
for plants to grow. In certain places and under certain conditions, soil
consists of two principal layers: a more productive top or surface layer
known as surface soil and a less productive under layer known as the
sub-soil. The soil is composed of mineral matter of different sizes of
particles known as soil texture with a small proportion of organic life and
mixed with decayed animal and vegetable materials. The soil particles
are arranged from the surface soil to the parent rock. Such arrangement
is called soil profile.
Soil Sampling and Soil Analysis
Soil sampling and soil analysis are important to determine the pH

level of the soil and the nutrients present in the soil. Results of the soil
analysis will be the basis for fertilizer application.
Steps on Proper Soil Sampling
1. Make a map of the farm showing sampling areas (SA). Divide the
farm into sampling areas. Each SA should be more or less uniform
in cropping history, past lime and fertilizer treatments, slope,
degree of erosion, and soil texture and color.
2. Collect spot soil samples from each SA. In each SA dig 5 to 10
pits and collect sample from each pit. The number of spot soil
samples depends on the size of the Sampling Area. Spot sample is
taken in the following manner:
a. Before digging the pit, clear the soil surface of litters and
vegetation.
b. Using spade or shovel, dig a pit to a depth of 20-30 cm.
c. From one vertical side of the pit, take a slice of soil 2-3 cm
thick with a single downward thrust of the spade. Using a
knife or a trowel, trim the slice of soil on both sides to a bar
3-4 cm width.
d. Place this bar of soil (representing one spot soil sample) in a
pail or any suitable clean container.
e. If the subsoil sample is needed, take a bar of soil from the
succeeding 20 to 30 cm soil depth. The subsoil and surface
sample should be placed in separate containers.
f. Cover the pit and move to another spot.
3. Take composite soil sample. After collecting all the spot soil
samples of a particular sampling area, pulverize as you mix them
thoroughly, remove the stones and fresh leaves. Then air-dry the soil
samples. Place the composite soil sample (about ½ kg) in a clean
plastic bag. After that, the composite soil sample which represents
the soil of the sampling areas, is now ready for chemical analysis.
This may also be sent to a soil testing laboratory with pertinent label
and information.
48
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.2
Perform soil sampling in the selected site for producing vegetable

crops by following the steps in soil sampling, as follows:
a. Before digging the pit, clear the soil surface of litters and
vegetation.
b. Using spade or shovel, dig a pit to a depth of 20-30 cm.
c. From one vertical side of the pit, take a slice of soil 2-3 cm
thick with a single downward thrust of the spade. Using a
knife or a trowel, trim the slice of soil on both sides to a bar
3-4 cm width.
d. Place this bar of soil (representing one spot soil sample) in a
pail or any suitable clean container.
e. If the subsoil sample is needed, take a bar of soil from the
succeeding 20 to 30 cm soil depth. The subsoil and surface
sample should be placed in separate containers.
f. Cover the pit and move to another spot.
Resources
site
soil testing kit
crowbar
plastic container
scythe
spade
weighing balance
REFERENCES
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G.; Elementary Agriculture: Saint Mary’s

Publishing: 1983.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G.; Introduction to Tropical Crop Production: First
Edition Saint Mary’s Publishing. 1976.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G. and Castro, U. D.; Producing Quality Seeds the
Easy Way: Saint Mary’s Publishing: Sta Cruz, Manila. 1977.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon. D. et.al.; Technology and Home Economics 1
Agricultural Arts: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.: Quezon City. 1991
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon D. at.al.: Technology and Home Economics 2
Agricultural Arts: Abiva Publishing House, Inc: Quezon City. 1991
Cheah Kok Kheong, et.al.; Modern Agriculture for Tropical Schools:
Oxford University Press: 1979
Mendiola, N. B.; Principles of Crop Production. United Circulation, Inc.:
Malabon, Rizal. 1959
Resource Manual on Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM)
in Vegetables: World Education (INGO) Philippines, Inc.; Laguna,
Philippines: March 2005
Reyes, P. L.; “Lecture Notes on Field Crop Production” GAUF., Victoneta
Park, Malabon, Metro Manila.
Rivera, Aquilino R.; Home and School Vegetable Gardening: Grace
49
Printing, Inc.: Laoag City. 1988
Ware, George W. and J.P. McCollum; Producing Vegetables Crops:
Second Ed., Interlino Printing Co., Inc.: Quezon City 1975
SELF-CHECK
Answer the questions below. Write the letter of your answer in your
quiz notebook.
1. The best topography of the land for vegetable growing is _____.

a. hilly land
b. level land
c. water logged
d. slightly sloping
2. The site of the vegetable area should be near the road and
transportation facilities because of the following reasons EXCEPT
one:
a. consumers can easily reach the place
b. passers can easily see or visit the place easily
c. transporting of vegetable products will be delayed
d. vegetables are perishables and should not be stocked for a
long time
3. The area selected should also be near sources of good water

supply. Which of the following is NOT a function of water?
a. Water is not very necessary to plants.
b. Water is very important during the germination of seeds.
c. Water is needed by plants to maintain their growth and
development.
d. Water dissolves organic and inorganic matters in the soil
to be transported to the different parts of the plant.
4. There are vegetable crops suited to certain climatic conditions.

Climate is governed by the following factors EXCEPT______.
a. water
b. sunlight
c. temperature
d. presence of clouds
5. Sunlight is necessary to vegetable crops because of the following

reasons EXCEPT _____.
a. Light is necessary for photosynthesis
b. Light affects the structural development of plants.
c. Many plants are influenced by photoperiodism.
d. Sunlight dries up the plants especially during rainy
season.
50
6. The soil is made up of different sizes of particles of sand, silt and
clay. The relative amount of each of these soil components is
known as _____.
a. soil profile
b. soil texture
c. soil formation
d. soil composition
7. ______ is arrangement of soil from the surface to the hard parent

rock.
a. Soil profile
b. Soil texture
c. Soil oil formation
d. Soil composition
8. Which is NOT a characteristic of a good soil for growing vegetables?

a. contains plenty of minerals
b. has high water holding capacity
c. contains large amount of clay making the soil compact
d. has good aeration which allows the free movement of air
for respiration and development of roots
9. Which of the following is NOT a factor in affecting climate?

a. light
b. ocean currents
c. altitude and latitude
d. mountain ranges and vegetation
10. Which of the following factors is NOT necessary in the analysis of

soil samples?
a. cropping history
b. nearness to water supply
51
LESSON 2
PREPARE THE LAND FOR PLANTING VEGETABLE CROPS
INTRODUCTION
Lesson 2 focuses on the procedure in preparing the land for

vegetable production. It includes the use of appropriate tools for clearing
and tilling the land and the steps in preparing the land.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The site is 100% cleared from heavy trashes prior to tilling.

2. The site is plowed and harrowed alternately until the soil is
thoroughly pulverized.
3. The soil is leveled and furrows are made based on the distance of
planting.
4. The appropriate tools, farm implements, and equipment are
properly used.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Clearing of land – the removal of materials from the land

which will obstruct or make subsequent
cultural operations difficult
2. Tillage – the stirring of the soil for the purpose of
facilitating the growth of plants. It is the
operation of stirring, breaking up, and pulverizing the
soil by means of plows, harrows, cultivators, hoes,
tractors, and other implements.
52
Hand Tools and Farm Implements: Their Uses and Care
The kinds or types of hand tools and equipment used by the farmer
determine the success or failure of his crops. This lesson shows not only
the importance of hand tools and equipment in farm crop production but
also their uses, care, and repair.
Classification of Hand Tools and Equipment According to Their Uses
In vegetable or field crop production, whether in small or big scale,

the farmer needs to maintain a stock of hand tools and farm implements.
These tools and implements are classified according to their uses, as
follows:
1. Tools for digging holes and pulverizing the soil
a. Bolo
 for digging small
holes for posts
 for cutting of
grasses and weeds
 for loosening and
pulverizing the soil
 for breaking the
topsoil in preparing
garden plots if no
other tools are
available
b. Crowbar
 for digging big holes
 for digging out big
stones and stumps
c. Pick-Mattock
 for breaking hard
top soil
 for digging canals
 for digging up
stones and tree
stumps
53
d. Grub-Hoe for
breaking hard top
soil
e. Spade
 for digging
canals and
ditches
f. Shovel
 for shoveling loose
materials
 for removing trash
 for moving soil from
one place to
another
 Rake
 for cleaning the
ground
 for leveling the
topsoil
g. Spading Fork
 for loosening the
soil
 for digging out rock
crops
 for turning over the
materials in a
compost heap
 for hauling hay/rice
straw
h. Light Hoe
 for loosening and
leveling soil
 for digging furrows
for planting
54
i. Hand Trowel
 for loosening the
soil around the
growing plants
 for putting small
amounts of manure
in the soil
j. Hand Cultivator
 for cultivating the
garden plot by
loosening the soil
 for eliminating
young weeds
around the plant
2. Equipment for loading and transporting soil, fertilizers, and

others
a. Wheelbarrow b. Water pail

 for hauling trash, manure, for hauling water, manure, and
fertilizers
fertilizers
 for carrying other equipment
c. Sprinkler d. Sprayer
for watering plants for spraying pesticides and
liquid fertilizer
55
Importance of Thorough Land Preparation
Thorough land preparation for planting crops ensures proper growth

of crops. A good harvest will not be attained unless the soil is properly
cultivated. The benefits derived from thorough land preparation are as
follows:
 The soil moisture is conserved.
 The growth of weeds is controlled.
 The soil is loosen, thus allowing free circulation of air.
 The rate of decomposition of animal wastes and plant residues is
faster.
Moisture conservation in soil is important especially in places
where dry season is longer than the rainy season. To conserve moisture,
the soil should be cultivated often. Cultivation prevents rapid evaporation
of moisture from the soil by channeling the flow of water downward
rather than spreading it on the surface. More water could then be stored.
In many ways, weeds are enemies of plants. They use much of the
water and mineral nutrients available to the plants to support their
growth. Tall weeds shade the crops which prevent the plants from taking
in sunlight needed for the manufacturing of food. Pests and diseases also
temporarily reside among the weeds. All of these can be prevented
through proper cultivation of the soil.
Tilling is the operation involved in stirring the soil. Soil which is
properly cultivated makes possible proper utilization of nutrients by the
plants. It likewise improves aeration enabling the roots to develop and
branch out rapidly. It stimulates micro-organisms to act on the dead
leaves and animal wastes so they can be used readily by the plants.
Steps in Preparing the Land
Thorough land preparation is achieved by following these steps, as

follows:
1. Clear the land from heavy trashes like big stones, tall grasses,
branches of trees, and others. This facilitates tilling and helps
avoid the destruction of farm tools/implements/equipment.
2. Plow and harrow the field 2 – 3 times. After the first plowing and
harrowing, leave the field for sometime to let weed seeds to
germinate. After they have germinated, plow and harrow again to
eradicate them.
3. At the last harrowing where final pulverizing and leveling of the
land is done, incorporate organic matter for better growth of the
vegetable crops.
4. Make the furrows based on the recommended distance of planting
or construct the beds if necessary.
56
SELF-CHECK
Select the correct answer. Write the letter of your answer in your
quiz notebook.
1. The practice of stirring or turning the soil under is known as _____.

a. tilling
b. digging
c. cultivating
d. plowing and harrowing
2. Which one is NOT true about thorough land preparation?
a. The growth of weeds is controlled.
b. The soil moisture is easily lost or not conserved.
c. The soil is loosen, thus allowing free movement of air in the
soil.
d. The rate of decomposition of plant residues and animal
manures is faster.
3. Which of the following is the first step in preparing the land?
a. make furrows
b. grow seedlings
c. eradicate obstructions or heavy trashes
d. plow and harrow the field 2 – 3 times alternately
preparation?
a. To lessen the water holding capacity of the soil
b. To improve aeration, enabling the roots to develop and
branch out rapidly
c. To make possible proper utilization of nutrients by the plants
d. To stimulate micro-organisms to act on plant residues and
animal wastes to be used by the plants
5. The following are tools, implements, and equipment used in
preparing the land. Which one is NOT?
a. plow and harrow
d. garden hoe, shovel, pick-mattock
57
ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
Prepare a 1 X 10 sq. m. garden following the steps in thorough

land preparation. Observe safety measures in the use of tools. -
RESOURCES
Garden plot
Clearing tools
Digging tools
Rake
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
58
POST-TEST
Read and understand the questions below. Select the correct
answer; then write the letter of your answer in your quiz notebook.
1. What topography or terrain of the land is best suited for vegetable

production?
a. water logged c. slightly sloping
b. level or plain d. hilly/mountainous
2. The stirring of the soil for the purpose of facilitating the growth of
plants refers to______.
a. tilling c. cultivating
b. digging d. plowing and harrowing
3. In the following choices, there are three factors governing climate.

Which one is NOT?
a. water c. temperature
b. sunlight d. presence of clouds
4. Which of the following is NOT a factor in selecting the site for

a. climatic requirements
b. topography of the land
c. thorough land preparation
d. availability of water supply
5. The soil is made up of different sizes of particles of sand, silt and

clay. The relative amount of each of these soil components is
known as _____.
a. soil profile
b. soil texture
c. soil formation
d. soil composition
59
6. The best time to prepare the land is _____.
a. when it is too dry to avoid puddling.
b. when it is too wet so that tilling would be easy.
c. when it is NOT too wet as to cause puddling nor too dry as to
make pulverization of the soil difficult.
d. all of the above.
7. In general, a good soil for vegetable growing is one that has the
following characteristics EXCEPT ______.
a. It contains plenty of minerals.
b. It has high water holding capacity.
c. It contains large amount of clay making the soil compact.
d. It has good aeration which allows the free movement of air for
respiration and development of roots.
8. Which of the following factor is NOT true about climate and its
relation to plant production?
a. Crops and crop production are affected.
b. Topography and area of the land are affected.
c. Respiration, assimilation, photosynthesis and other
physiological processes in plants are affected.
d. Variation in plant and animal life are directly and indirectly
affected.
9. Which is NOT true about soil testing?

a. It determines how fertilizers are to be applied.
b. Soil testing determines the pH level of the soil.
c. Soil testing determines the type and amount of nutrients
present in the soil.
d. Result of soil testing is the basis of making fertilizer
recommendations.
10. The following records are needed to analyze the soil samples
EXCEPT______.
a. cropping history
b. nearness to water supply
11. The following are characteristics of thoroughly prepared land

EXCEPT______.
a. The land has big clods.
b. The land is free from stubbles.
c. The land is free from growing weeds.
d. The land is thoroughly pulverized and leveled.
60
preparation?
a. Thorough land preparation makes possible proper utilization
of nutrients by the plants.
b. It improves aeration enabling the roots to develop and
branch out rapidly.
c. It stimulates micro-organisms to act on plant residues and
animal wastes to be used by the plants.
d. Water-holding capacity of the soil is lessened.
13. Which of the following tools and implements are NOT used in
preparing the land?
a. plow and harrow
d. garden hoe, shovel, pick mattock
61
MODULE 2 ANSWER KEY
PRETEST LESSON 1 LESSON 2
1. C 11. B 1. D 1. A
2. C 12. D 2. C 2. B
3. D 13. C 3. A 3. C
4. B 14. C 4. D 4. A
5. D 15. D 5. D 5. C
6. A 6. B
7. C 7. A
8. A 8. C
9. B 9. A
10. A 10. B
62
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Unit of Competency: PRODUCE VEGETABLE CROPS
Module No. 3 Module Title: GROWING OF SEEDLINGS
63
MODULE III
QUALIFICATION : HORTICULTURE NCII

CROPS
MODULE TITLE : GROWING OF SEEDLNGS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes in selecting

good quality seeds, seed testing, soil components, soil sterilization,
sowing of seeds, and proper management of seedlings.
EXPECTED OUTCOME

1. select quality seeds;
2. prepare growing media and sow seeds;
3. demonstrate care and management of seedlings; and
4. appreciate the art of growing seedlings.
64
PRETEST
Let’s find out how much you already know about growing of
vegetable seeds and seedlings. Select the correct then write answer by
writing the letter of your choice in your test notebook.
1. The fertilized and ripened ovule refers to _____.

a. flower
b. fruit
c. plant
d. seed
2. The primary function of a seed is_____.
a. for food
b. for commercial purposes
c. for reproduction
d. all of the above
3. What is the % germination of the 100 seeds tested if there are 91
seeds germinated?
a. 85%
b. 88%
c. 91%
d. 100%
4. If you secure seeds to plant, see to it that _____.
a. the seeds are attractive
b. the variety is adapted to the locality
c. the quality of the product is given consideration
d. b and c
5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good seed?
a. clean, free from mixtures and damage
b. free from seed borne diseases and insects
c. immature seeds
d. true-to-type and viable
6. The operation involved in determining whether or not seeds are
viable, free from diseases and injuries, or their combination refers
to _____.
a. seed germination
b. seed testing
c. seed treatment
d. seed selection
7. Which of the following components of the growing media is best
suited for vegetable production?
a. equal parts of garden soil, sieved sand, compost and sawdust
or rice hull
b. equal parts of coco coir, garden soil, rice hull and animal
manure
c. equal parts of animal manure, compost, sieved sand and
coco coir
d. all of the above
65
8. A method of soil sterilization which is NOT environment friendly is
_____.
a. biofumigation
b. chemical treatment
c. heat treatment
d. solarization
9. Which one is NOT true about pricking?
a. Pricking is the transfer of young seedlings to another seed
box, seed bed or individual plastic bags.
b. Seedlings to be pricked are taken from thinly populated seed
box or seed bed.
c. A dibble is used to separate and ease out the seedlings in
order not to damage delicate roots.
d. Pricking is practiced when the two true leaves have already
developed.
10. The practice of exposing gradually the seedlings to sunlight to
acclimatize them refers to _____.
a. hardening off
b. pricking out
c. roguing
d. thinning
11. The process of pulling out disease infected or damaged seedlings is
_____.
a. hardening off
b. pricking out
c. roguing
d. thinning
12. The following are methods of seed testing EXCEPT _____.
a. actually germinating the seeds
b. breaking the seed coat
c. using better storage facilities
d. floating in water
13. Why do some seeds fail to germinate?
a. The seeds are in their dormant stage.
b. The seed coat is thick and hard.
c. The seeds are immature and have dead embryo.
d. All of the above.
14. Which of the following is NOT a special treatment for some seeds
in order to germinate?
a. heating
b. winnowing
c. cracking the seed coat
d. using better storage facilities
15. _____ refers to an essential establishment of a garden where
plants are propagated and nursed preparatory to planting.
a. garden shed
b. nursery
c. orchard
d. seed bed
66
LESSON 1
SELECT QUALITY SEEDS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the selection of quality seeds, ways to secure
quality seeds for planting, purposes and methods of seed testing, reasons
why some seeds fail to germinate, seed treatment, and determining the
percentage germination of the seeds.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The seeds selected are free from damage and disease, and
are clean and true-to-type.
2. The seeds selected have passed 80% or above standard as a
result of seed testing.
3. If the % germination of seeds is lower than 80%, the quantity
of seeds is adjusted.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Seed - a fertilized and ripened ovule which may develop into a

plant by germination.
2. Seed testing - the operation involved in determining whether or
not seeds are viable, free from diseases, injuries,
and foreign matters or their combination.
3. Germination - the development of the seed into a young plant.
4. Dormancy - a period in which a plant has no active growth in
response to harsh environmental conditions. It
also refers to the rest period of seeds.
67
Securing Seeds
There are two ways of securing the seeds to be planted:
1. You can buy seeds from seed stores in your town or order from
reliable seed producers in the city.
2. You can also produce your own seeds to plant.
Factors to Consider when Securing Seeds to Plant
 Quality of the product

 Adaptation of seeds to one’s locality
Advantages of Producing Your Own Seeds
 Supply of seeds for your farm is always made available.

 Higher percentage of germination is assured.
 Improvement of quality and quantity of the produce is possible.
Disadvantages of Producing Your Own Seeds
 Seed growing is an exacting work.

 It competes with the normal work in the nursery.
 It calls for knowledge of the principles of plant breeding.
 It calls for keen observation.
 It requires close application of details.
68
ACTIVITY SHEET I.1
Read and analyze the situation. Then answer the question briefly.
Situation:
You have enough money to buy certified seeds for your field, but
here comes a friend producing seeds willing to give you free seeds.
However, the seed bulk he is giving you for free is not yet certified.
Weed seeds, crushed leaves and stems are still present there. Which
do you prefer, buy certified seeds or accept your friend’s offer?
Explain your answer.
69
Farmers are very much aware that the quality of seeds affects the
yield of crops, but still many are using low quality seeds. This is because
of the inability of some farmers to secure good quality seeds. Good
quality seeds should possess the following characteristics:
 Damage free – seeds that do not possess cracks or holes, and are
not broken
 True- to-type - seeds that carry the desirable characteristics of the
parents
 Viable – seed that germinates and is able to survive until the stored
food in the cotyledon is consumed up to the time it can support
itself by absorbing plant food nutrients from the soil through its
root system
 Free from mixtures – seeds that are free from weed seeds and other
foreign matters.
 Free from seed-borne diseases
 Properly developed – The size of seeds depends upon the amount of
food stored in them. It is important that the seeds are large, plump
and well developed. If the seeds are small and wrinkled, they may
not contain enough stored food for their initial growth. This is the
reason why crops that grow from poorly developed seeds are
stunted during the early stages of growth and never recover
sufficiently to produce normal plants.
70
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.2
Get a bulk of seeds from your teacher for you to perform seed selection.
Perform the following:

a. Separate the seeds having the following characteristics:
 Seeds which are plump and mature
 Seeds with holes
 Seeds with cracks
 Insect-infested seeds
 Disease-infected seeds
 Seeds which are wrinkled and immature
b. Remove foreign materials or matters such as weed seeds,

crushed leaves and stems, small stones, etc. Present your work
to your teacher for evaluation.
71
Seed Testing
After selecting your seeds, you must also test the viability of your
seeds.
Nearly 50% of the local farmers who engage in small-scale

vegetable growing save their own seeds for the next planting season. This
can be done provided that the seeds are still viable during the planting
season. To be sure that the seeds are viable, you have to conduct seed
testing and compute for the % germination.
Purposes of Seed Testing
 Discover whether or not the seed is true to its name, except as to

variety.
 Ascertain whether or not it has been intentionally adulterated.
 Remove the relative proportions of inert material and of foreign
seed.
 Disclose the presence of noxious or other weed seeds.
 Find out the percentage of seed germination.
 Find out the amount of seeds needed to plant in a given area.
 Economize labor and expenses in re-planting.
 Obtain a uniform stand of crops.
Methods of Seed Testing
 Floating in water. A good

example for this is the rice
grains, before the rice grains
are sown in the field; farmers
usually submerge the seeds in
a container of water to test the
seeds. All floating seeds are
thrown away for they are empty
and are not going to germinate.
This method is also true to
vegetable seeds.
72
 Breaking the seed coat. This method is applied to seeds that have
hard seed coat.
Breaking the seed coat- open

a bitter melon seed for quick
germination
 Winnowing. If you winnow, all the

seeds that are blown away or carried
away by the wind are empty.
 Germinating the seeds using the following methods:
rag doll seed box Petri dish
73
Seed Germination
External Conditions Required in the Germination of Seeds
 Viability or vitality. The seed must be viable with a good alive

embryo. Immature and unhealthy seeds produce weak and
unhealthy plants.
 Proper amount of moisture. The soil must be moist. Soil must

contain sufficient quantity of moisture necessary for germination.
The seed absorbs moisture which cause all the parts to soften and
swell to burst its covering and allow the embryo to come out. If the
soil is too dry, the seed could hardly absorb water to hasten its
germination.
 Proper degree of temperature and amount of light
 Suitability of the soil
Why do Some Seeds Fail to Germinate?
 The seeds are in their dormant stage.

 The seed coat is thick and hard.
 The seeds are immature.
 The seeds have dead embryo.
 The ground is too dry.
 The weather is too cold.
Special Treatment for Some Seeds in Order to Germinate
 By cracking the seed coat. If the seed has thick and hard seed coat,
crack or file it to allow water and oxygen to get inside the seed. In
cracking the seed, care should be observed so as not to injure the
flesh of the seed which will be the source of infection and rotting
that will cause the seed to decay.
 By heating. If the seed is in a dormant stage, heat it a little. By

heating it up, the embryo becomes active as it starts to grow. Over
heating is also dangerous as it will kill the embryo.
 By better storage facilities. The death of the seed embryo due to

faulty storage facilities may be prevented by improving the facilities
where seeds are kept up until planting time.
When a seed begins to germinate, the root is the first part to grow.
It becomes well established before the other parts of the embryo
emerge above the surface of the soil so that the seedlings may not be
74
easily dislodged from its position and the parts which are soon to be
exposed to the drying influence of the sun and wind may continually
be supplied with water from the soil. The seed must be covered with
fine soil more or less as thick as the seed itself.
Determining the Percentage of Germination of Seeds
Below are the rules in computing the % of germination of seeds.
Rule 1: If you test 100 seeds, the number of seeds germinated is

equivalent to the percentage germination of the seeds.
Example: You tested 100 seeds of eggplant using the rag doll method.
Eighty five seeds germinated. The % of germination of the seeds then is
85%.
Rule 2. If you test less than or more than 100 seeds use, the formula
below in computing the % of germination of the seeds.
Example: Mr. X tested 125 seeds of hybrid tomato and 105 germinated.
What is the % of germination of the tomato seeds?
No. of seeds germinated

%germination = _________________________ x 100
No. of seeds tested
105
= x 100
125
10500
= 125
% Germination = 84 %
Rule 3. If you found out that the % of germination of your seeds is below
80, you need to adjust your seed bulk. Use the formula below in
adjusting the seed bulk.
Amount of seeds needed

Adjusted amount of seed = _________________________ x 100
% germination
75
Example:
You needed 200 seedlings to plant your garden. You found out that
your seeds have only 75 % germination. How many seeds will you sow?
Let: X = the number of seeds to sow or your adjusted seeds
200
X = ___________ X 100
75
111
= __________ X 100
75
= 266.6 or 267 seeds
76
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.3
Let us test your mathematical ability. Compute for the germination

percentage in the following problem:
Mr. Juan Dela Cruz tested 150 seeds of his long purple eggplant
and there are 110 seeds which germinated. What is the % germination of
his eggplant seeds? Is there a need for Mr. Dela Cruz to adjust his
seeds to sow? If yes, then compute for the amount of seeds he will sow to
meet the 150 seedlings that he needs in his garden.
77
SELF-CHECK
A. Filling the blanks. Fill in the blanks by writing a word or group

of words to complete the sentence. Write your answers in your quiz
notebook.
1. The fertilized and ripened ovule which may develop into a young
plant is _____________________.
2. ____________refers to the rest period of seeds.
3. The operation involving the identification as to whether or not the

seeds are viable, clean, free from diseases and mixture refers to
___________________.
4. An immature plant inside the seed which is consisted of the radicle

and the plumule is ________________.
5. In germination, the ________________ is the first one to come out in

the seed when planted in the soil.
B. Modified true or false. Write true if the statement is correct, and

false if it is incorrect and write the corrected underlined words.
1. Farmers can plant only seeds purchased from reliable seed stores.
2. Good quality seeds are those that are not viable, clean, true-to-type
and free from seed borne diseases.
3. Seed treatment is performed to determine the viability, cleanliness

and the percentage of germination of the seeds.
4. Seeds fail to germinate if they are immature.
5. To hasten the germination of seeds with thick and hard seed coats,
we can perform special seed treatment like cracking the seed coat.
Resources
vegetable seeds
seed bed
seed box
polyethylene plastic bags
germinating tray
rag
Petri dish
pail
78
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G.; Introduction to Tropical Crop
Production: First Edition Saint Mary’s Publishing. 1976.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G. and Castro, U. D.; Producing Quality
Seeds the Easy Way: Saint Mary’s Publishing: Sta Cruz,
Manila. 1977.
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon. D. et.al.; Technology and Home
Economics 1 Agricultural Arts: Abiva Publishing House,
Inc.: Quezon City. 1991
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon D. at.al.: Technology and Home
Economics 2 Agricultural Arts: Abiva Publishing House,
Inc: Quezon City. 1991
Cheah Kok Kheong, et.al.; Modern Agriculture for Tropical
Schools: Oxford University Press: 1979
Mendiola, N. B.; Principles of Crop Production. United
Circulation, Inc.: Malabon, Rizal. 1959
Resource Manual on Integrated Production and Pest
Management (IPPM) in Vegetables: World Education
(INGO) Philippines, Inc.; Laguna, Philippines: March
2005
Reyes, P. L.; “Lecture Notes on Field Crop Production” GAUF.,
Victoneta Park, Malabon, Metro Manila.
Rivera, Aquilino R.; Home and School Vegetable Gardening:
Grace Printing, Inc.: Laoag City. 1988
Ware, George W. and J.P. McCollum; Producing Vegetables
Crops: Second Ed., Interlino Printing Co., Inc.: Quezon
City 1975
79
LESSON 2
PREPARE THE GROWING MEDIA AND SOW SEEDS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson covers the components of the growing media for

vegetable crops, sow seeds and soil sterilization.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Components of the growing media are gathered and mixed

thoroughly based on the required proportion for vegetable
crop production.
2. Growing media is sterilized properly.
3. Methods of sowing seeds are performed based on the set
standards of the Vegetable Production Manual (VPM).
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Soil sterilization - the process of subjecting the soil to heat or

chemicals to kill micro organisms and other bacteria.
Sanitation - an activity that reduces the spread of pathogen inoculums,
such as removal and destruction of infected plant parts, and cleaning of
tools and field equipment.
Shed - a roof used to protect seedlings and other plants.
Seed beds - especially prepared plots where seeds are germinated.
Seed box - a box filled with soil or growing media where the seeds are
germinated
80
Preparing the Growing Media
The best soil for general nursery purposes is a friable loam, rich
in humus with a proper percentage of clay. In cases that these are not
available, the growing media can be prepared by thoroughly mixing the
following components:
For loam soil

 1 part loam soil
 1 part manure or decomposed manure
 1 part decomposed rice hull
For clay soil
 1 part clay soil
 2 parts compost or manure
 1 part decomposed rice hull/sieved sand
These soil components are thoroughly mixed together and will be

placed in seed boxes, plastic bags, seed trays or germinating trays or
seed beds.
To ensure the safety of seedlings from soil-borne diseases,

sterilize the growing media. Sterilized soil safeguards the seedlings from
the attack of damping-off which commonly destroys young seedlings in
seed boxes or seed beds.
Methods of Soil Sterilization
1. Burning organic materials on the soil
A common method of soil sterilization is heating up the soil. The

high temperature will cause the death of many micro-organisms,
including pathogens on the top of the soil and insect pests with soil-
dwelling stages such as cut worms.
2. Pouring boiling water into the soil
3. Solarization
Solarization, as a method of soil sterilization, uses the sun to

heat the soil. Solarization can control soil-borne diseases, weed seeds
and some nematodes including root knot nematodes.
To solarize soil, the soil is covered with clear polyethylene or

plastic sheets. The best time is during the hot season, when there is
plenty of sun. The sun heats up the soil through the plastic and the
plastic sheet keeps the heat inside the soil. The sheets should be left in
the field for 4 weeks.
81
4. Biofumigation
Soil-borne pests and pathogens can be suppressed by chemical

compounds that are released during decomposition of certain crops.
This is called biofumigation. The chemical compounds that kill or
suppress pathogens are principally isothiocyanates. Those crops with
biofumigation potentials are used as rotation crop, a companion or a
green manure crop.
5. Chemical treatment
Treat the soil with chemicals like Formaldehyde, 1 tablespoon per

1 gallon of water. However, the use of chemicals is not environmentally
friendly because chemicals may kill not only destructive micro-
organisms but also the beneficial ones. They are also hazardous to
health when inhaled.
82
Preparing the Seed Beds/Seed Boxes and Sowing of Seeds
In large scale planting, the vegetable seedlings are raised in

outdoor seed beds instead in seed boxes. In this system, the seedlings
may be raised economically. The seed bed should be carefully prepared
by spading and raking to pulverize the soil. Improvement may be made
by adding the prepared growing media.
A 1 X 10 square meter seed bed is good enough. It is 5 to 10 cm

above the level of the ground.
You are through preparing your growing media. The next activity
you will do is to propagate your plants.
Sowing Seeds
Sowing is the most important operation in crop production. The

seed must be placed at a required depth in a moist soil so as to get
optimum condition for its germination.
Too shallow sowing results in thin germination due to inadequate

soil moisture at topsoil layer. Similarly, if the seeds are sown very deep
in the soil, the young seedlings may not be able to push their shoots
above through thick soil layer. Seed must be sown at proper depth and
should be properly covered with soil so as to get adequate moisture for
its germination.
If you are planning to produce seedlings for backyard garden, it is

convenient to sow the seeds in seed boxes, plastic cups, fruit juice
containers, small polyethylene bags or germinating trays.
However, if you intend to plant in commercial scale, it is logical to
sow the seeds in seed beds because one hectare of solanaceous crops
requires 52,000 to 68,000 seedlings which need 10 plots measuring 1 X
10 square meters.
Steps in Sowing Seeds in Seed Boxes and Seed Beds
1. Moisten the soil media.

2. Sow the seeds in rows or broadcast evenly and thinly. Broadcasting
is less satisfactory than sowing the seeds in rows a few centimeters
apart unless pricking is to be done. Broadcasting of seeds, however,
is not advisable because of the following reasons:
 The air circulation between the plants is not sufficient.
 Seedlings dry less quickly, and such a condition is favorable for
the growth of fungi.
 Weeds are harder to control.
 It is hard to produce stocky seedlings because the seeds are not
properly covered with soil.
83
3. Cover the seeds with thin layer of fine soil sufficient enough to cover
the fine seeds.
4. Press down firmly the whole surface of the seed box or seed bed with
a flat board to ensure compact surface.
5. Water the seed beds/seed boxes using a sprinkler with fine holes or
water hose with fine spray.
SELF-CHECK
Matching type: Match Column A with Column B.

Write only the LETTER of your answer in your test notebook.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. seed beds a. any activity that reduces the spread of
pathogen inoculums, such as
removal and destruction of infected
plant parts, and cleaning of tools and
equipment.
2. growing media b. the process of subjecting the soil to
heat and chemicals to kill micro
organisms and other bacteria
3. soil sterilization c. prepared garden plots primarily for
production of seedlings
4. sowing seeds d. composed of equal parts of garden
sieved sand, compost and saw dust or
rice hull.
5. sanitation e. the placing and depositing of seeds in
a moist soil for good seed germination.
f. a box filled with soil or growing media
where seeds are germinated
84
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.2
Prepare your seed box measuring 1 X1 square meter and 6 inches

deep. Use any material available. Recycle if it is needed. Place the
thoroughly mixed growing media inside your seed box. Then, sterilize
your growing media by pouring boiling water into it.
If your teacher is around, she/he will observe you perform the

activity and may ask you some questions. If the teacher is out, she/he
will ask you questions later on how you did the activity.
Always remember that the success of growing seedlings depends
upon the growing media. Prepare your growing media by following the
proper way and correct proportions.
RESOURCES
saw dust
rice hull
garden soil
sieved sand
shovel
wheelbarrow
seed box
seed bed
85
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983
Agricultural Arts: Abiva Publishing House, Inc.: Quezon City.
1991
Resource Manual on Integrated Production and Pest Management
(IPPM) in Vegetables: World Education (INGO) Philippines, Inc.;
Laguna, Philippines: March 2005
86
LESSON 3
DEMONSTRATE MANAGEMENT OF SEEDLINGS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson focuses on the care and management of seedlings. It

specifically deals with the care of germinating seeds, pricking,
hardening off, thinning, and roguing.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Correct amount of water is provided to the seedlings.

2. Right kind and amount of fertilizer is applied in accordance
with the procedure set in the Vegetable Production Manual
(VPM).
3. Pricking, thinning, and roguing are properly performed.
4. Seedlings are hardened prior to transplanting to ensure
good head start based on the approved cultural practices
described in the VPM.
5. Right kind and amount of pesticides are applied.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Hardening - the practice of gradually exposing the

seedlings to full sunlight at least a week before
transplanting.
2. Pricking - the transferring of young seedlings when the
seedlings have already developed the first two true leaves
from thickly populated seed bed or seed box.
3. Thinning - the process of reducing the number of
seedlings in the seed box or seed bed that are thickly
populated
4. Roguing - the removal of disease-infection seedlings
87
Seeds even have their own food supply to start them off at least
until they can extend roots and draw food and water from the soil.
Before sowing, water the seed beds, seed boxes, and trays to give
the seeds a good start. Thereafter, these should be watered at least once
a day. The seedlings should also be fertilized as the case maybe,
sprayed to control insect pests and diseases. Remove weeds whenever
necessary.
Care of Germinating Seedlings
 Protect the seeds sown in seed beds from ants by spraying

insecticides which drive away ants. In the case of seed boxes, let
the legs of the seed boxes stand in cans filled with water and little
petroleum to prevent the ants from reaching the seed boxes.
 Seed boxes should be placed under the shade and should be
provided with temporary shelter.
 Regulate watering. Too much or too little of it may prevent
germination.
Care of Seedlings
 When seedlings are already growing, water them once with 3-4
tablespoons of ammonium sulfate dissolved in sprinkler of water.
 Expose the seedlings to the morning sun not later than eight
o’clock everyday. The length of exposure depends upon the
resistance of the seedlings to heat.
 Protect the seedlings from excessive heat or strong rain.
 If dumping-off develops, remove immediately the infected
seedlings with the soil surrounding them. Burn the disease-
infected seedlings and soil to avoid further spread of the disease.
Pricking
In cases where seedling in seed boxes or seed beds is thickly

populated, practice pricking out. This is done by transferring young
seedlings (when the first two true leaves have already developed) to
another seed box or seed bed on individual plastic bags.
The rule in pricking is never handle the plants by their stems,
which bruise easily, but always by their seed leaves. Others use a
sharpened wood or a metal device called dibble to separate and ease out
the seedlings, taking care not to damage the delicate roots.
88
Hardening Off
It will be necessary to harden off your seedlings before

transplanting them into the garden beds. This is accomplished by
placing the seedlings outside in a sheltered location. At this point the
seedlings are very tender and could easily be broken by wind and rain.
Start out by placing the seedlings in full morning sunlight for one hour.
Increase the time for full sunlight, gradually adding time each day.
Protect your seedlings from wind and animals to prevent breakage of
the tender vegetation. Within a week your seedlings should be able to
withstand full sunlight the whole day without wilting or burning the
tender leaves.
Thinning and Roguing
Some plants with tiny seeds are delicate. They can be sown along
a shallow drill and later some seedlings can be pulled out leaving the
healthy seedlings about 5 cm apart. This is called thinning. Meanwhile,
the process of pulling out disease-infected or damaged seedlings is
roguing.
Thinning is the process of reducing the number of seedlings in

the seed bed or seed box. This should be done as follows:
 Moisten the seed box or seed bed a few hours before

thinning.
 Remove the weak, unhealthy and poor-looking seedlings.
Immediately back firmly the disturbed soil with your hands.
 Throw the seedlings being pulled out or bury them into the
soil.
Value of Thinning
Thinning accelerates the free circulation of air which makes the

seedlings sturdier and healthier. If the right amount or quality of seeds
is sown evenly, there is no need for thinning.
89
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
Go to the municipal nursery and ask permission from the nursery

man to let you observe their nursery work especially the care of
seedlings. Interview the nursery man if he practices the different care
and management of seedlings listed in the table below. Rate the
practices according to what you have learned from the interview by
putting a check mark on the spaces provided for.
Practices in the care and Poor Fair Good Excellent

management of seedlings (5) (4) (2) (1)
1. Watering at least once
a day
2. Pricking
3.Thinning
1. Roguing
2. Hardening off
ACTIVITY SHEET 1. 2
Perform the practices listed in the above table in your own seed
box. Your teacher will evaluate your work upon accomplishing it. The
teacher will use the same table in rating your work.
Practices in the care and Poor Fair Good Excellent

management of seedlings (5) (4) (2) (1)
1. Watering at least once
a day
2. Pricking
3.Thinning
3. Roguing
4. Hardening off
90
Resources
seed beds with seedlings

seed boxes with seedlings
seed beds
seed boxes
seed trays
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
1991
Cheah Kok Kheong, at.al.; Modern Agriculture for Tropical Schools:
91
SELF-CHECK
A. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it

is wrong. Write your answer in your quiz notebook.
1. An establishment where seedlings are propagated and nursed prior

to planting them in the field is the nursery.
2. The nursery should be totally shaded to protect the seedlings from

the heat of the sun and beat of the rain.
3. A good nursery must also have a room for the tools/farm implements
and equipment to be kept or stored when they are not in use.
4. It is important to sterilize the growing media to keep the seedlings

away from soil-borne diseases.
5. The nursery should be arranged properly so as to have aesthetic

beauty and ease of work.
B. Filling the blanks. Fill in the blanks with a word or group of words to
complete the sentence.
1. The development of a seed into a young plant is _______________.

2. Exposing the seedlings gradually to sunlight a week before
transplanting is called_________________________.
3. When seedlings have developed the first two true leaves in a
thickly populated seed bed or seed box, they could be
_____________________ to another seed bed or seed box.
4. The removal of disease-infected and heavily damaged seedlings
is
called________.
5. If a farmer raises seedlings to plant a hectare of land, it is
advisable to sow the seeds in the _________________.
POST-TEST
Direction: Choose the correct answer by writing only the LETTER in

your test notebook.
1. The fertilized and ripened ovule refers to the _____.

b. flower
c. fruit
d. plant
e. seed
2. The primary function of a seed is _____.
a. for food
b. for commercial purposes
c. for reproduction
d. all of the above
92
3. What is the % germination of the 100 seeds tested if there are
91 seeds germinated?
a. 85%
b. 88%
c. 91%
d. 100%
4. If you secure seeds to plant, see to it that _____.
a. the seeds are attractive
b. the variety is adapted to the locality
c. the quality of the product is given consideration
d. b and c
5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a good seed?
a. clean, free from mixture and damage
b. free from seed- borne diseases and insects
c. immature seeds
d. true-to-type and viable
6. The operation which involves determining whether or not seeds
are viable, free from diseases and injuries or their combination
refers to ________.
a. seed germination
b. seed testing
c. seed treatment
d. seed selection
7. Which of the following components of the growing media is
best suited for vegetable production?
a. equal parts of garden soil, sieved sand, compost and
sawdust or rice hull
b. equal parts of coco coir, garden soil, rice hull and animal
manure
c. equal parts of animal manure, compost, sieved sand and
coco coir
d. all of the above
8. A method of soil sterilization which is NOT environmentally
friendly is _______.
a. biofumigation
b. chemical treatment
c. heat treatment
d. solarization
9. Which is not true about pricking?
a. seedbed or individual plastic bags
b. seedlings to be pricked are taken from thinly populated
seed box or seed bed
c. a dibble is used to separate and ease out the seedlings in
order to not damage delicate roots
d. pricking is practiced when the two true leaves have already
developed.
93
10. The practice of exposing gradually the seedlings to sunlight
to acclimatize them refers to _______.
a. hardening off
b. pricking out
c. roguing
d. thinning
11. The process of pulling out diseases infected or damaged
seedlings is ________.
a. hardening off
b. pricking out
c. rouging
d. thinning
12. The following are methods of seed testing EXCEPT _____.
a. actually germinating the seeds
b. breaking the seed coat
c. using better storage facilities
d. floating in water
13. Why do some seeds fail to germinate?
a. The seeds are in their dormant stage.
b. The seed coat is thick and hard.
c. The seeds are immature and have dead embryo.
d. All of the above
14. Which of the following is NOT a special treatment for some
seeds in order to germinate?
a. heating
b. winnowing
c. cracking the seed coat
d. using better storage facilities
15. _____ refers to an essential establishment of a garden where
plants are propagated and nursed preparatory to planting.
a. Garden shed
b. Nursery
c. Orchard
d. Seed bed
94
(Y3) MODULE 3 ANSWER KEY
PRE-TEST LESSON 1 LESSON 2

1. D 11. C A. 1. C
2. C 12. C 1. SEED 2. D
3. C 13. D 2. DORMANT SEED 3. B
4. A 14. D 3. SEED TESTING 4. E
5. C 15. B 4. MATURE 5. A
6. B 5. ROOT OR RADICAL
7. A B. LESSON 3
8. B 1. NOT ONLY A. 1. TRUE
9. B 2. ARE 2. TRUE
10. A 3. SEED TESTING 3. TRUE
4. TRUE 4. TRUE
5. TRUE 5. TRUE
B. 1.GERMINATION
2. HARVENING
3. PRICKED
4. ROGUING
5. SEEDBEDS
95
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Module No. 4 Module Title: DIRECT PLANTING AND
TRANSPLANTING OF SEEDLINGS
96
MODULE IV
CROPS
MODULE TITLE : DIRECT PLANTING AND
TRANSPLANTING OF
SEEDLINGS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required

in direct planting and transplanting of seedlings of vegetable crops.
EXPECTED OUTCOME

1. perform direct planting vegetable crops; and
2. practice transplanting vegetable seedlings.
97
PRETEST.
Direction: Choose the correct answer. Write only the LETTER of your
choice in your test notebook.
1. The placing of propagating materials either seeds or vegetative

parts of a plant in the soil and covering them with subsequent
amount of soil refers to _____.
a. laying out
b. planting
c. pricking
d. transplanting
2. Which of the following are NOT directly planted?

a. cabbage seeds
b, bean seeds
c. mongo seeds
d. squash seeds
3. Which part of the plant is NOT directly planted?

a. bulbs and seeds
b. cuttings
c. roots and tubers
d. none of these
4. Which of the following is NOT a consideration in selecting

cutting?
a. cuttings should come from sturdy plants
b. cuttings should be uniform in size and weak.
c. cuttings should be free from diseases and insect pests
d. cuttings should come from productive plants planted in
productive soil
5. Time of planting depends on the following factors EXCEPT _____.

a. soil and weather conditions
b. the time the produce is desired
c. the kind of crop to be planted
d. size of seeds and other propagating materials
6. Which of the following is NOT considered in determining the depth

of planting?
a. the shape of the seeds
b. the kind of soil
c. the size of the seeds
d. the amount of moisture in the soil
98
7. If the farmer uses an equipment like driller to plant his field, the
method of planting he used is ________.
a. by machine
b. drill method
c. sowing seeds by hand
d. broadcasting method
8. Which of the following factors is NOT considered in determining

the rate of planting?
a. condition of the soil
b. method of planting
c. viability of the seeds
d. possible ravages of insects
9. Which of the following is NOT true about the rate of planting?

a. More seeds are planted when seeds have low viability.
b. More seeds are planted when the soil and weather conditions
are not favorable.
c. More seeds should be planted when seeds produce delicate and
weak seedlings
d. Less seeds should be planted when there are possible ravages
of insects in the area.
10. Which of the following is NOT an underground planting

material?
a. gabi
b. ginger
c. onions
d. ubi
99
LESSON 1
PERFORM DIRECT PLANTING OF VEGETABLE CROPS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson particularly deals with the different parts of the plant
that can be directly planted. It also includes methods of direct planting,
depth and rate of planting, the distance of planting vegetable seeds, and
the tools and implements to be used.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Different plant parts that are directly planted are identified.

2. Different methods of direct planting vegetable crops are
followed.
3. Distance of planting directly-seeded crops is observed.
4. Depth of planting seeds and rate of seeding are followed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Planting - the placing of propagating materials like seeds or

vegetative parts of the plants on the soil or at the bottom of the
furrows, and covering them subsequently with soil
Plant Density - the number of plants per square area
100
Direct Planting/Sowing
Planting means the placing of propagating materials, either seeds

or vegetative parts of plants (seeds, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes, clones),
on the soil or at the bottom of the furrows, and then usually covering
them subsequently with soil.
Sowing is the most important operation in crop production. The

seed must be deposited at a required depth, i.e. moist zone of soil so as
to get optimum condition for its germination. Sowing is also the placing
of specified quantity of seeds in soil in the optimum position for its
germination and growth.
Too shallow sowing results in thin germination due to inadequate

soil moisture at top soil layer. Similarly, if the seeds are sown very
deeply into the soil, the young seedlings may not be able to push their
shoots above, through thick soil layer. Seed must be sown at proper
depth and should be properly covered with soil so as to get adequate
moisture for its germination. Seeds are sown either directly in the field
or in nurseries where they are raised and then transplanted later.
Generally, large seeds are planted directly in the ground or in

garden plots or in the field. Some vegetable crops do not need special
care and are planted directly in the ground. Some of these plants are:
 legumes like mongo, beans, cowpeas

 vegetable fruit crops like okra, squash, upo, patola
 root crops radish and carrots.
Parts of Plants Directly Planted in the Ground
1. Seeds
2. Cuttings
Cuttings are pieces of stems placed under suitable
conditions which will produce new plants.
Points to consider in selecting cuttings:
 The cuttings should be taken from sturdy plants.

 They should come from productive plants planted in
productive land.
 They should be free from diseases and insect pests.
 They should be stocky and uniform in size.
101
Kinds of Cuttings:
 Root cuttings like rimas

 Stem cuttings like camote
 Node cuttings like kangkong
Planting Cuttings
 Plant only one cutting to a hill.

 Plant cuttings in slanting position.
3. Underground runners
The underground section of the plant is used for planting
materials. The runners or suckers are clipped off from the parent
plants and then planted to the field before they get dry. They are
usually set in ridges and rows. Examples of these crops are
arrowroots, ginger, taro, and gabi.
4. Bulb
The bulb portion of the plant is used as a planting material.
One example is garlic.
5. Root and tuber

Some crops are best propagated or planted by the sections
of the roots or tubers. The root or tuber is cut into halves or
quarters, each section of which should have two or three alive
buds or “eyes.”
Methods of Direct Planting
1. By machine
Most commercial gardeners plant seeds with machine planters or
seed drillers and the likes. Machines do the work much better and
more rapidly than by hand sowing. The common seed drillers open
the furrow, drop the seeds, cover them, and pack the soil at one
operation. These drillers can be regulated to sow at various rates
and at the depth desired.
2. Sowing seeds by hand
Planting seeds by hand is commonly practiced in home gardens
and in not too wide field. The seeds should be distributed uniformly
in the furrow and covered immediately to prevent loss of moisture
and to bring the seed into close contact with the soil.
The methods of planting seeds by hand are:
1. Hill planting. This is commonly done by having 3 to 4 seeds per

hill.
2. Broadcast method. This means scattering seeds uniformly by
hand all over a well prepared field and then covering the seeds
with soil through the help of light implement or plank.
102
Advantages of broadcasting over the other methods
 It is a quicker and cheaper method as far as cost of labor in
planting is concerned.
 Implements are not required for sowing.
 Skilled labor is not required for sowing.
 It can be done in moist condition.
Disadvantages:
 It requires more seed per unit area.
 The seeds fall at different depth resulting in uneven and
guppy plant stand as shallow-sown seed may not germinate
due to adverse moisture condition, and germination of
deep-sown seed may have adverse effects due to depth.
 Inter culture operation is difficult as spacing is not
maintained.
 Uneven distribution of seed and hence crop growth
resulting in excess competition at certain area and no
competition at some areas
 Loss of seeds by birds and insects if it is not properly
covered with soil.
3. Drill /line/furrow sowing
Sowing of seeds in a line on a large scale is generally done
with the help of sowing implement such as seed drill or fermium
seed drill called drilling. Drilling seeds is done continuously in
rows or in lines/furrows at regular interval. This method is
adopted for pure cropping or intercropping. In addition to this,
ferti-seed drill is also used, where fertilizer and seeds are sown
simultaneously at desired depth of soil.
Advantages of drill or line/furrow sowing
 Seed placement is done at proper and uniform depth
resulting into uniform germination.
 Seed rate requires less as compared to broadcast method.
 It avoids over crowding of seedling and maintains uniform
spacing between two rows.
 Cultivation is carried out easily.
 Sowing depth can be adjusted in order to place the seed at
moist zone.
Disadvantages:
 It requires seed drill for sowing, hence it is costly than
broadcast method.
 A skilled person is required to carry out sowing operation, if
not the seeds are not sown properly which may cause
uneven germination and ultimately poor stand of crops.
Rate of Planting
Among the factors to be considered with regard to the quantity of

seeds to plant are:
103
 The viability of the seeds. Seeds known to be low in viability
should be planted more thickly than those having high
viability. Seeds held over from one year to the next planting
season should be tested for germination. If the percentage of
germination is low or if the sprouts are weak, the seeds should
not be planted.
 The condition of the soil. When the soil and weather
conditions are unfavorable, more seeds should be planted
than when the conditions are favorable.
 The size and vigor of the plants. Seeds that produce
delicate and weak plants, such as carrots, should be planted
quite thickly to ensure a good stand. Any excess of plants may
be removed to prevent crowding.
 The possible ravages of insects. In planting seeds, it is a
common practice to plant freely in order to have several times
as many plants that are needed. Later on, you can practice
thinning if you found out that your plants are crowding.
Depth of Planting
In places where there is heavy rainfall, seeds should be planted

shallow for if planted deeply into the soil during the rainy season, the
seeds will decay. As a rule, seeds should be at a depth at which the
seeds will be able to come out well of the ground before the reserved
food in the seed becomes fully consumed and at the same time afford
enough anchorage to the roots. Size of seeds partly determines the
depth at which they are to be planted.
Distance of Planting of Some Vegetable Crops
CROP DISTANCE OF DEPTH OF RATE OF

PLANTING PLANTING SEEDING
(cm)
(Transplanted) Between Between per hill
Hill (cm) Row (cm)
1. cabbage 50 75 3-5 1
2. cauliflower 30 35 3-5 1
3. lettuce 30 30 3-5 1
4. tomato
 single row
30-50 75-100 4-6 1
spacing
 double row 40 45 1
spacing
5. pepper 30-50 50-75 4-6 1
6. eggplant 75 120 4-6 1
7. ampalaya 75 100 4-6 1
104
CROP DISTANCE OF DEPTH OF RATE OF
PLANTING PLANTING SEEDING
(cm)
(Transplanted) Between Between per hill
Hill (cm) Row (cm)
(Directly seeded)
1. beans (bush) 30 50 2-3 3-4
2. beans (pole
sitao) 50 100 2-3 3-4
3. okra 75 100 2-3 2-3
4. squash 100 150 2-3 2-3
5. patola (luffa) 100 150-36 2-3 2-3
SELF-CHECK
I. Classify the plant parts below according to how they could be directly
planted, either by seeds, cuttings, underground runners, bulb or root,
and tuber. Write your answers in your test notebook.
1. beans
2. camote
3. ginger
4. garlic
5. gabi
II. What are the methods of direct planting?
III. What are the considerations in direct planting seeds?
105
ACTIVITY SHEET1.1
In your 1 X 10 square meter garden plot, perform direct planting

following the hill method. Observe also the rate, distance, and depth of
planting. Write a narrative report on how you did the activity.
RESOURCES
Seeds
Cuttings
Underground runners
Bulbs
Suckers
Rhizomes
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
1991
106
LESSON 2
PRACTICE TRANSPLANTING OF VEGETABLE SEEDLINGS
INTRODUCTION
Lesson 2 focuses on transplanting of vegetable seedlings. It

stresses on the tips and rules of successful transplanting, steps in
transplanting, and the tools and materials used in transplanting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Vegetable seedlings are transplanted at the right time.

2. Vegetable seedlings are transplanted following the steps in
transplanting.
3. Tools and materials in transplanting are properly used.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Transplanting - the process of transferring the seedlings from the

nursery to the field where they continually grow
and develop.
2. Dibbler – a pointed tool or material that is used in uprooting
seedlings.
107
Transplanting
Success in transplanting seedlings to the field or garden depends

on good seedlings, good condition of the soil, favorable weather
conditions, time of transplanting, use of appropriate tools and other
materials, and the proper manner of doing the work.
Seedlings are like babies. They are fragile and vulnerable so the
principles of Tender Loving Care (TLC) should be strictly followed.
Purposes of Transplanting
 Allow sufficient space for stocky development of the plants.

 Do preliminary selection of good, healthy, and vigorous
seedlings.
 Eliminate disease and weak seedlings or plants.
Tips in Successful Transplanting
 Have good healthy seedlings.

 Have the land thoroughly prepared before transplanting.
 Transplant hardened seedlings. Hardened seedlings could
withstand outside conditions.
 Have a good container, a shallow small basket, or a banana
bract of convenient length for the seedlings.
Rules in Transplanting
 Keep direct sunlight away from the roots while the

seedlings are out of the ground.
 Keep the roots moist and the tops dry while transferring the
seedlings.
 Keep as much soil on the roots as possible.
 Settle the soil around the roots when watering.
 Handle seedlings carefully to avoid bruising or breaking.
 Transplant late in the afternoon or on a cloudy day
 Cover the transplants if deemed necessary.
Steps in Transplanting
1. Water the seedlings 24 hours before transplanting.

2. With the aid of a sharp dibble or trowel, lift the plants carefully.
Never pull the plants. The roots should not be disturbed. Carry
them on a wet gunny sack. They should not be exposed to
sunlight.
3. Dig a hole big enough to receive the root system without bending
or squeezing it into the space.
108
4. Set the seedling in the hole. Sift fine moist soil around the roots
and press it down enough to bring the soil in contact with the
roots.
5. Water the newly transplanted seedlings using a sprinkler or water
hose with fine spray.
6. If necessary, provide a temporary cover to the seedlings for a few
days. Temporary cover can be made from banana bracts or any
available materials suitable for the purpose.
Tools and Materials in Transplanting
 Dibbler. The dibbler aids in lifting or pulling the seedlings to

minimize possible damages to seedlings.
 Sprinkler or water hose is used in watering the seedlings before
pulling them and upon transplanting.
 Covering materials like banana bracts and other materials cover
the transplants and safeguard the transplants from excessive
transpiration of water especially during sunny days.
SELF-CHECK
Arrange the steps in transplanting by writing them in

chronological order in your test notebook.
 Water the transplant with the use of a sprinkler or water hose

with fine spray.
 Dig the holes big enough to accommodate the root system with
the use of appropriate tool.
 If necessary, provide a temporary shade to the newly transplanted
seedlings for a few days until the plants can withstand the heat of
the sun.
 Cover root system with fine moist soil and press it down a little to
bring the soil in contact with the roots.
 Water the seedlings 24 hours before transplanting.
 Set the seedlings in the prepared holes.
 Uproot the seedlings with the aid of a dibble.
109
ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
In your prepared garden for cruciferous and solanaceous crops,

perform transplanting of seedlings. Make use of your own vegetable
seedlings you raised in the nursery. Make sure that the seedlings are
watered thoroughly 24 hours before transplanting.
Factors to consider in Excellent Good Fair Poor

transplanting 5 4 3 2
Watered the plants 24 hours
before transplanting
Dug holes wide and deep
enough to accommodate the
roots
Selected healthy seedlings
Uproot the seedlings with the
aid of a dibble
Set the seedlings properly and
covered the root with fine soil
Rate of planting is followed
Depth of planting is observed
Watered the transplants
thoroughly
Provided temporary cover to the
transplants if deemed
necessary
RESOURCES:
Seedlings
Covering materials like banana bracts
Sprinklers
Dibblers
110
References

Publishing: 1983.
1991
111
POST TEST
Direction: Choose the correct answer by writing only the LETTER in

your test notebook.
1. The placing of propagating materials either seeds or vegetative

parts of a plant in the soil and covering them with subsequent
amount of soil refers to _____.
a. laying out
b. planting
c. pricking
d. transplanting
2. Which of the following are NOT directly planted?

a. cabbage seeds
b, bean seeds
c. mongo seeds
d. squash seeds
3. Which part of the plant is NOT directly planted?

a. bulbs and seeds
b. cuttings
c. roots and tubers
d. none of these
4. Which of the following is NOT a consideration in selecting

cutting?
a. Cuttings should come from sturdy plants.
b. Cuttings should be uniform in size and weak.
c. Cuttings should be free from diseases and insect pests.
d. Cuttings should come from productive plants planted in
productive soil.
5. Time of planting depends on the following factors EXCEPT_____.

a. soil and weather conditions
b. the time the produce is desired
c. the kind of crop to be planted
d. size of seeds and other propagating material
6. Which of the following is NOT considered in determining the

depth of planting?
a. the shape of the seeds
b. the kind of soil
c. the size of the seeds
d. the amount of moisture in the soil
112
7. If the farmer uses equipment like driller to plant his field, the
method of planting he used is _____.
a. by machine
b. drill method
c. sowing seeds by hand
d. broadcasting method
8. Which of the following factors is NOT considered in determining

the rate of planting?
a. condition of the soil
b. method of planting
c. viability of the seeds.
d. possible ravages of insects
9. Which of the following is NOT true about the rate of planting?

a. More seeds are planted when seeds have low viability.
b. More seeds are planted when the soil and weather conditions
are not favorable.
c. More seeds should be planted when seeds produce delicate and
weak seedlings
d. Less seeds should be planted when there are possible ravages
of insects in the area
10. Which of the following is NOT an underground planting

material?
a. gabi
b. ginger
c. onions
d. ubi
113
COMPETENCY-
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Module No. 5 Module Title: MAINTAINING THE GROWTH OF
VEGETABLE CROPS
114
MODULE V
CROPS
MODULE TITLE : MAINTAINING THE
GROWTH OF PLANTS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes in

applying the kind and rate of fertilizer, irrigation and drainage
practices, control of insect pests and diseases, weeding and cultivation,
and mulching.
EXPECTED OUTPUT
Upon completion of the module, you should be able to:

1. apply the recommended kind and rate of fertilizer needed by
vegetable crops;
2. perform irrigation and drainage practices;
3. control insect pests and diseases;
4. perform weeding and cultivation; and
5. practice mulching.
115
PRETEST
Direction:
Read and understand the questions carefully and select the correct
answer by writing the LETTER in your test notebook.
1. We can say that the soil is fertile if _____.

a. it contains most of the essential elements needed for plant
growth.
b. it can produce maximum yield of crops.
c. it is black.
d. it is porous.
2. It refers to the necessary materials wherein a plant can build new

tissues and at the same time carry on its normal functions.
a. lime c. plant food
b. inoculants d. pesticide
3. Any organic and inorganic material that supports plant growth and
development is _____.
a. biofertilizer c. fertilizer
b. commercial fertilizer d. organic fertilizer
4. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. calcium c. phosphorus
b. nitrogen d. potassium
5. Which one is the primary function of nitrogen?

a. Aids in seed formation
b. Forms and transfers starch
c. Hastens maturity
d. Gives dark green color to plant
6. When the fertilizers are applied in scattered manner over the

surface of the land, the method of fertilization is _____.
a. side dressing
b. broadcasting
c. foliar application
d. band or row or localized placements
7. Which of the following is NOT a method of determining soil fertility?

a. soil analysis
b. field fertilizer trials
c. nutrient deficiency symptom
d. foliar application of fertilizer
116
8. In order to conserve soil fertility, the following methods should be
practiced EXCEPT ________.
a. application of organic fertilizer
b. practice of broadcasting and side dressing of fertilizer
c. practice of green manuring
d. practice of composting, mulching and cover cropping
9. The supply of water to the soil by any other means than rainfall is
______.
a. duty of water c. fertilization
b. drainage d. irrigation
10. The water is applied above the ground, either in furrows or by

spreading it over the land being irrigated. It is called _____.
a. sub-irrigation c. over head or spray irrigation
b. surface irrigation d. watering by hand
11. This method of irrigation is used to apply water with the use of
sprinklers to irrigate crops grown in a small piece of land like
school and home gardens.
a. irrigation by hand c. irrigation by windmill
b. irrigation by gravity d. irrigation by power machinery
12. Which of the following benefits is NOT derived from irrigation?

a. Ensumes crop against drought
b. Improves soil aeration
c. Enables the growing of quick maturing crop
d. Increases quality and yield of crops
13. In order to save irrigation water, you should practice the following
EXCEPT _____.
a. avoiding over irrigation.
b. practicing wild flooding
c. practicing lining of canals properly with a clay puddle.
d. planting the field with uniform or properly graded surface.
14. The process of removing excess water from the soil in order to
increase its productivity is ______.
a. fertigation c. irrigation
b. drainage d. none of these
15. These are wild or cultivated plants that grow in a place where
they are not wanted.
a. broadleaf weeds c. sedges
b. grasses d. weeds
117
16. Which of the following is NOT a good reason for removing or
controlling the weeds?
a. Weeds cause a decrease in crop production
b. Weeds increase labor cost and cost of production.
c. Weeds increase land value.
d. Weeds harbor plant pests which may affect plant growth and
yield.
17. Which of the following is NOT a mechanical method of controlling

weeds?
a. burning c. cover cropping
b. cutting d. uprooting the weeds.
18. Which of these methods of controlling weeds is NOT

environmentally friendly?
a. biological c. mechanical
b. cropping and competition d. chemical
19. Which is NOT true about cultivation?

a. It conserves soil moisture. c. It improves soil aeration.
b. It destroys weeds. d. It decreases crop yield.
20. The best time to cultivate is _____.

a. after planting and before the crop covers the ground.
b. after watering or irrigating.
c. after draining the field.
d. all of these.
118
LESSON 1
APPLY THE RECOMMENDED KIND AND RATE OF FERTILIZER
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the study of the kinds of fertilizer, its
sources, functions, methods of fertilizer application, methods on how to
improve the fertility of the soil, and composting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The macro and micro elements of the soil and their

functions are determined.
2. The methods of determining soil fertility are observed.
3. The kind and rate of fertilizers are applied.
4. The methods used in applying fertilizers are considered in
growing vegetable crops.
5. The methods of conserving soil fertility are followed.
6. Composting is practiced.
7. The appropriate methods of fertilizer application are
practiced
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Soil productivity – the ability to produce more than a sufficient

quantity of agricultural crops
2. Soil fertility – the richness of soil in terms of organic and inorganic
plant foods which plants can use for growth and production
3. Liming – the application of calcium or magnesium containing
compounds to the soil to neutralize acidity
4. Plant food – the necessary materials from which a plant can build
new tissues and at the same time carry on its normal functions
5. Leaching – the loss of soluble substances in water that drains
down to the lower depths of the soil beyond the reach of the roots
119
Plant Food
Soil is only one of the many factors that contribute to high

productivity. Fortunately, it can be controlled by man. Maximum
benefit from soil fertility program can be realized only if the other
factors of plant growth are favorably controlled.
A fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or

synthetic origin which is added to the soil to supply certain elements
essential to plant growth. Fertilizers are used to increase the growth
rate, yield, and quality or nutritive value of plants.
Plants have three sources from which they get their necessary
nutrients:
1. Air. The air contains carbon dioxide (carbon combined with oxygen).
Carbon dioxide provides source of carbon and oxygen for growing
crops. In turn, when plants’ residues decay, carbon dioxide is again
released into the air.
The air around us is composed largely of nitrogen, a very inert
gas. Although nitrogen is needed in large amounts by plants,
nitrogen from the air cannot be used by the growing plant. Through
legumes, the bacteria in their nodules, which develop in their roots
as a result of inoculation, can fix and utilize nitrogen from the
atmosphere.
2. Water. Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen; thus, it provides
plants with these elements.
3. Soil. All other plant food elements in the soil are therefore very
important.
The Plant Food Elements
The primary plant food elements

Chemical symbol
 Nitrogen . . . .. . . . . . . . .N
 Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . .P
 Potassium . . . . . . . . . . .K
The secondary plant food elements

 Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . Ca
 Magnesium . . . . . . . . . Mg
 Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . S
Elements from air and water

 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . C
 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . H
 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . O
120
The trace elements
 Manganese . . . . . . . . . . Mn
 Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B
 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cu
 Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zn
 Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fe
 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . Mo
 Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . Cl
The Plant Food Elements and Their Functions
Nutrient Functions Symptoms of Deficiency

Nitrogen  Gives dark green color  Sticky yellowish green
to plants color
 Promotes leaf, stem,  Distinctly slow and
fruit and seed growth dwarfed growth
 Improves quality of leaf  Drying up or firing of
crops leaves from bottom of the
 Facilitates rapid growth plants proceeding upward
 Increases protein
content of food and leaf
crops
 Feeds soil micro-
organisms during their
decompositions of low
nitrogen organic
materials
Phosphorus  Stimulates early root  Purplish leaves, stems,
formation and growth and branches
 Gives rapid and vigorous  Slow growth and maturity
start to plants  Small slender stalk in
 Hastens maturity case of corn
 Stimulates blooming  Lack of stooling in small
 Aids in seed formation grains
 Gives plants hardiness  Low yields of grain, fruit
and seed
Potassium  Imparts vigor and  Mottling, spotting,
disease-resistance to streaking or curling of
plants leaves, starting from the
 Produces strong, stiff lower level
stalks, thus reduces  Scorched or burned
121
lodging margin of the leaves
 Increases plumpness of  Drooping of the corn plant
the grains and seeds falls down prior to
 Helps in the formation maturity due to poor root
and transfer of starch, development
sugar and oil
 Imparts hardness to
legumes
Kinds of Fertilizers
1. Organic fertilizers are farm manures, compost, crop residues, and

other farm wastes which supply nutrients and improve soil
physical conditions. Organic fertilizers are added to the soil in
large amounts to meet nutrient demands of crops. The use of
organic fertilizers is a vital component of integrated nutrient
cycling systems.
2. Inorganic fertilizers usually result from chemical processes such as
sulfuric acid treatment or rock phosphate to produce
superphosphate. It consists of materials processed or
transformed into a chemical material or fertilizer.
Inorganic fertilizers are artificially prepared or those that
may be obtained from the market. Commercial fertilizers could
be:
 Single element fertilizer which contains only one of the

major fertilizer elements.
Examples: Ammonium sulfate, urea, superphosphate
 Incomplete fertilizer contains only two major elements
like ammophos (nitrogen and phosphorus).
 Complete fertilizers contain the three primary plant food
elements: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Nutrient Content of Fertilizers

Fertilizers being sold in the market must carry a guarantee of the
kind and amount of nutrients they contain. The information is printed
on the fertilizer bags or packages. The guaranteed analysis of a
fertilizer material expressed in percent following the order: total N,
citrate-soluble phosphoric acid (P2O5) and water-soluble potash (K2O) is
called fertilizer grade. Customarily, the P and K contents are expressed
as oxides of the elements. Thus, a fertilizer bag with 14-14-14 analysis
contains 14% total N, 14% citrate-soluble P2O5 and 14% water-soluble
K2O. The relative proportion of the fertilizer nutrients present in a
fertilizer is expressed in terms of the fertilizer ration such as 21-0-0 for
ammonium sulfate, 45-0-0 for urea, and 14-14-14 for complete.
122
Analysis of Common Inorganic or Commercial Fertilizers
Material Percent
N P2O5 K2O
Anhydrous ammonia 82 0 0
Ammonium sulfate 21 0 0
Ammonium phosphate 16 20 0
Ammonium chloride 25 0 0
Urea 45 0 0
Superphosphate 0 20 0
Trial superphosphate 0 48 0
Muriate of potash 0 0 60
Sulfate of potash 0 0 50
Complete 14 14 14
Fertilizer Computation
To supply a certain amount of plant nutrients, determine the

amount of fertilizer to be applied per hectare based on the composition
of the fertilizer materials to be used. Here are some examples on how to
determine the amount of fertilizer.
Example 1
Ammonium Sulfate (AS) contains 21 percent nitrogen. This means that

100 kilograms of this nitrogen-carrying fertilizer contains 21 kilograms
of nitrogen. To calculate how much ammonium sulfate is needed to
supply 120 kilograms nitrogen per hectare, we simply divide the 120
kilograms of nitrogen needed by 21 percent which is the nitrogen
content of ammonium sulfate, and multiply the results by 100.
recommended rate (kg/ha)

Fertilizer needed = x 100
% nutrient of the fertilizer
120 kg N/ha
kg AS = × 100 = 570 kg AS/ha
21%
The same formula may be used with any of the materials containing
nitrogen, phosphorous, or potassium.
Example 2
If one wants to apply 80 kilograms per hectare of phosphorus as a

single superphosphate (0-20-0), the computation appears below
80 kg P/ha
kg 0-20-0 = × 100 = 400 kg 0-20-0/ha
20
123
Example 3
Compute for the number of kg of muriate of potash (0-0-60) needed to

fertilize 1 hectare using 0-0-60 recommendation.
60 kg K/ha
kg 0-0-60 = × 100 = 100 kg 0-0-60/ha
60
Example 4
How to calculate the percentage of fertilizer elements from known

amounts of fertilizer materials?
Given a quantity of fertilizer with the following composition, find

the number of kilograms of available N, P2O5 and K2O in the mixture.
 150 kg ammonium sulfate analyzing 21% N
 600 kg superphosphate analyzing 20% P2O5
 100 kg potassium chloride analyzing 60% K2O
 850 kg total weight
Solution:
To determine the analysis of a fertilizer mixture, multiply the

quantity of fertilizer by the percentage of N, P2O5 or K2O in it and divide
by 100.
weight of fertilizer × percentage of nutrient

weight of nutrient =
100
150 × 21%
kg N = = 31.5 kg of nitrogen
100
600 × 20%
kg P2O5 = = 120 kg of phosphate
100
100 × 60%
kg K2O = = 60 kg of potash
100
Example 5
How will you find the percentage of available N, P2O5 and K2O in
the whole mixture?
124
Solution:
Divide the weight of each plant nutrients by the total weight of

the mixture and multiply by 100, thus:
weight of nutrient
percentage of nutrient = × 100
total weight of fertilizers
31.5 kg N
N= × 100 = 3.7% N
850 kg total weight
120
P2O5 = × 100 = 14.1 % P2O5
850
60
K2O = × 100 = 7.0% K2O
850
This could be summarized as: Grade = 3.7-14.1-7.0
Example 6
How to calculate the amounts of fertilizer materials to make up a

fertilizer mixture of certain percentage of fertilizer elements.
Given the following fertilizer materials with their corresponding

available nutrients, how will you find the amount of each of the plant
nutrients needed in making 2,000 kg of a fertilizer with grade of 12-24-
12?
 Urea analyzing 45% N
 Triple superphosphate analyzing 50% P2O5
 Muriate of potash analyzing 60% K2O
Solution:
2,000 x .12 = 240 kg on N needed

2,000 x .24 = 480 kg of P2O5 needed
2,000 x .12 = 240 kg of K2O needed
How will you find the number of kilograms of each of the

fertilizing materials needed to make the mixture? (This is the same
procedure as in examples 1 to 3.)
240 kg N
N= × 100 = 533 kg urea
45% N
480
P2O5 = × 100 = 960 kg triple superphosphate
50
240
K2O = × 100 = 400 kg potassium chloride
60
125
Note: Since you wanted 2,000 kg of fertilizer with a grade of 12-24-12,
you must add sand or some other inert filler to make the desired weight
of which:
533 kg urea
960 kg triple superphosphate
400 kg potassium chloride
107 kg sand, or coconut shells, etc.
2,000 kg total
Example 7
Calculate Mixed Fertilizers

Find out the number of kilograms of the separate fertilizer
materials needed for the preparation of one metric ton (1,000 kg) of
mixed fertilizer of 5-8-12 grade using ammonium sulfate (20% N),
calcium superphosphate (16% P2O5) and muriate of potash (60% K2O )
Work out the quantities of the individual fertilizers required for
100 kg of 5-8-12 fertilizer mixture, i.e., to contain 5% N, 8% P2O5 and
12% K2O. Then multiply these figures by 100 to obtain the total
requirement of fertilizers for 1,00 kg of the mixture.
5
For N = × 100 = 25 kg ammonium sulfate
20
8
P2O5 = × 100 = 50 kg calcium superphosphate
16
12
K2O = × 100 = 20 kg muriate of potash
60
95 kg of straight fertilizers
+ 5 kg of filler
100 kg of mixed fertilizer
In preparing 1,000 kg of a fertilizer mixture of the 5-8-12 grade,

250 kg of ammonium sulfate, 500 kg of calcium superphosphate, 200
kg of muriate of potash, and 50 kg of the filler are needed.
Methods of Fertilizer Application
As a general rule, a fertilizer material should be placed in the soil

in such a way that the plant can absorb it. This involves not only
different zones of placement but also the time with respect to the age of
the plant the fertilizer is to be applied.
1. Broadcasting – It is a method through which the fertilizer is

applied over the surface of the land. It may not be harrowed,
plowed or disked into the soil. This method is usually practiced in
rice field, pastures, and lawns.
2. Side dressing – Fertilizer material is placed in or in between the
rows of crops like vegetables or corn or placing around the plant
126
or trees. On row crops, side dressing may be done simultaneously
with cultivation. The purpose of side dressing is to ensure
availability of plant food nutrients, particularly nitrogen during the
critical growth periods when plants are taking up nutrients
rapidly.
3. Band/ row/ or localized placements – Fertilizer material is
applied in bands to one or both sides of the seed or plant. On row
crops, the fertilizer is placed in bands or strips on one or both
sides of the row, about 2 inches away from and below the seeds.
4. Foliar application – The chemical is mixed with water and
sprayed to the foliage of the plants.
5. Applied with the seed – Fertilizer is broadcast together with the
seeds or the seeds are coated with fertilizer by means of an
adhesive such as cellofas or gum Arabic.
6. Fertigation – This involves dissolving the fertilizer materials in
water and then apply it with the use of sprinkler.
Methods of Determining Soil Fertility
1. Field fertilizer trials. As the term implies, field fertilizer trial

experiment is carried out in the field. It can be conducted in
different places under different seasons. When managed and
conducted properly, the results obtained from this method are very
reliable.
2. Soil analysis. It is a rapid method of assessing the fertilizer needs of
crops. The principle involved is that the amount of available
nutrients in the soil are directly related up to a critical point with
the growth and yield of crop.
Soil analysis consists four phases, namely:
1. proper collection of soil samples;
2. chemical analysis;
3. interpretation of analytical results; and
4. formulation of fertilizer recommendation.
3. Plant tissue analysis. This is customarily made of fresh plant
tissue in the field. It is a quick way test and is important in the
diagnosis of the needs of growing plants. Sap from ruptured cells is
tested for assimilated N-P-K. Tests for other elements such as Mg
and Mn are also done. The concentration of the nutrients in the cell
sap is usually a good indication of how well the plant is supplied at
the time of testing.
4. Nutrient deficiency symptom. An abnormal appearance of the
growing plant may be caused by a deficiency of one or more
nutrient elements. This visual method of evaluating soil fertility is
unique and it requires no expensive equipment. It can also be used
as a supplement to other diagnostic techniques.
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Loss of Nutrients from the Soil
The fertility of the soil is not lasting. It is usually lost through

mismanagement by farmers who work in the land. There are many ways
in which soil fertility is depleted.
 Loss through the crops. Plants utilize large quantities of
nutrients from the soil for their growth. The plants having
reached their maturity are harvested and sold. Thus, the organic
and the minerals that composed the harvested crops are taken
away from the farm. The constant removal of soil fertility through
the crops will make the soil poor. This is the reason why
production will decrease year by year if we do not fertilize our
crops.
The amount of soil nutrient lost through the crops depends
on the kind of crops grown. From a standpoint, crops may be
classified into three categories:
1. Heavy feeders are those crops that utilize a large quantity of all
the three essential elements or it may be a heavy feeder as
regards one element but a light feeder as regards to another.
2. Medium feeders consume not much of the food elements, not
like the heavy feeders.
3. Light feeders consume only little amount of the plant food
elements.
 Loss of plant food through surface run-off. Rain water or
excess irrigation water which runs off the surface of the ground
may carry not only soil particles and the food they contain but
also the plant food which get dissolved in the running water.
 Loss of plant food through leaching. Even if we do not plant,
the minerals in the soil may be lost by leaching, that is, the
soluble substances go with the water that drains down to the
lower depths of the soil beyond the reach of the roots. This is
especially true in cases of sandy soil.
 Soil erosion. This is the greatest enemy of the farmer. Erosion is
the removal of soil from the field through natural forces.
Methods of Conserving Soil Fertility
 Application of commercial fertilizers

 Application of farm manures or organic fertilizers
 Green manuring. The practice of growing special crops like
legumes either alone or intermixed with other crop for the
purpose of plowing them into the soil in a green stage when they
have reached a suitable height, or before flowering.
 Cover cropping. This is the practice of growing cover crops,
especially legume crops, to protect the land from erosion, heat of
the sun, and beat of the rain. A cover crop is a crop planted
especially in cultures of permanent crops such as coconuts,
coffee, orchard and the like mainly for protection as well as for
the enrichment of the soil.
128
 Mulching. This is the practice of placing mulch materials above
the soil such as straw, paper, sawdust, leaves and the like to
protect the roots of plants from excessive heat and cold or from
drought. This practice also controls the growth of weeds. When
the organic mulch decompose, they will turn into organic
fertilizer.
129
Compost and Composting
Compost is a mixture of decayed organic materials decomposed

by micro-organisms in a warm, moist, and aerobic environment,
(oxygen-breathing) releasing nutrients into readily available forms for
plant use.
Why use compost?

 There is a need for sustainable production through integrated
nutrient management.
 Compost produces less methane than non decomposed rice straw
when incorporated in the soil.
 It solves problem on declining yield.
 It also corrects micronutrient problems like zinc deficiency.
What is composting?
Composting is the controlled decay of plant and animal wastes to

produce compost, a dark, rich soil-like material. Compost is added to
the soil to improve its structure and nutrient content.
Students of the Jones Rural School performing composting (traditional

way) during their TVE class.
In nature, bacteria, fungi, worms, and other soil organisms help

in breaking down dead plants and animals, as well as animal wastes.
The decomposed organic material becomes part of the soil. This natural
decay usually takes place very slowly. To speed up the process,
composters create ideal growing conditions for compost organisms.
130
What do compost organisms need?
1. Balanced diet of compost materials compose

 “Browns”
“Browns” are compost materials that are brown and dry.
Examples are sawdust, dried leaves, straw and small twigs
and others. “Browns” are high in carbon, which for microbes
are energy food.
 “Greens”
“Greens” are compost materials that are green and moist like
kitchen wastes, grass cuttings and the like. “Greens” are high
in nitrogen, which microbes need to make proteins
If you add about 3 parts of browns to 1 part of greens, then

the compost organisms will have a balanced diet.
2. Right amount of air and water

If there’s a right amount of oxygen and moisture, microbes
can rapidly grow and multiply. If there is much or too little of
water, the microbes die.
Compost materials should have a thin film of water around
them, and lots of pore spaces filled with air.
3. Right temperature
Organic materials will eventually decay even in a cold
compost pile but the decay process is sped up in a hot compost
pile. When bacteria and fungi grow rapidly, they burn a lot of
food, and give off a lot of heat. If the compost pile is big enough,
the heat will build up inside the pile. Bacteria that grow well at
high temperature take over and speed up the decay process.
Ways of Making Compost
1. Traditional method. This is a slow process, requiring 3-4

months before farm wastes are fully decomposed and ready for
use as compost fertilizer. This means that the fertilizer can only
be used after one planting season. This also requires a bigger
composting area. This method involves only eight steps. It is
inexpensive to produce and requires no extensive input except
labor.
2. Rapid method. With the aid of fungus activator Trichoderma
harzianum, decomposition of farm wastes is accelerated to just 3-
4 weeks.
3. Bio-enriched method. Employing both fungus activator and a
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, farm wastes are first decomposed by
Trichoderma sp. for 2-3 weeks, after which the resulting compost
is inoculated with live N-fixing bacteria Azotobacter sp.
Incubation for 1 week produces a nitrogen-enriched compost that
can supply a rice crop’s total N requirement, depending on the
material used, soil condition, and planting season.
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4. Vermicomposting
Steps in Making Compost
A. Traditional way
1. Make the soil firm, and dig a trench around for excess water to flow
into.
2. Stack up about six (6) inches high of grass. Do not compress.
3. Put 1-2 inches thick animal manure over the grass. Urea or
ammonium sulfate of about 1-2 kilograms may also be used if
available.
4. Put 1 inch thick of rich soil mixed with wood ashes, lime over the
pile.
5. Repeat the process over the pile until about 1 ½ meters high.
6. Water the pile to make it moist.
7. Thrust a pipe(s) or bamboo pole(s) with holes to allow air to penetrate
the bottom of the pile.
8. After three weeks, turn the compost over with the aid of a garden
fork. This is easily done by transferring into another pile so that the
bottom layer will now be on top, etc.
9. Turn the compost again bottom up after 5 weeks. Wait for 4 weeks to
allow complete composting.
10. Water the compost during hot weather; cover the compost pile with
banana leaves during rainy days.
The pile of compost will be hot. This means that the bacteria in it are
working. Composting can also be hastened with the use of a chemical
for this purpose.
B. Making compost in 11 days
Materials
 Farm wastes: leaves, straw. hull, grasses, weeds fresh and dry.
 Fresh animal manure: carabao, cow, horse, chicken, goat, etc.
 Kerosene can or basket
 Eight pieces posts about 2” – 3” diameter at 5” high.
 Bamboo slats
 Shovel, garden fork, bolo
Procedures in Making Compost Pile
1. Select a shady place in your yard that is somewhat elevated and

does not lodge water.
2. Construct compost pile measuring 1 X 1.5 square meter by 1
meter high using the 8 posts and bamboo slats to enclose the
posts; allow space for air at the bottom.
3. Cut the farm wastes about 3 to 4 inches or smaller.
4. Wet these or soak in water for 5 minutes. If they are plenty,
spray waste water on the mound
132
5. Mix with equal amount of fresh animal manure; mix them
well.
6. Stack up the enclosed place up to 4 feet high.

7. See if the pile is getting heated. If not, sprinkle with dissolved
fresh manure. It is important to have this heat in 24-48
hours.
8. Reverse the pile; see if it is heating up. Keep it moist but not
wet. If it is not, hot sprinkle with dissolved manure.
9. Reverse the pile again; see if it is heating up. Keep it moist.
10.The pile must be cooling at this point, which means the
compost is done.
11. The resulting compost is ground (pulverized). If desired, let it
stay to decompose longer because the natural bark or coating
takes a longer time to deteriorate.
C. Vermicomposting
Composting is the process of converting organic materials like

leaves and animal manure into “humus”, an organic matter
through decomposition by the action of microbes and other
organisms. Humus is rich in nutrients and contributes to soil
texture and water retention.
Normal decomposition of grass cuttings can take up to six months.
However, this can be accelerated to as short as 30 – 45 days by the
use of earthworms to digest the organic materials. This is called
vermicomposting (vermis in latin) that yield beneficial by-products
known as vermicompost or vermicast. In a single process, we are
given two products – vermicast which is pure worm excreta and
worm biomass.
The production of vermicompost is timely since inorganic fertilizer
is now becoming very expensive and that there is also an increasing
demand for organically produced agricultural crops and an added
benefit is that the earthworm can be made into high protein animal
and fish feed supplement.
Furthermore, the heavy use of imported chemical fertilizers for land
crops and fishmeal in aqua feeds is considered non-environment
friendly and unsustainable.
The other environmental concerns in the country are the
widespread burning of crop residues such as rice straw and
sugarcane trash that increase carbon dioxide emission and
aggravate global warming, and the improper discharge of livestock
wastes into water bodies that causes pollution.
Through studies conducted in the Philippines, it has been
demonstrated that producing vermicompost (organic fertilizer) and
vermimeal (earthworm meal) is an economical and environment -
friendly option for the recycling of biodegradable materials
(household, municipal and farm wastes).
133
Vermiworm species
Giant earthworm of Australia - (Megascolides australis)
Giant earthworm of Banawe – (Pheretima sp.)
African Nightcrawler – (Eudrilus eugeniae)
134
The earthworm species most often used in the tropics is the
African nightcrawlers, Eudrilus eugeniae.
SOME FACTS ABOUT THE EARTHWORM CHARACTERISTICS
• It is a true hermaphrodite.
• When 2 earthworms come together, they both get pregnant.
• It is perfectly evolved so that even if you put several species
together, they will not cross breed.
• When sexually mature, they breed every week and can produce 2-
10 worms.
• They eat their weight per day.
• They breathe through their skin.
• They feed on microorganisms (fungi and bacteria) in the soil
• They are active at night.
• Many are migratory
Advantages of Vermicomposting Vs. Ordinary Composting
• Faster to produce (2-4 weeks with earthworms as bioreactors)
• Less labor needed – worms do the turning over
• Granular texture (fine and grainy)
• Greater microbial diversity (beneficial organisms)
• High-quality organic fertilizer (no soil present)
• Contains humic acid and plant growth regulators
• Pleasant odor and does not “heat”
• Produces earthworm biomass
– Vermicompost can be used in improving soil texture and
enhancing water-holding capacity of soil.
– Vermicompost may be low in NPK but contains essential

micronutrients (e.g., calcium, magnesium, manganese,
copper, iron and zinc) not found in complete fertilizers.
– Vermicompost has microbial activities that promote plant

health and pest/disease resistance.
• The quality of vermicompost depends on the materials used and

the processes applied.
Steps in Vermicomposting
1. Gathering of materials
Examples - rice straw, grass, leaves, kitchen wastes, animal
manure, used mushroom substrate.
These materials should be shredded as the
earthworm may not be able to digest them effectively. Add some
animal manures to increase the nitrogen content of the materials.
2. Selecting the site

The site should be airy, dry, near water source, and raw
materials for the food of the earthworms. The area temperature
should be around 260C.
135
Selecting the Worm Housing
Wormbins/wormbeds may be made out of different

materials like iron bars, old plastic basins, split bamboo, or
hollow blocks.
Wormbins out of plastic beddings
Windrows
Windrows are piles of substrates that are decomposed before

feeding them to the worms. They are usually about 1 meter wide and at
least a meter high and can be of any length as desired.
3. Preparation of beddings
Bedding is the living medium for the worms but also a food
source. A wide variety of bedding materials can be used, including
newspapers, sawdust, rice straw, pre composted manure, and dried
leaves.
136
Beddings for the vermiworms
Anaerobic Stage (10-14 days)
Arrange the materials or substrate into a bed about two (2) feet
high under partial shade like a tree. Cover the bed with plastic for two
weeks for anaerobic decomposition by bacteria and fungi present in the
material until the temperature will rise to about 70°C.
Aerobic Stage (30-35 days)
When the temperature of the bed cools, remove the plastic cover.
The media should smell sweet.
Maintenance of the worm beds
The moisture content must be 60-80% (when a fistful is squeezed,

a few drops of water should drop).
Place the earthworms on top, at the rate of 1kg per square meter.
Put sidings of hollow blocks or sawali. Protect against birds, cats, rats,
etc., as well as heavy rains as nutrients will leach.
Harvesting, Drying, and Storing
After 45-60 days, pass the materials through a sieve to separate

the worms from the decomposted leaves. The worms can be recycled
into other composting beds or made into vermi-meal. The compost
should be spread-out to dry for one day ready for sale. The vermicast is
then prepared for packaging. The final products are placed in bags
ready for storage, distribution, or use.
137
A student of the Floridablanca National Agricultural
School,Floridablanca, Pampanga shifting gathered vermicompost.
Vermicompost ready for sale
TIPS:
Compost is ready to use when it is dark brown, crumbly, and has
an earthy smell.
• Manual extraction. Pick worms by hand and transfer them to a

new wormbed. The vermicompost may be allowed to dry in the
shade for a few days and then sifted if a finer compost is desired.
• Pyramids of egypt. In the shade, pile the vermicompost in such a

manner that it looks like a pyramid. After a day, you can harvest
the top part easily because the worms have gone to the bottom of
the pile. When you reach the bottom of the pile, you can extract
the worms manually.
Migration. Move the contents of the whole bed to one side. Fill
the empty half with new substrate. Allow the worms to move freely to
the new food.
138
• PARTIAL EXTRACTION WITH NET BAG.
Fill an onion bag with fresh food and bury it in the middle
of the bed. After a week or so, the bag will be filled with worms which
you can empty to a new worm bed. This facilitates the gathering of
worms.
Onion bag filled with fresh food for the worms
• DELAYED HARVESTING.
If you are not ready to harvest your vermicompost which is

fully eaten by the worms, place a net on top of the bed and place
a 5-cm layer of fresh substrate on top. you can delay harvesting
for about a week (depending on the volume of worms in the bed)
because the worms will transfer to the new food. When you are
ready to harvest, you can first remove the net with the food,
and you will see that the worms have mostly transferred there.
Health Precautions
 The decomposing compost heap can generate heat up to 600C. Be

careful in handling the compost while turning. Wear protective
gloves or footgear so as not to scald your hands and feet.
 Composting materials and micro-organisms may cause allergies,
although they are non pathogenic. To avoid inconvenience from
itching, cover the nose and mouth with mask; use long-sleeves;
and wash body and hands after working on the compost.
139
SELF-CHECK
A. Fill in the blanks. Fill in the blanks with the correct word or group
of words to complete the thought of the sentence: Write your answers in
your test notebook.
1. Applying the fertilizer material with water in the soil means
__________________.
2. The use of liquid form of fertilizer dissolved in water and sprayed
to the plants refers to ______________.
3. When fertilizers are placed in between rows of plants, the method
used is_______________.
4. __________ are chemicals which consist one or more inorganic
compounds applied to the soil to improve the growth and yield of
crops.
5. The placing of fertilizer to the soil is called ________________.
B. True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it

is wrong. Write your answer in your test notebook.
1. The soil is fertile if most of the elements are present in it.
2. Nutrients of the soil are lost by continuous cropping without
replenishing the elements used by plants.
3. Soil nutrients are not lost by soil erosion.
4. Organic fertilizer may come from plants, animals, guano, and
bone meal .
5. Organic fertilizer is best used because of the benefits it can give
to the soil, plants, and the environment.
140
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
Prepare a compost pile with a dimension of 1 × 1.5 square meter

and 1 meter high. Form groups of five (5) and make compost pile by
following the steps. Select what method of composting you will follow.
Scoring Rubric in Composting

Performance Levels
Criteria Very Needs
Outstanding Satisfactory
satisfactory Improvement
4 3 2 1
Completeness of the
needed materials
Execution of the steps in
composting
Workmanship
Team work
RESOURCES
fertilizer
wood
nail
animal manure
plant residues
compost
hammer
hand trowel
sprinkler
sprayer
spading fork
bolo
141
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
142
LESSON 2
PERFORM IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PRACTICES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the knowledge, skills, and attitude in

performing irrigation and drainage practices.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Watering schedules are followed based on the visual feel of

the soil.
2. Proper ways of irrigation and drainage practices are followed
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Field capacity – the amount of water held by the soil after

gravitational water is drained away
2. Permanent wilting point – a level of moisture in the soil which
is unavailable to the plant
3. Drainage – the removal of excess water from the soil
4. Evaporation – the loss of water in the soil in vapor form
5. Transpiration – the loss of water from the leaves in the form of
water vapor
6. Seepage – the horizontal passage of water or sideward loss of
water the soil
7. Percolation – the vertical/downward movement and loss of
water from the soil
8. Irrigation – the application of water to the soil by any other
means than rainfall
143
Irrigation
Vegetables, being succulent products by definition, are generally

more than 90% water. Thus, water determines the weight and yield of
vegetables. The quality of vegetable products may be traced directly or
indirectly to the mismanagement of water supply in the production field.
A good proportion of investment in vegetable growing is allocated
for water management, whether or not it is in a traditional farm where
water is applied by manual labor or in an automated drip-irrigation
system. Unlike field crops that can be grown under rain fed condition,
vegetables with few exceptions are always irrigated, at least partially. It is
every grower’s utmost concern to use irrigation water in the most efficient
way. It is equally important to provide adequate drainage facilities in the
field because most vegetables cannot tolerate prolonged waterlogged
conditions.
Benefits of irrigation
1. Irrigation is insurance to drought.

2. It enables the growing of quick maturing crops.
3. It is a guarantee to the quick germination of seeds.
4. It is a means of securing early maturity on most crops.
5. It increases quality, attractive appearance, and yield of crops.
Factors that Determine Water Deficiency for Irrigation Schedules
1. Based on soil water measurements. The level of soil water

supply is measured directly by soil sampling using the
tensiometer, electrical resistance block or gravimetry.
2. Based on evaporation rates. This needs evaporative devices. The
amount of moisture lost from the crop through transpiration is
also measured. The amount of water in the soil minus the amount
transpired, the amount to be added is the difference. This is the
best index for irrigation requirement.
3. Calculated irrigation schedules. This method necessitates
knowledge of the field capacity, permanent wilting percentage,
bulk/specific gravity and effective depth of rooting, all of which
require measurement.
4. Temporary wilting. When water stress occurs in plant, cells lose
turgidity, and plants show symptoms of wilting. Temporary wilting
may occur at mid-day when water demand reaches its climax,
especially during the hottest months of the year. Soil moisture
may really be adequate, but transpiration may outpace water
absorption. If this is so, plant will recover by evening. However, if
plants wilt in the morning continuously for 3-4 days, water may
indeed be lacking and the crop must be irrigated immediately.
144
5. Color of foliage. Not all plant show temporary wilting when water
is limited. Instead, their leaves turned yellowish as in beans, and
in some cases bluish green as in eggplants, as the water is
reduced in the soil. Color is an indicator of plant variety where
there is nitrogen supply so take this into account.
6. Rate of growth of the plants. If the rate of growth of the crop is
sluggish, water may not be enough.
7. “Feel of the soil”. Get samples from a depth where most of the
roots occur, and try to feel the soil. This depends on the type of
the soil.
Type of Irrigation is needed

soil
Sandy Appears to be dry but does not form a ball when
squeezed
Loam Somewhat crumbly but holds together
Clayey Somewhat pliable, forms a ball, too dry to form ribbon
easily (ribbon is formed between thumb and forefinger)
8. Sand-cum-soil-mini plot technique. It involves digging

thoroughly a one cubic meter pit in one part of the field. Mix 5%
sand to the soil which has been dug and return it to the pit. Now
the soil has reduced water-holding capacity. The crop, including
the test plot, is planted as usual. The plants in the test plot will
start to wilt 2-3 days ahead of those in the field. Irrigation must
be done when wilting is observed in the test plot.
Kinds of Irrigation Water
1. Surface irrigation. In this case water is applied over the surface of

the ground, either in furrows or by spreading it broadcast over the
land being irrigated. Water is conducted from the source to the
points of distribution, either in open ditches or pipe lines. This
kind of irrigation is usually used in the Philippines for irrigating
their rice fields.
2. Sub-irrigation. In this kind of irrigation the water is delivered to a
porous stratum of soil at proper depth. The moisture spreads to the
plant roots through this stratum.
3. Overhead or spray irrigation. In this case, water is put into the
plants in the form of very fine drops or spray or mist. In small
scale, this method is used, like in nurseries, where water is applied
by means of sprinklers, water hose with nozzles.
Methods of Irrigation
1. Irrigation by hand. This requires hand labor. This system is used

only where a valuable crop can be grown in a small piece of land,
as in school and home gardens. Water is applied either early
morning or late in the afternoon.
145
2. Irrigation by windmill. It is used for irrigating a fruit plantation
or a truck garden. This system furnishes a very satisfactory means
of pumping water in some localities in the Philippines. It works well
in sections along the seashores. One thing which we must bear in
mind is that where windmills are depended upon as a source of
water, it is advisable to have a considerable storage capacity so
that there will be a sufficient supply of water to last through
periods of drought.
3. Irrigation by power machinery. Water pumps are set in the
source of water. Water is delivered to the field through water hose.
4. Irrigation by gravity. This is the cheapest and most common
method of obtaining water for irrigation. Ditch canals are dug from
the source of water like streams or rivers going to the field; thus,
water is taken from the river at an outlet that can be opened and
shut down.
5. Drip irrigation. Water passes to small pipes that are directed to
the garden or field of crops. The water can be controlled by closing
the source of water.
Irrigation by gravity
Causes of Loss of Irrigation Water
1. Over irrigation. A farmer should not use more water than his
crop needs. The amount of water needed by crops varies with the
crop, and a farmer should ascertain what amount is for each
crop and how it is best distributed among the different times of
application.
2. Poor grading of land. When a piece of land to be irrigated is not
uniformly or properly graded, as for example, when certain spots
are high while others are low, or when there is hardly any grade
at all to allow movement of water by gravity, there will be loss of
water.
3. Seepage is the horizontal passage of water from irrigation canal
through the surrounding ground. Loss of water by seepage is
prevented by lining the canal properly with a clay puddle.
146
4. Deep percolation. Percolation is the vertical downward
movement of water. Water which sinks much deeper than the
roots of the plants is wasted water. Skillful cultivation should
prevent much loss of water due to deep percolation.
5. Run-off at the ends of fields or furrows. To avoid waste of
water in the form of run offs, it is necessary to supervise carefully
the irrigation work so that only enough water is allowed to flow in
the irrigation furrows.
6. Direct evaporation. This refers to the loss of water from plant
parts, soil surface and even from bodies of water with the aid of
sunlight.
147
Drainage
Drainage is defined as the process of removing water from the soil

in order to increase its productivity.
Benefits derived from drainage
1. It improves the tilth of the soil.

2. It leads to the improvement of soil aeration.
3. It improves the temperature condition of the soil.
4. It increases availability of plant food.
5. It encourages multiplication and development of useful
organisms in the soil.
6. It increases benefits obtained from the use of fertilizers.
Systems of drainage
1. Surface drainage, also called open drainage

2. Under-surface drainage
3. Combination of surface and under surface drainage
4. Vertical drainage – the water runs more or less vertically
through the soil into a porous bed of sand or gravel beneath.
148
ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
In the previous lesson, you were required to prepare garden plots,

perform direct planting and transplanting of vegetable crops. In order
that your plants will maintain their growth, you have to fertilize and
water them following the recommended rate and method of applying the
fertilizer and watering schedules. In this connection, make a diary of
activities to where you are going to list down your farm activities. You can
follow the format and example below. If you wish to improve it, you may
do so. Prepare your record for the teacher to check.
Activities Date Expenditures Remarks

1. fertilizing June 15, 2008 1 kg urea (P25.00) 1 garden finished
2. watering
HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED?
Fill in the blanks with a word or group of words to complete the

sentence.
1. The application of water to the soil by any other means than

rainfall is __________
2. The opposite of irrigation is __________ which is the removal of
excess water from the field.
3. The method of irrigating a small piece of land like backyard and
school gardens is the __________
4. The cheapest and most common method of irrigating the field
where a ditch canal is dug from the source (stream or river) going
to the field is called __________.
5. When irrigation water is supplied to the field with the use of
engines (water pump) to irrigate the field, the method used is
__________
RESOURCES
sprinkler
pail and dipper
water pump
shovel
spade
crowbar
water hose/irrigation hose
149
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
150
LESSON 3
PRACTICE WEEDING AND CULTIVATION
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with weeding and cultivation. It includes the

importance of weeding and cultivating, the tools used, and the methods
employed in these farm operations to maintain the growth of plants.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The area is made 90% weeds-free.

2. Appropriate tools in weeding and cultivating are used.
3. Appropriate methods of weeding and cultivation are
practiced.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Weeds – plants, whether wild or cultivated, which are growing in a
place where they are not wanted.
2. Weeding – removing the weeds which a crop grower has to do
repeatedly after planting and before harvesting his crop
3. Cultivation – the process of loosening or breaking up the soil growing
crops or plants in order to maintain it in condition favorable for the
crops or plants’ growth
4. Soil tilth – the coarseness or fineness of the soil
5. Hilling up – a kind of cultivating by bringing the soil towards the base
of the plant to cover fertilizer and control weeds
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Man’s attitude toward the so-called weeds is more or less the same
as his attitude towards so-called harmful insects.
Weed control is killing or limiting the growth of plants in places

where they are not wanted, usually for economic, health, or aesthetic
reasons. Weeds play an important role in nature by rebuilding soil that
has been disturbed by bulldozers, fire, or flood, but in many areas weeds
compete with more desirable plants for available light, water, and
nutrients. Weeds are exceptionally tough plants and are able to
reproduce aggressively. They often produce great quantities of seed, for
example, or disperse seed over a large area or they may quickly
reproduce by sending out far-reaching stems above or below ground,
from which new weeds can sprout. As a result, they may quickly
outnumber other desired plants in an area.
Why should we control weeds?
 Weeds cause decrease in crop production because they compete

for nutrients, moisture, light, and space.
 Weeds increase labor and of production cost.
 Some weeds harbor plant pests which may affect plant growth
and yield.
 Weeds clog irrigation and drainage canals or ditches hampering
flow of water resulting in overflow and waste of water resources.
 Some weeds are injurious to man and animals.
 Weeds lower land value.
 Roots of weeds interlace with roots of plants which makes
cultivation and weeding difficult.
 Weeds cause the wear and tear of farm implements or equipment.
Principles of weed control
To control weeds successfully, understand thoroughly their nature,

life history, habit of growth, and their methods of natural reproduction.
 It is necessary to know if a weed is terrestrial or aquatic.

 It is necessary to know whether weeds are resistant to drought or
to water lodging or easily affected by these conditions.
 It is important to know if its method of reproduction is by seeds,
by underground vegetative parts, or both.
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Types of weeds
I. Grasses. Grasses are monocotyledonous plants which have long,

narrow, two-ranked, usually flat leaves with parallel veins and
round, hallow stems. The common examples of grassy weeds are:
1. Echinochloa crusgali (L. Beauv.)

Local names:
Philippines Dayakibok
Tagalog Dauadaua
Bicol Lagtom
Japan Inubie
2. Echinocloa colunum
Local names:
Philippines Bulang tiribuhan
Tagalog Bulang tiribuhan
Ilocano Dalakayang, Dakayan
Thailand Thai-Yak Nok Sri Champu
II. Sedges. Sedges are similar to grasses but have three-ranked leaves
and triangular solid stems. They frequently have modified rhizomes
for storage and propagation.
Examples:
1. Fimbristylis littoralis Gaud.
Local names:
Tagalog Ubod-ubod
Pangasinan Gumi
Ilocano Siraw-siraw
2. Cyperus iria Linn.

Local names:
Philippines Alinang, sud-sud
Tagalog Taga-t
Japan Kogome-gayatsuri
III. Broadleaved weeds are dicotyledonous plants with net-veined

leaves.
Examples:
1. Monocharia vaginalis Presl.
Local names:
Philippines Gabing uwak
Tagalog Biga-bigaan
Ilocano Bil-lagut
Bicol Upiupi
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2. Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertu.
Local names:
Philippines Dilang butiki
Tagalog Silisilihan
Visaya Mais-mais
Grass Sedge Broadleaved weed
Methods of Controlling Weeds
1. MECHANICAL METHODS
Weeds are controlled mechanically by:
1. uprooting the weeds
2. cutting
3. flooding or by drying the ground
4. burning
5. Smothering. This is done by depriving the weeds of complete
sunlight.
6. tillage
Mechanical Weed Control

A cultivator is a machine used for mechanical
weed control. It is dragged behind a tractor
and dislodges weeds by breaking up the
surface of the soil with teeth or hoes.
II CROPPING AND COMPETITION METHODS
1. Thorough land preparation

2. Crop rotation. Different crops are planted in succession on a piece
of land so as to prevent the exhaustion of any particular food from
the soil.
3. Cover cropping. Legumes like centrosema, calopogonium, and
others are grown to areas planted with permanent crops.
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4. Intercropping. Two or more crops are grown in an alternate order.
5. Catch cropping. Crops are grown in between permanent crops.
One weed control technique involves managing plants so that

weeds have a difficult time to grow. A farmer or gardener may grow a
smother crop, a crop of closely spaced plants such as squash or sweet
potato for example, before planting the desired crop. The smother crop
prevents weeds from receiving light, water, and nutrients they require,
minimizing their competition with the desired crop. Another cultural
control is to rotate crops by growing a different crop in the same area
every year for three or four years. In this method, a weed that thrives
with one crop will not survive with the next one.
III. BIOLOGICAL METHODS
1. Use of clean seeds for planting

2. Use of disease-free seeds
3. By pasturing
4. By mulching
Biological Weed Control
Biological control of weeds is carried out by a bioherbicide, a virus,

bacterium, fungus, insect, or other organisms that can weaken or kill
weeds. Shown here are bacteria being cultured in a laboratory petri dish
prior to release into a target weed area. Extensive testing must be carried
out to ensure that the bioherbicide does not damage desirable plants.
The flowerhead weevil insect, for example, was imported from Europe in
the 1970s before adequate testing was done. Designed to kill the milk
thistle weed, it has recently attacked native thistle species in the western
United States.
IV. CHEMICAL METHOD (Use of herbicides). This method employs the

use of herbicides in controlling weeds. Chemicals are basically poison.
When they are not properly, they may harm lives of beneficial insects,
animals and including man. This method then is not environmentally
friendly.
Weed control or pollution
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Guidelines for Safe Herbicide Use
It is admitted that the use of herbicides has undesirable side

effects. Thus, there is a need for precautionary measures in
herbicide use to minimize its harmful effects.
Precautionary Measures
1. Label herbicides properly and include the skull and crossed
bone figures, the notation “poison” and suggested antidotes
and first aid instruction for poison victims.
2. Keep herbicides away from reach of children and people who
are unaware of their danger. Do not store them with utensils
and other items for cooking.
3. Observe manufacturer’s recommendations on dosages and
time intervals between last application and harvest.
4. Avoid smoking, eating, or drinking while using and/ or
preparing herbicide. Wash thoroughly after using or
preparing the chemical.
5. Avoid applying herbicides near streams and wells, especially
soil drenches near potable water source.
6. Bury empty containers after rendering them useless as
containers by breaking the glass or puncturing metals and
plastics.
7. Don’t spray or apply chemicals against the wind.
8. Avoid skin or body contact with the chemicals.
9. Use PPE (Personal protective Equipment) when applying
herbicides.
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ACTIVITY SHEET 3.1
Go to your vegetable gardens and pull out all the strange

plants that grew there besides those which you planted. These are
called weeds. Get different varieties of these weeds and then
classify them according to their common characteristics. Put your
collection in a manila paper and be ready to present to the class
with all the weeds labeled. Perform this in 15 minutes.
Answer the following questions during the group discussion:
1. Based on you collection, what are the different weeds

that could be seen in a vegetable garden/field?
2. Why are they called weeds?
3. What are the common characteristics of weeds?
4. How do they differ?
5. Into how many ways can the weeds be classified?
6. What are the types or classifications of weeds?
7. Should the weeds be allowed to grow in your vegetable
garden? Why?
8. What are the ways in controlling weeds?
RESOURCES:
Vegetable gardens
Weeds
Hand trowels
Manila paper
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Cultivation
Cultivation is a tillage operation of loosening or breaking up the

soil about growing crops or plants in order to maintain it in a condition
favorable for their growth.
Cultivation is necessary in the case of annual crops. With
permanent plants, the ground may be cultivated. In this case we can say
clean culture is practiced, but it should really be grown to cover crops in
order to protect the soil from erosion.
Benefits of Cultivation:
1. Cultivation aerates the soil to facilitate the respiration of plant

roots and micro-organisms as well as to supply nitrogen for
nitrogen-fixing organisms.
2. It makes the top soil loose to increase its capacity to absorb water.
3. It kills the weeds, the chief plant competitor.
Methods of Cultivation:
 Off-barring. The soil is cultivated away from the plants.

 Hilling-up. The soil is brought toward the base of the plant to cover
fertilizer and control weeds.
Objectives of Cultivation:
1. Destroy the weeds.

2. Conserve soil moisture.
3. Help conserve food materials in the soil.
It is generally known, however, that when cultivation kills
weeds, moisture is conserved because dead weeds have no more
chance to use the soil moisture as well as food nutrients in the soil.
4. Improve aeration of the soil. During rainy season, the soil lacks air
because spaces in between soil particles are filled with water. If you
drain the soil, the soil air can circulate in between soil particles.
Cultivation also creates more spaces between soil particles to
accommodate air.
Frequency of Cultivation:
The ideal way of taking care of an annual crop like vegetables is to

keep the field free from weeds, and the soil in excellent tilth all the time
through cultivation. This is usually done in gardening and so when a
field receives about the same amount of attention, we often say we
“garden” the field. By this we simply mean we give the field a very
intensive care just as we generally do to a garden.
Usually, however, we cultivate as many times as we can to keep the

weeds down and prevent them from existing in abundance.
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Depth of Cultivation:
As a rule, cultivation should be at a depth of about 5 centimeters.

It should be deep to kill weeds. It is not advisable to cultivate deeper than
it is necessary to kill the weeds because the roots of the cultivated plants
may be injured. The depth varies according to crops.
Time of Cultivation:
Cultivation is done after planting and before the crops cover the
ground. Since cultivation is actually a process of working the soil, the
rules governing plowing with reference to the condition of the soil should
apply to cultivation.
Below is the time table when to hill up the following vegetable

crops:
CROP WHEN TO CULTIVATE

Beans and peas 2-3 weeks after planting
Eggplant 2-3 weeks after planting
Pepper 2-3 weeks after planting
Potato 8-10 cm tall or approximately 30
days after planting
Lettuce 2-3 weeks after transplanting
Chinese cabbage 2-3 weeks after transplanting
Celery 2-3 weeks after transplanting
Carrots 30 days after transplanting
Cabbage 2-3 weeks after transplanting
Cauliflower and broccoli 25-30 days after transplanting
Tomato 2-3 weeks after transplanting
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Tools/Implements/Equipment For Cultivation
The tools/implements and equipment may be grouped into

garden trowels, hoes, and cultivators. Cultivators are either
pushed by man or drawn by animals and tractors.
A. Garden trowels. These are the simplest tools for cultivation.

Trowels are used in gardening where the ground is taken cared of
intensively, and the scale of the work does not demand the use of
larger implements.
B. Hoes. Next in simplicity among implements for cultivation is a hoe.
Hoes are specially adopted for use on land where animal drawn
cultivators cannot be used, and for cultivating spaces between
plants in the row that cannot be reached by other cultivators.
C. Cultivators. A cultivator is an implement used for cultivation and
consists usually of a frame to which shares are attached.
Cultivators may be either propelled by hand or drawn animals,
tractor, or cable.
 Hand cultivators. Cultivators which are used with hand power
are usually called hand cultivators.
 Animal drawn cultivators. The use of animal drawn cultivators
is preferred than hand machinery because they are more
economical to operate.
 Tractor cultivators. These type of cultivators are not used in the
culture of annuals or crops which require fairly close distancing
since the tractors need a good deal of free space for passage.
Tips in Successful Weed Control and Cultivation
 Prepare your field thoroughly.

 Use seeds free from weed seeds.
 Get acquainted with the nature, life history, and habits of the
weeds found in your farm.
 Cultivate and weed your field thoroughly using such weeding
implements because they are not only efficient but are also
convenient to use.
 In hand weeding, be sure the weeds are completely pulled out
instead of merely being cut.
 Practice crop rotation whenever possible and advisable.
 Do not allow weed plants to produce seeds. Kill them before they
have a chance to reproduce.
 Do not leave weed piles, especially of weed plants which reproduce
new plants. They should be put in a compost pit.
 Weed control is the most important function of cultivation;
therefore, the work should be done at the time most favorable for
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killing weeds. The best time is before the weeds have become
established.
 Cultivation should be done as often as necessary to prevent weeds
from injuring the crops, and this is done when conditions are
favorable.
 Shallow cultivation is preferable than deep cultivation so as not to
injure the root system of the plants.
SELF-CHECK
A. TRUE OR FALSE: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and

FALSE if it is wrong. Write the answer in your test notebook.
1. All weeds are harmful.
2. Weeds are not hosts of insect pests which may affect the growth
and yield of plants.
3. In order to control weeds successfully, it is important to know
their nature, habit and growth, and their methods of natural
reproduction.
4. In cultivation, you don’t only break the soil but also control the
growth of weed.
5. Cultivation aerates the soil.
B. FILLING THE BLANKS: Fill in the blanks with a word or group of

words to complete the sentences. Write your answers in your test
notebook.
1. ___________ is the operation of cultivating the soil towards the
base of the plants.
2. As a rule, cultivation should be done at a depth of _________
centimeters.
3. The simplest tools for cultivation is the ______________.
4. A ________________ is a machine used for mechanical weed
control which is dragged behind a tractor and dislodges weeds
by breaking up the surface of the soil with teeth and hoes.
5. ___________are weeds that are monocotyledenous plants which
have long, narrow, two-ranked flat leaves and round hallow
stems.
C. Why is there a need to practice cleanliness and sanitation in your

vegetable garden?
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ACTIVITY SHEET 3.2
In your own vegetable gardens which I let you prepare before

and which you already have planted with your vegetable crops,
perform weeding and cultivation following the knowledge and skills
you have learned in your lesson. Include weeding and cultivation
operations in your diary of activities which I required you to
prepare.
Write a short report of about 100 words on how you
practiced weeding and cultivation. Include in your report how you
felt about your work.
RESOURCES
herbicides
sprayer
personal protective equipment (PPE)
hand trowel
plow
shovel
grub hoe
REFERENCES
Publishing: 1983.
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LESSON 4
PRACTICE PROPER CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson focuses on the control of insect pests and diseases of

vegetable crops.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. The nature of insects is described.

2. Common insect pests of vegetable crops are identified and
classified.
3. Common diseases of vegetable crops are identified based on
their signs and symptoms.
4. Methods of controlling insect pests and diseases are
successfully performed.
5. Safety precautions in handling chemicals are strictly
observed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Insect – a small invertebrate animal with three pairs of legs and

usually with wings. It has three clearly marked body regions: head,
thorax, and abdomen
2. Disease – an abnormal condition that injures the plant or causes it
to function improperly. A disease is any disturbance that interferes
with the normal structure (e.g. height, tillers, leaves), function (e.g.
reduced vigor, early death), and economic value (e.g. reduced yield,
poor quality produce) of the plant (host)
3. Symptom – the physical expression of a change in the appearance
and function of the plant
4. Signs – visible presence of the pathogen
5. Pathogen – a causal agent of a disease. Pathogen, in the broader
sense, is any agent that causes a disease. However, the term is
generally used to refer to a living organism, such as fungus,
bacteria, and virus
6. Pesticides – a broad term that describes all products used to
control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi, and other pests on plants,
animals and buildings
7. Susceptible – easily affected or capable of being influenced
8. Virulent – noxious, poisonous, infective, or malignant
9. Vector – the transmitter or carrier of a disease
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A large group of pests attacking crops are in the form of animals.

These vary in sizes. Some are visible and some are not.
Animal pests may be grouped into insects, birds, rodents, and
pathogens.
The insects are probably the worst enemies of our crops. The study
of insect pests and their control is the science of entomology and the
person engaged in entomological work is called entomologist
Vegetables are susceptible to injury and damage caused by insect
pests which can occur at the same time with other pests. A vegetable
grower must be able to control these pests effectively in order to have
profitable crop.
Insects and Their Characteristics

Different kinds of insects visit a garden. Some can be harmful, but
most of them are helpful.
Insects play an important role in nature as predators, parasites,
scavengers, and as prey. Many are plant or animal pests and disease
carriers. Others are useful in pollinating crops and some produce useful
substances, such as honey, beeswax, and silk.
 One of the enemies of farmers are insect pests that damage
their crops resulting to great loss of income due to low quality
and quantity of products.
 It is very important to study the insects’ growth and
development, their characteristics, and when and how they
damage crops. This will help the farmers apply strategies to
control them.
The Insect
All insects have 3 pairs of legs and 3 body divisions (head, thorax
and abdomen). A hard outer covering protects the insect’s body. This
covering is called an exoskeleton.
How Does An Insect Grow?
An insect begins its life as an egg and changes its appearance as it

164
grows. This is the process of metamorphosis.
A small number of insects give live birth to their young, but for
most insects, life starts inside the egg. Insects’ eggs are protected by hard
shells, and although they are tiny and inconspicuous, they are often laid
in vast numbers. A female house fly, for example, may lay more than
1,000 eggs in a two-week period.
The Egg
The larval stage of an insect is the most destructive stage. Most

damage is done to crops at this stage. The larvae grow from almost
microscopic size when hatched. Larvae are ravenous eaters. When full
size has been attained, the larvae either spin a cocoon or build a shell
around themselves and go to a resting stage.
The Pupa
The pupa is the rest period of the

insect. The pupa develops into
adult.
“One day, a small opening

appeared in a cocoon; a man sat
and watched for the butterfly for
several hours as it struggled to
force its body through that little
hole.”
165
The Adult
A mature adult emerges from the

pupa. At this stage, the adult
insect will lay eggs again to
continue the cycle.
The Life Cycle of an Insect (Complete Metamorphosis)
In other insects, such as grasshoppers and aphids, the young

insect (nymph) looks like the parent when it is hatched. It sheds its
exoskeleton several times as it grows.
166
Ways on How Insects Damage Plants
1.) by chewing
Insects feed by chewing some portions of
the plant like leaves, stems, flower, and fruits.
They have horn-like jaws which they use for
biting and chewing. Grasshoppers, caterpillars,
grubs, and beetles are examples of these
insects.
2.) by sucking
Insects also nourish themselves by
sucking plant juices and nectar. These insects
have sharp, slender, hollow beaks which they
insert under the surface of plants to suck the
juices. San Jose scales, aphids, plant lies,
squash bugs, and other tree bugs are sucking
insects.
3.) by lapping
Mouth parts of these insects enable them to lap or lick liquids

from the outer surfaces of objects on which they feed. Apple maggots and
cherry fruit flies are examples of lapping insects.
Methods of Controlling Insects
A. Applied Control. This is a measure to destroy insects.

Agriculturists have found the following methods effective:
I. Chemical Control – This refers to the destruction of insect
pests through the use of chemicals, such as pesticides and
insecticides. This method is not environmentally friendly in the
sense that it may kill other beneficial insects and offer harm to
other living things like animals and men.
a. Insecticides. These are substances that kill insects by their

chemical action.
1. Stomach poisons are spray, dust, or dips that kill the insect
when they are swallowed.
2. Contact poisons are spray, dust or dips that kill the insect,
without being swallowed.
3. Fumigants are chemicals in the form of gas to kill insects
usually applied in an enclosure of some kind.
b. Auxiliary, synergistic or supplemental substances are materials

added to spray or dusts which are not primarily toxicant but
which make the insecticide cover more economically; stick or
adhere better to plants; spread over foliage, fruits, or the bark,
or the bodies of the insects more quickly or completely; bring
insecticidal substances into solution or emulsions; mask
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distasteful or repellent properties of insecticides or activate the
chemical action of the toxicant.
Examples:
 Carriers such as water in a spray, talc in a dust, or bran in
poison bait.
 Emulsifiers such as flours, calcium and blood albumen
 Stickers such as lime, resin, and glues
 Spreaders like wetting agents and detergents
 Stabilizers such as caustic soda, glue, gelatin
c. Attractants or attrahents. These are substances used in poison
baits, spray or dust to induce the insects to eat the poisoned
materials or to lure insects into traps.
d. Repellants are substances that keep insects away from crops
and animals because of their offensive appearance, odor, or
taste.
II. Mechanical and Physical Control. These are special operations
that kill insects by physical and mechanical action. Mechanical
measures refer to the operation of machinery or application of
manual operations. This is done through the following ways:
a. manipulation of water or humidity ( draining, dehydrating, or
flooding the breeding media)
b. manipulation of temperature like burning
c. use of electric shock
d. use of light and other radiant energy
e. use of sound waves.
III. Cultural Control or Use of Farm Practices. These are regular

farm operations performed so as to destroy insects or prevent their
injuries.
a. Crop rotation
b. Tilling of the soil
c. Variations in the time or method of planting or harvesting
d. Destruction of crop residues, weeds, volunteer plants, and trash
e. Use of resistant varieties
f. Pruning, thinning
g. Fertilizing and stimulating vigorous growth
IV. Biological Control. This is the introduction, encouragement, and

artificial increase of predaceous and parasitic insects.
a. Protection and encouragement of insectivorous birds and other
animals
b. The use of growing plants to destroy, repel, or prevent damage
by insects
V. Legal Control. This is the eradication of insects by controlling

human activities.
a. Inspection and quarantine laws prevent the introduction of new
pests from foreign countries or their spread within a country.
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Isolation and quarantine are two common public health
strategies designed to protect the public by preventing
exposure to infected or potentially infected persons.
In general, isolation refers to the separation of persons,

plants, animals, and the like who have a specific infectious
illness from those who are healthy and the restriction of their
movement to stop the spread of that illness.
Quarantine, in contrast, generally refers to the separation

and restriction of movement of persons, plants, animals, etc
who, while not yet ill, have been exposed to an infectious agent
and therefore may become infectious. Quarantine of exposed
persons is a public health strategy, like isolation, that is
intended to stop the spread of infectious disease.
Both isolation and quarantine may be conducted on a
voluntary basis or compelled on a mandatory basis through
legal authority.
b. Introduction of laws enforce the application of control measures
such as spraying, the cleaning up of crop residues, fumigation,
and eradication measures.
c. Insecticide laws govern the manufacture and sale and prevent
the adulteration and misbranding of insecticides.
d. Poison residue laws fix the tolerance of various insecticides
upon food products offered for sale or transportation.
B. Natural Control. All the measures that destroy or check insects do

not depend upon man for their continuance or success and cannot be
greatly influenced by man.
1. Climatic factor such as rainfall, sunshine, cold, heat, and wind
2. Topography factors such as rivers, lakes, mountains, type of soil,
other characteristics of the country that serve as barriers.
3. Predators and parasites including insects, birds, reptiles, mammals
Insect Pests of Vegetable Crops
1. Aphids
Family: Aphididae
Plants attacked: Most vegetables
Type of damage: Aphids suck plants’
juices, may inject toxins into the
plant, secrete a sticky substance
called “honeydew,” or transmit
certain plant viruses.
Remember: Aphids are usually found
in colonies on the underside of
leaves. They may be winged but are
usually wingless. Aphids are
capable of rapidly increasing in
169
numbers. Lady beetles and
lacewings are effective predators of
aphids.
2. White Grubs
Family: Scarabaeidae
Plants attacked: Most vegetables
Type of damage: Grubs feed on the
roots or other underground parts of
most vegetables. Damage typically
consists of surface scars and round
gouges.
Characteristics: Grubs are mostly a
problem in fields following sod.
Weedy gardens are also attractive to
ovipositing beetles.
3. Cutworms
Family: Noctuidae
Plants attacked: Nearly all vegetables
Types of damage: The most common
damage appears in young plants
cut off at the soil surface.
Cutworms may also climb the plant
and feed on foliage and fruit.
Remember: Damage can be reduced
by keeping gardens free of weeds
before and after vegetables are
planted.
4. Tarnished Plant Bug

Lygus lineolaris
Family: Mirdae
Plants attacked: beet, celery, bean,
potato, cabbage, cauliflower,
cucumber
Type of damage: Tarnished plant
bugs suck plant juices and may
inject toxic saliva into the plant.
Leaves may become deformed,
stems and petioles may be scarred
and discolored, or the buds and
developing fruit may be dwarfed
and pitted.
Remember: Tarnished plant bugs
become active very early in the
season and are capable of migrating
to find preferred host plants.
170
5. Striped Blister Beetle
Epicauta vittata
Family: Meloidae
Plants attacked: Many vegetables
Type of damage: Adults feed
ravenously on foliage.
Remember: This general feeder readily
moves from plant to plant. The
beetles can be picked off the foliage.
However, they contain oil that can
blister the skin if they are
accidentally crushed. The larvae of
blister beetles are beneficial
because they feed on grasshopper
eggs in the soil.
6. Wireworms
Family: Elateridae
Plants attacked: Many vegetables
Types of damage: Wireworms feed on
seeds and seedlings of corn, bean,
and pea. They also cause wilting
and often death of the plant.
Wireworms feed on the marketable
portions of potato, sweet potato,
radish, carrot, rutabaga, and
turnip. Wireworms also attack the
roots of cabbage, cucumber,
tomato, onion, watermelon, and
other crops; thus, reducing vigor or
killing the plants.
Remember: Some species are more
serious in garden that is recently
sodden. Wireworms can be detected
with baits (grain or potato) buried
underground before planting.
7. Cabbage Looper
Trichoplusia ni
Family: Noctuidae
Plants attacked: Cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli, radish, collard, mustard,
kale, lettuce, celery, spinach, beet,
pea, potato, and tomato
Type of damage: Same as imported
cabbage worm
Remember: Effects of cabbage loopers
are usually more serious in the fall.
They should be controlled when
they are still small because the
large loopers are difficult to control.
They crawl in a looping fashion-
171
“inchworm.”
8. Diamondback Moth
Plutella xylostella
Plants attacked: Cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli, radish, mustard
Type of damage: Larvae eat many
small holes on underside of leaves,
giving plant a shot-hole appearance.
Some feeding does not go entirely
through the leaf.
9. Colorado Potato Beetle

Leptinotarsa decemlineata
Family: Chrysomelidae
Plants attacked: Potato, tomato,
eggplant, pepper
Type of damage: Adults and larvae
feed on leaves and terminals,
causing reduced growth or death of
the plant.
Remember: Damage can be reduced
by fall tillage and elimination of
culls and volunteer potato plants.
Applying 4-6 inches of straw much
just after hilling will reduce potato
beetle damage.
10. Hornworms
Manduca spp.
Family: Sphingidae
Plants attacked: Tomato, potato,
pepper, eggplant
Type of damage: The tomato and
tobacco hornworms consume large
amounts of green foliage and
sometimes fruit.
Comments: They can be easily
detected through presence of
droppings resembling those
produced by rabbits. They can be
easily can be controlled in home
gardens by hand picking. Many
hornworms are killed by parasites
on the hornworm’s body.
172
11. Corn Earworm or Tomato
Fruitworm
Helicoverpa zea
Family: Noctuidae
Plants attacked: Many, including
corn, tomato, bean, pepper, okra,
eggplant
Type of damage: Corn earworms feed
on the marketable portion of each
vegetable crop that they attack,
often making them unusable.
Remember: Home gardeners may wish
to cut the damaged tips off sweet
corn ears or plant extra to
compensate for losses.
12. Striped Cucumber Beetle

Acalymma vittatum
Plants attack: Cucurbits (cucumber,
squash, gourd, watermelon)
Type of damage: Larvae feed on roots
and underground stems. Adults
may destroy newly emerged plants.
On older plants, beetles feed on
leaves, shoots, and stems. The
beetles transmit a bacterium that
causes bacterial wilt to cucumber
and cantaloupe.
Remember: Only a short period of
feeding is necessary to transmit the
bacterium, so plants must be
protected from beetle feeding.
Protecting plants with row covers
before bloom will prevent beetle
feeding and disease transmission,
but be sure to remove them when
flowers appear.
173
13. Spotted Cucumber Beetle
Diabrotica undecimpunctata
howardi
Plants attacked: Cucurbits, bean,
pea, potato, beet, asparagus,
eggplant, tomato, corn, cabbage
Type of damage: Larvae feed on roots
of corn, beans, alfalfa, and many
grasses. Adults feed on foliage and
also transmit bacterial wit of
cucurbits to cucumber and
cantaloupe.
14. Bean Leaf Beetle
Cerotoma trifurcate
Family: Chrydomelidae
Plants attacked: Bean, pea, soybean
Type of damage: Larvae feed on roots,
nodules, and underground portions
of the stem. Adults feed on stems of
seedlings and chew round holes in
leaves and pods.
Remember: Plants can usually
tolerate a considerable amount of
leaf feeding.
174
The Plant Disease
A plant disease can be identified or diagnosed through the

characteristic/s or seen by manifestation of diseased (symptoms) and the
presence of visible structures (signs) produced by the pathogen.
The causal agent (pathogen) may be either a living agent (biotic) or

non-living agent (abiotic). Biotic agents have the ability to enter and
colonize plant parts and other plants. When disease increases rapidly in
a large plant population over time, a serious outbreak occurs (epidemic).
The Disease Triangle
Disease is the result of the

interactions between a pathogen environment
and a host in a pathogen and a
host in a favorable environment.
A disease generally occurs
because the host is susceptible,
the pathogen is virulent, and the
environment is conducive for the
disease to grow. pathogen host
Environmental Factors That Cause Diseases:
 Temperature. Bacteria grow rapidly at high temperature. Most

insects are active and multiply rapidly in warm temperature.
 Moisture. High moisture content enhances high germination
rate of fungal spores, affects bacteria in entering into plant
tissue cells, and increases fungal spores in number.
 Wind. Wind disperses fungal spores over distance. Strong winds
damage plant tissues, creating entry points for bacteria. Light
wind current is favorable for insects’ movement.
Common Causes Of Plant Disease

A. Non-living factors (Abiotic)
 Non-living factors do not spread from disease-infected plants to
healthy plants.
 They can be recognized only through their symptoms.
Examples:
Drying of leaves is due to lack of moisture or due to chemical
burn.
Yellowing of leaves is due to nutrient deficiency.
 They can be avoided by providing nitrogen.
175
B. Living (Biotic) factors:
 A disease may be caused by organisms that spread disease to
healthy plants.
 The organisms are very small.
 Can be recognized by symptoms and signs
 Can be managed by destroying or removing the parasitic agent
and reducing the number of pathogen and infection rate
Symptoms and Signs
A symptom is the physical expression of change in the appearance

and function of the plant.
Examples: blights, rots, cankers, gall, necrosis, and spots
A sign is the visible presence of the pathogen such as a fruiting

body or as a discharge associated with the disease.
Examples: conks, mycelia, ooze
Controlling Vegetable Diseases
As with insect control, disease control is an important phase of

vegetable production. Disease control measures begin before the disease
is observed in the field. In contrast, measures for controlling insects are
usually withheld until insects or their damage is observed.
The aims and methods in the control of plant diseases are
primarily preventive and secondarily curative.
Disease control begins with soil sterilization and seed treatment
and continues with applications of fungicides, bactericides or depending
upon the causal organism.
Different Treatments to Control Vegetable Diseases:
1. Soil treatment
 Using steam or dry heat
 Drenching the soil with formaldehyde solution
 Dusting with fungicides
 Fumigating the soil
2. Seed treatment
 Dusting with ceresin, arasan or semesan
 Soaking in liquid fungicide
 Using hot water treatment
3. Vegetative treatment. This is done either by spraying or dusting

with various fungicides.
4. Adapting cultural practices that control or minimize plant diseases:

 Cultivating and weeding the area with growing plants
 Keeping the insects under control
 Keeping the plants vigorous with proper irrigation and fertility
176
 Planting resistant varieties
 Burning or burying all infected parts and refuse
 Removing the vegetables immediately after harvest
 Employing crop rotation
 Providing good drainage
To control plant diseases, various means and methods are

used. The use of these means and methods are based upon five
fundamental principles, namely; exclusion, eradication or
extermination, inhibition, protection, and production of resistant
varieties.
a. Exclusion. Exclusion aims to keep the causes of the disease

from entering and stabling itself in an uninfected country or
locality. The measures used are inspection and quarantine.
Inspection is done by examining the suspected plants or plant
products for traces of dangerous pathogen so that if such are
found the plants may be treated.
b. Eradication or extermination. This may consist several
processes which are listed below.
 Sorting – this is done by screening, winnowing, and seed
preparation by specific gravity, hand picking, and selecting
disease-free seeds or cuttings. This is applied to seeds,
nursery, and other plants and plant parts used for
propagation.
 Roguing - The diseased materials are picked and
eliminated, buried in the soil to avoid the spread of the
disease.
 Removal of disease-infected parts – An example of this
process is the cutting out of the infected portions of the
plant.
 Removal of alternate or weed hosts
 Removal of debris – Certain disease-causing organisms, for
example the Phytopthora disease of eggplant, are found in
debris. For this reason it is necessary to practice
cleanliness in the farm. Plant materials bearing diseases
should be burned or buried deep in the ground.
 Cultivation – the mechanical treatment of the soil can
destroy the dormant stages of the pathogen or its weed
host.
 Crop rotation – The object of this method is to starve the
pathogen in the soil by withholding its host or host from
the previous crops for several planting seasons.
 Disinfection – the operation of directly killing the pathogen
while it is on its host or in the environment of the host.
This method is used in tubers, seeds, soil, etc. It may be
done by heat or with the use of poisonous substances;
fungicidal solution, and formaldehyde.
c. Inhibition or the modification of environment. The aim of this
177
method of control is to hold the pathogen in check by
controlling or modifying certain surrounding environmental
conditions. For example, damping off in nurseries is controlled
by exposing the attacked seedlings to the sun and keeping them
in a drier atmosphere.
d. Protection. The aim of this method is to place effective barriers
between the susceptible part of the plant and the pathogen in
order to prevent infection. Examples of this method are:
 Creation of wind breaks
 Selection of sheltered places protected from wind-borne
inoculums
 Bagging protects the fruits from parasite-bearing insects
coming in contact with plants.
e. Chemical control like spraying of liquid fungicides, or dusting
using a fungicide in powder form, or dust is applied to the
plants.
Common Diseases of Vegetables
Problem Symptoms and Sign Management

Damping-off  Damping-off is essentially ● The fungi that cause
Phytium sp. these seedling diseases
a seedling disease.
Fusarium sp. are soil inhabitants. To
Rhizoctoni sp. Infected plant shows soft- reduce plant losses,
Phytophora sp girdled, rotted stem near sterilize soil for growing
the soil line causing seedlings; use healthy
Hosts: seeds dressed with
Crucifers young seedlings to topple fungicide; locate nursery
Solanaceous down. Symptoms are beds on well-drained
Legumes brown, water-soaked sites; and keep beds well-
Cucurbits ventilated
areas around the lesion
that shrivel and pinch the
seedling off the base.
● The dry rot is usually
limited to the outer part of
the stem and infected
plant may fall down or
may remain more or less
upright. Infected plants
remain under developed
and usually die.
178
Bacterial wilt  Sudden wilting of leaves  Since the bacterium is
Ralstonia
and death of the entire soil-borne, soil treatment
Solanacearum
Pseudomonas plant unaccompanied by is effective in controlling
Solanacearum any yellowing or spotting this disease. Hot water
of leaves. treatment of seeds at
Hosts:
Solanaceous  Brownish discoloration 50°C for 25 minutes
appears in vascular effectively reduces the
tissues of the basal part of bacteria that stick to the
the stem. Also, roots are seeds.
formed on the stem. If the  Rotation of non-
stem is cut, milky white solanaceous crops;
exudes ooze out from the growing of seedlings in
vascular system after bacterial wilt-free beds;
suspended in water. In and planting of tomatoes
later stage of the disease, away from the land
decay of the pith causes previously infected with
extensive hollowing of the bacterium to prevent
stem. infection from drainage
water are important in
the management of
bacterial wilt disease.
 Use of compost may
reduce bacterial wilt.
High organic matter in
the soil improves
conditions for
microorganisms
including antagonistic
organisms that may
work against Rhizoctonia
bacteria.
179
Downey  The disease appears as  Major control measures
mildew
Pseudoperonos yellow spots on the include the use of
Pora cubensis surface of the leaves with resistant varieties and
(Berk and a purplish downy growth crop rotation. Wider
Curt)
on the lower surface. spacing between plants
Rostow
These yellow spots may and planting sites with
Hosts: soon turn reddish-brown good drainage and
Solanaceous and eventually kill the ventilation also helps
Cucurbitacea
leaves. When infected, check disease
plants do not die, the development by
fruits may not mature, promoting good aeration
and the flavor is poor. and rapid drying of plant
surfaces.
 Use of clean seeds or hot
water treatment will
lessen the disease
development. Practice
sanitation and
destruction of plant
debris will likewise help
to eliminate the disease.
When seedlings show
symptoms of downy
mildew, try applying
some extra nitrogen.
Seedlings tend to
outgrow the disease if
they are top-dressed
with nitrogenous
fertilizer.
180
Fusarium wilt  The fungi may infect the  Seeds from healthy
Fusarium
plant at any age. Initial plants and treating the
oxysporum
symptoms are yellowing of seeds with hot water will
Hosts: the leaves near the base of help reduce the
Solanaceous the plant followed by incidence of this disease.
wilting. One or more Precautions must be
branches may be affected taken to reduce the
while others remain spread of infested soil on
symptomless. implements and workers
 As the disease progresses, during movement among
yellowing develops on the greenhouses and fields.
upper leaves. Affected  Rotation might help limit
leaves may sometimes dry the development of new
up before wilting is races of this persistent
detected. The vascular soil-borne pathogen. Do
system of the affected not apply excessive
stem and petioles fertilizer and use
becomes brown and can disease-resistant
be detected by cutting varieties.
them diagonally.
Powdery  Initial symptoms are  Treat seeds with hot
mildew
small, white powdery water before sowing.
Leveillula
taurica (Lev) spots that first appear on  The use of sprinkler
Arnaud the upper surface of the irrigation and fungicidal
Oidiopsis leaflets and soon become spray can help in
Taurica
Tepper evident on both surfaces. reducing the
 Affected tissues turn development of the
Hosts: yellow. In serious cases, disease.
Legumes
the mildew covers the
Parsley
solanaceous entire leaf until it shrivels
and dies. The disease
progresses from the older
to younger leaves. The
pathogen also affects
stem, petioles, and floral
parts.
181
Bacterial Spot  Leaf lesions begin as  The bacterium can be
Xantomonas
water-soak, and circular seed-borne and persist
campestris pv.
vesicatoria to irregularly-shaped in crop debris and
spots that become weeds. Warm
Hosts: necrotic with brown temperatures, sprinkle
Crucifers
Cucurbits centers and chlorotic irrigation, or heavy rains
borders. enhance the severity of
 More numerous on young the disease. Seed
than old leaves, lesions cleaning along with crop
are slightly sunken on the rotation helps in the
upper leaf surface and prevention of disease
slightly raised on the outbreaks, while copper
lower surface. Lesions compound sprays reduce
sometimes coalesce and the rate of disease
severely infected leaves development.
turn yellow and drop.
 Fruit symptoms start as
water-soaked brown dots
and then become raised,
wart-like in appearance
surrounded by a lighter
halo. Narrow, elongated
lesions or streaks may
develop on stems.
182
Cercospora  Brown effuse patches  The pathogen survives in
Leaf mold
under the leaf. The diseased plants parts
Cercospora
fuligena corresponding upper where it produces spores
Roldan surfaces turn yellow and at the beginning of the
later brown. growing season. The
Hosts:
Cucurbits  In advanced infection, the application of fungicides
Legumes patches coalesce and and planting resistant
Cricifers become necrotic. Foliage varieties can reduce
of severely infected plants disease losses.
dries up and dies.
 Symptoms may also occur
on petioles and young
succulent stem but have
not been reported on fruit.
 The disease progresses
from older to younger
leaves.
Tomato yellow  Yellowing and curling of  Control insect vector by
Leaf Curl
the leaves and stunting. using systemic
Virus
Transmitted Some varieties show insecticides like
by whitefly severe cupping and dimethoate, fenitrothion,
(Bemisia curling of leaves, while and fenthion.
tabaci)
some exhibit rosette type  Remove weeds; use
Hosts: of symptoms. barrier crops like maize
Tomato  Flowers are often aborted two months before
and wilted. Plants may be transplanting seedlings;
excessively branched and avoid planting
those that survive set very solanaceous and
little fruits. malvaceous plants near
tomatoes, roughing; and
use of resistant varieties.
183
Namamarako  Typical symptoms include  Sanitation or removing
(maleness)
wrinkling of leaves of weeds that serve as
NMK virus
transmitted followed by thickening of alternate host of the
by Aphis leaves, which become vector of the virus
gossypi and shiny or ‘plastic’ in disease is one of the
Myzus
persicae appearance. Later, older preventive measures for
leaves most often have this disease.
Hosts: yellow patches and the  Control of the insect
Cucurbits
number of female flowers vector is necessary to
is severely reduced. In limit the transfer of the
severe infection, plants disease. Proper fertilizer
could be stunted and management is also
sometimes, even male necessary to produce
flowers are hardly vigorous plants.
produced.
Phomopsis  Phomopsis is a fungal  The most effective
Fruit Rot
disease that is soil-borne. method or control is to
Hosts: It spreads with water collect infected fruits
Eggplant splashing from soil to and bury them. Keep
plants or from plant to field clean from rotting
plant with irrigation and fruits, dead leaves and
rain. branches, and weeds.
 The affected areas on  Keep fruits from
fruits are dark brown. touching the soil.
They grow rapidly and are Provide proper aeration
circular in pattern. The in the area.
infected fruits turn brown
and rot in a few days.
184
Pictures showing signs/symptoms of diseases of vegetable crops
Bacterial wilt of melon – Downy mildew of melon Downy mildew of luffa –

wilting plant – leaf symptoms leaf symptoms
Fusarium wilt of Cottony leak of Bacterial soft rot of

cucumber – yellowing cucumber – decaying cabbage – decay of core
and wilting plants fruit and fungal and internal head
mycelium tissue
Xanthomonas leaf spot Bacterial soft rot – Bacterial wilt – vascular

of Chine collapsing fruit in the discoloration in lower
field stem and roots
Cercospora leaf spot Pepper mild mottle Powdery mildew

(Frogeye) – gray-brown (PMMV) – mild mosaic (Leveillula) – leaf
circular lesions with in leaves yellowing and necrosis
light colored center evident on the upper
surface of leaves
185
Tomato mosaic (TOMV) Gray wall
– mild mosaic in leaves (physiological) – gray to
brown sunken areas on
the fruit surface and
brown internal tissue
on the fruit walls
Safety Precautions in the Use of Pesticides
Practically all of the pesticides commercially available are toxic to

man and animals. The people most likely to encounter these hazards are
the operators and applicators.
Pesticides enter the body in three ways:1) by ingestion or
swallowing; 2) by breathing the dusts or vapors; and 3) by absorption
through the skin. One form can prove just as fatal as the other, but most
cases of poisoning occur through taking in accidentally. Unfortunately
children are the most frequent victims of such negligence by the adults.
Because of this, all materials should be kept in their original containers
and locked up or placed out of the reach of children.
B. Before application
1. Read the label
 Determine the target organism.
 Identify the rate and time of application.
 Wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
 Remember the antidotes and other safety measures.
 Observe field reentry intervals after treatment.
2. Check the sprayer
 Fill the tank with plain water and test the sprayer to be used
that there are no leaks or loose connections and the equipment
is working properly.
 Repair or replace any worn-out or faulty part.
3. Mixing and filling
 Extra precaution is necessary when mixing and filling sprayers
because pesticides are concentrated.
 Wear personal protective equipment.
 Open pesticide container carefully to avoid splashes, spills, or
drifts.
 Keep your head away from the opening of the sprayer.
 Wash and change clothes immediately if pesticide is spilled on
clothing.
 Do not use bare hands in mixing pesticides, nor allow
concentrated materials to touch bare skin.
186
C. During application
1. Wear personal protective equipment.
2. Do not eat, drink, smoke, or blow clogged nozzles with your mouth
while applying pesticides.
3. Do not spray when it is windy to avoid pesticide drift.
4. Spray areas near homes in early mornings or evenings when
humans, pets, and livestock are less likely to be exposed.
D. After application
1. Store remaining pesticides properly.
2. Bathe and change clothing after application of pesticides.
3. Stay away from treated field one to two days. This prevents
poisoning through contact with treated plants, or inhalation of
pesticide fumes.
SELF-CHECK
A. Based on the definition of an insect, which of the following are

insects?
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
187
7. 8.
B. Building blocks in insects. Identify the statements below and fill in

each block with a letter that corresponds with your answer. The number
of blocks determines the number of letters of the correct answer. Again
write your answer in you test notebook.
1. The first letter of the beginning of an insects’ life
2. Are all insects harmful?
3. The initial letter of the 3 body divisions of an insect
4. That stage of an insect when they are in their cocoon
5. The last stage of an insect’s life
6. The body division with 3 segments where the 3 pairs of legs are found
7. They are characterized with 3 body divisions, 3 pairs of legs, with or
without wings
8. The specialized mouthpart of a chewing insect
9. A needle like structure to suck plant juices, nectar and blood
10. The protective covering of an insect body which is hard. Exclude the
first letter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C. Matching type. Match column A to column B. Write the letter of your

answer in your test notebook.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Entomology a. building or placing of effective barriers to control
2. Insect control spread of diseases
3. Pathogen b. the study of insects and their _____.
4. Sucking c. causal organisms of diseases
insects d. any abnormal condition that will affect the
5. Biting insects normal function of plant parts
or chewing e. the changes in the life of an insect
insects f. the removal of a diseased plant
6. Metamorphosis g. the direct killing of the pathogen while it is on its
188
7. Roguing host or in the environment of the host
8. Disinfection h. group of insects that sucks plant juices
9. Protection i. group of insects that eats parts of the plant
10. Disease j. a small invertebrate animal having three body
divisions, three pairs of legs, and usually with wings
.
ACTIVITY SHEET 4.1
Visit your vegetable gardens and the school vegetable plantation.

Observe if there are insects, stray animals, and diseases destroying your
crops. List down the observations you have made. Identify how your
plants are destroyed. If you doubt your diagnosis in case of a disease,
consult your teacher for proper identification of the disease. Include in
your report how you controlled these pests. Present your written report to
your teacher.
Write in your diary all the required activities for your garden.
189
ACTIVITY SHEET 4.2
Bring to class disposed or empty containers of pesticides. Group

yourselves into 5 and study the information about the pesticides written
in the container label. Get information about the pesticides using the
matrix below as your guide. Present to class your work.
Brand of Formulation Mode of action Toxicity level

pesticide
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Answer the following questions during the class discussion after the
presentation of group works:
1. What are pesticides?

2. What are examples of pesticides that you found?
3. How are these pesticides used in the field?
4. What do you think will happen to the plants sprayed with
pesticides?
5. Who are the other living things who could be affected by the
application of these pesticides?
6. How could they be affected?
7. So what should be done when using pesticides?
190
SELF-CHECK
Fill in the graphic organizer to synthesize the ideas you learned from this
activity.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF
PESTICIDES
To: To: To: To: To:

man and water and air plants soil
animals aquatic
organisms
RESOURCES
insecticides
fungicide
soil sterilant
sprayer
personal protective equipment
REFERENCES
Publishing: 1983.
191
LESSON 5
PERFORM MULCHING
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with mulching vegetable crops. It includes the

identification of mulch materials to be used and methods of using them.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Mulch materials are gathered and prepared properly.

2. Appropriate tools are used properly.
3. Procedure in mulching is strictly followed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. mulch – any material spread on the ground to protect plant roots

from heat, cold, or drought and to keep fruits clean
2. mulching – the practice of covering the soil with any kind of

material like leaves, paper, and plastic in order to protect the plants
from extreme temperature and to conserve soil moisture.
192
Importance of Mulching
 Mulching reduces the washing away of soil particles especially in

sloping gardens. Also, mulches prevent raindrops from splashing
on the soil surface.
 Conserving soil moisture is an important use of mulch. A layer of
mulch on the soil surface allows the soil to conserve more water.
Mulch also reduces the rate of water loss from the soil.
 Mulches modify soil temperature in vegetable gardens. Proper
mulching in summer months keeps the soil cooler. Soil covered by
black or clear plastic or dark organic mulch in the early morning
warms faster than bare soil.
 Organic mulches enrich the soil as they decay and provide a better
environment for plant growth. Soils that have high organic matter
are easier to till and better suited to vegetable gardening. Organic
mulch such as straw or newspaper can be turned under the soil at
the end of the season. This helps build the soils organic matter
content. Turn the mulch under as soon as the gardening season is
over so it breaks down before the garden is replanted.
 Most mulch also provides excellent weed control. Mulches do not
prevent weed seeds from sprouting. Weed seed emergence is
blocked by a mulch layer thick enough to exclude light. A 3 - inch
layer of mulch on the soil surface is enough to prevent the growth
of weeds.
 Garden mulching reduces maintenance. A good mulch layer
eliminates the need for weeding, and mulched vegetables are
cleaner at harvest time. For example, the fruits of tomato, melon,
and other plants never touch the soil, so they are a lot cleaner than
those unmulched vegetable crops.
 There will be more fruit harvests because of less fruit rot. This is
because the soil does not splash up on the fruit.
Mulch Materials
There are many materials in the locality that could be used as

mulch materials.
 Compost is generally the best mulching material for home and

school gardens. It is usually free from weed seeds and is
inexpensive. Prepare compost from materials present in your yard.
 Straw is short-lived and coarse-textured. More straw is needed for
the same effect as compost or lawn clippings.
 Sawdust is common mulch available especially in urban places. If
well managed, it can be good mulch. Add a small amount of garden
fertilizer after applying sawdust directly to a garden. Even better,
add nitrogen to sawdust, and then compost it before spreading in
your garden.
193
 Plastic is effective mulch if properly used. Black plastic keeps light
from the soil and prevents weeds from growing. Clear plastic
warms the soil, but weeds can grow beneath the plastic. A
disadvantage of plastic is that it cannot be turned into the soil at
the end of the planting season. However, it can be recycled.
 Newspaper is much better than plastic because they can be turned
into the soil after use.
When selecting mulch materials, consider these factors:
 Cost of the material. Do not spend money on mulching materials

when there are suitable materials available in the locality at little or
no cost.
 The crop you plan to mulch. Never use material from the same crop
that you are to mulch. For example, do not use bean stalks from
the first planting season to mulch beans planted in the second
planting season.
 The time when mulch is to be used. Select light colored mulch
during summer to reflect heat. Use dark-colored mulch in the early
season to help warm the soil and to permit earlier planting and
hasten early growth.
How to Use Mulches
Spread mulches on freshly cultivated, used free soil before plants

are large enough to interfere. Apply organic mulch thick enough to leave
a 3-inch layer after setting. Four inches of fine materials like compost
should be adequate. Remember that coarser materials, such as straw,
settle and many require 6 inches or more initially. If you use newspaper,
place three layers on each side of the row. Add more mulch during the
season when working with organic materials. The mulch settles and
gradually rots during the growing season where it meets the moist soil
surface. Adding more layers assures continuous weed control and a
clean resting place for the fruits of your labor and creates a pleasing
appearance throughout the season.
194
SELF-CHECK
1. Differentiate mulch from mulching. (2 points)

2. Give at least 3 examples of mulch materials that are degradable
and one non-degradable. (4 points)
3. Using non-degradable mulch material is much easier to apply. You
have several degradable mulch materials in your locality but are
harder to use. Which would you choose and why?
RESOURCES
mulch materials
compost
rice straw/hay
sawdust/rice hull
plastic
sticks
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
195
POST-TEST
Read and understand the questions carefully and select the correct
answer by writing the LETTER in your test notebook.
1. We can say that the soil is fertile if _____.

a. it contains most of the essential elements needed for plant
growth.
b. it can produce maximum yield of crops.
c. it is black.
d. it is porous.
2. It refers to the necessary materials wherein a plant can build new

tissues and at the same time carry on its normal functions.
a. lime c. plant food
b. inoculants d. pesticide
3. Any organic and inorganic material that supports plant growth and
development is _____.
a. biofertilizer c. fertilizer
b. commercial fertilizer d. organic fertilizer
4. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. calcium c. phosphorus
b. nitrogen d. potassium
5. Which one is the primary function of nitrogen?

a. aids in seed formation
b. forms and transfers starch
c. hastens maturity
d. gives dark green color to plants
6. When the fertilizers are applied in scattered manner over the

surface of the land, the method of fertilization is _____.
a. side dressing
b. broadcasting
c. foliar application
d. band or row or localized placements
7. Which of the following is NOT a method of determining soil fertility?

a. soil analysis
b. field fertilizer trials
c. nutrient deficiency symptom
d. foliar application of fertilizer
196
8. In order to conserve soil fertility, the following methods should be
practiced EXCEPT _____.
a. application of organic fertilizer

b. practice of broadcasting and side dressing of fertilizer
c. practice of green manuring
d. practice of composting, mulching and cover cropping
9. The supply of water to the soil by any other means than rainfall is
_____.
a. duty of water c. fertilization

b. drainage d. irrigation
10. The water is applied above the ground, either in furrows or by

spreading it over the land being irrigated. It is called _____.
a. sub-irrigation c. over head or spray irrigation

b. surface irrigation d. watering by hand
11. This method of irrigation is used to apply water with the use of
sprinklers to irrigate crops grown in a small piece of land like
school and home gardens.
a. irrigation by hand c. irrigation by windmill
b. irrigation by gravity d. irrigation by power machinery
12. Which of the following benefits is NOT derived from irrigation?

a. assures crop against drought
b. improves soil aeration
c. enables the growing of quick maturing crop
d. increases quality and yield of crops
13. In order to save irrigation water, you should practice the following
EXCEPT _____.
a. avoiding over irrigation.

b. practicing wild flooding
c. practicing lining of canals properly with a clay puddle.
d. planting the field with uniform or properly graded surface.
14. The process of removing excess water from the soil in order to
increase its productivity is _____.
a. fertigation c. irrigation
b. drainage d. none of these
197
15. These are wild or cultivated plants that grow in a place where they
are not wanted.
a. broadleaf weeds c. sedges
b. grasses d. weeds
16. Which of the following is not a good reason for removing or

controlling the weeds?
a. Weeds Cause A Decrease In Crop Production
b. Weeds Increase Labor Cost and Cost of Production.
c. Weeds Increase Land Value.
d. Weeds harbor plant pests which may affect plant growth and
yield.
17. Which of the following is NOT a mechanical method of controlling

weeds?
a. burning c. cover cropping
b. cutting d. uprooting the weeds.
18. Which of these methods of controlling weeds is NOT

environmentally friendly?
a. biological c. mechanical
b. cropping and competition d. chemical
19. Which is NOT true about cultivation?

a. It conserves soil moisture. c. It improves aeration of the soil.
b. It destroys weeds. d. It decreases crop yield.
20. The best time to cultivate is _____.
a. after planting and before the crop covers the ground.

b. after watering or irrigating
c. after draining the field
d. all of these.
198
Y3 MODULE 5 ANSWER KEY
PRE-TEST LESSON 2 LESSON4

1. D 1. IRRIGATION A. 1.INSECT
2. C 2. DRAINAGE 2. NOT
3. C 3. SURFACE IRRIGATION 3. NOT
4. A 4. IRRIGATION BY GRAVITY 4. NOT
5. D 5. IRRIGATION BY POWER MACHINERY 5. NOT
6. B 6. INSECT
7. D LESSON 3 7. INSECT
8. B A. 1.FALSE 8. INSECT
9. D 2. FALSE B. 1. E
10. B 3. TRUE 2. NO
11. A 4. TRUE 3. HTA
12. B 5. TRUE 4. PUPA
13. B B. 1. HILLING UP 5. ADULT
14. B 2. 5CM 6. THORAX
15. D 3. HAND TOOLS 7. INSECTS
16. C 4. CULTIVATORS 8. MANDIBLE
17. C 5. GRASSES 9. PROBOSCIS
18. D 10. XOSKELETON
19. D C. 1. B
20. A 2. J
3. C
LESSON 1 4. H
A. 1. FERTIGATION 5. I
2. FOLIAR FERTILIZER 6. E
3. SIDE DRESSING 7. F
4. FERTILIZER 8. K
5. FERTILIZATION 9. A
B. 1. TRUE 10. D
2. TRUE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
199
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Module No. 6 Module Title: HARVESTING OF VEGETABLE
CROPS
200
MODULE VI
CROPS
MODULE TITLE : HARVESTING OF
VEGETABLE
CROPS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes in

determining the maturity indices and ways of harvesting vegetable crops.
EXPECTED OUTCOME
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
 determine the maturity indices of vegetable crops; and

 practice the proper ways of harvesting vegetable crops.
201
PRETEST
Direction: Select the correct answer. Write the letter only of your answer
in your test notebook.
1. The condition of the crop that is ready to harvest refers to _____.

a. maturity
b. maturity indices
c. harvestable
d. all of these
2. The observable indications or signs that a crop is ready for harvesting

refers to _____.
a. color c. maturity indices
b. composition d. Size and shape
3. The growth stage of a crop that marks the beginning of aging of the
tissues refers to _____.
a. commercial maturity
b. physiological maturity
c. chemical maturity
d. field maturity
4. This refers to the stage in the development of a crop in relation to time

of harvest according to use or market demand.
a. chemical maturity
b. commercial maturity
c. field maturity
d. physiological maturity
5. The maturity of tomatoes can be determined by _____.

a. chemical analysis
b. computation method
c. feel method
d. visual method
6. What method will you use to determine the maturity of cabbage and
lettuce heads?
c. feel method
d. visual method
7. Which of the following is NOT a maturity index of vegetable crops?

a. color description
c. size
d. weight
202
8. Which of the following is NOT a preparation prior to harvesting?
a. Conduct ocular inspection.
b. Prepare harvesting tools and materials.
c. Construct temporary shed.
d. Harvest the crops.
9. Which of the following tools is NOT used in harvesting vegetable

crops?
a. axe c. scissors
b. knife d. pruning shears
10. Which should not be considered in harvesting?

a. Harvest crop at a proper time.
b. Harvest at a proper maturity.
c. Harvested vegetables are allowed to stay under the sun.
d. Prevent crops from injury during harvest.
203
LESSON 1
DETERMINE THE MATURITY INDICES

OF VEGETABLE CROPS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the maturity indices and methods of

determining the maturity of vegetable crops.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Maturity indices of different vegetable crops are properly

determined.
2. Different methods of determining maturity indices of
vegetable crops are followed.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Maturity – the condition of a certain crop that is ready to

harvest
2. Maturity indices – the observable indications that a crop can

already be harvested
204
Vegetables should be harvested at the right stage of maturity.

Some farm crops can be harvested at any stage after the edible portion
has reached a reasonable size.
Maturity indices
Maturity is the stage at which a crop is harvestable. Maturity index

is an observable indication or sign that a particular crop is already
matured or ready for harvest. The following are the maturity indices of
vegetable crops:
 Color
 Weight
 Shape
 Size
 Texture
 Composition
Maturity Indices of Some Vegetables
Vegetables Maturity indices

Potatoes Culm should turn yellow and dry out before harvesting.
Skin should not slip from tuber easily. Young tubers
have skin that easily separate from tuber when rubbed.
Cabbage A mature head is compact. If the head is depressed
when pressed with the thumb, it is immature.
Cauliflower Curd is compact and creamy-white in color. Curds that
are discolored, loose, or blemished are over matured.
Sweet corn Kernels are big and exude milky sap when pierced.
When sweet corn is used for young cob corn (or baby
corn), it is harvested 2 days after silk appears for
processing and 3 days for the local market.
Lettuce, The whole plant is harvested when it is well developed.
Mustard, Leaves are still green and not starting to turn yellow
Pechay and tough, and the flavor is better.
Sweet pepper Fruits reach full size, firm, and of deep color.
Radish Roots are harvested when large and firm but crispy.
Pithy and fibrous roots are over matured.
Tomato For distant markets, fruits are harvested green. Mature
fruits are cream, pink, or yellowish green. To verify
whether or not fruits are mature even when green, take
sample and slice it. If the seeds slip away from the knife
and the pulp is jelly, the fruit is mature green. For
nearby market – pink color starts to show at the bottom
end (breaker stage) or is pink to half ripe or firm ripe.
205
Types of Maturity
 Physiological maturity is a stage in the growth of a crop that marks

the beginning of aging of the tissue. It is generally referred to as
ripening. This can be seen in the general yellowing and stooping of
plants as in potatoes.
 Commercial maturity is a stage in the development of a crop in

relation to time of harvest according to use or market demand.
Examples:
 Beans maybe harvested as young pods or dried beans.
 Pickling cucumbers are harvested very much younger than the
expected maturity.
 In peas, there are three stages of maturity:
1. green mature pods – the product desired are the tender pods.
2. tender seeds stage - the product desired are the tender
seeds.
3. ripened seed stage - if the product desired are the ripened
seeds which are mainly used as seeds.
Methods of Determining Maturity
The index of maturity can be subjective, objective or both and

involves the following methods:
1. Visual Method
 Skin color. Matured fruit losses its deep green color and
develop yellow, red, or purple color.
 Fruit size and shape. Some vegetables will reach a certain size
which can be used as index for optimum time for harvest. The
pods of peas and snap beans for example will show prominent
seed zones. The presence of abscission zones between the stem
and in some fruits like tomatoes, peas, and snap beans has also
been observed to become prominent at maturity.
2. “Feel” Method. This method is done mainly by touch of the fingers

with respect to firmness, crispness, and sound. For example,
matured cabbage heads are considerably firm when pressed gently
with the fingers.
3. Chemical Analysis. This is used mainly for fruits wherein the

starch content, sugar content, acidity, and soluble solids/acid ratio
are measured. High sugar content indicates maturity. Acid content
in some fruits falls with maturity; thus, low acid contents indicate
maturity.
206
4. Physical Means
 Use of pressure tester. This is used to measure the softness of a
fruit and may also be applied to snap beans.
 Specific gravity determination (floating method). This is the
density of mass divided by the density of water where the
density of the mass is the weight over its volume.
5. Computation Method
 Days from planting to harvesting
 Days from flowering to harvesting
SELF-CHECK
A. Identification. What method of determining maturity can you employ

on the vegetable crops listed below? Write your answer in your test
notebook.
1. tomatoes
2. sweet or bell pepper
3. green peas
4. eggplant
5. camote
6. cauliflower
7. cabbage
8. ampalaya
9. okra
10. pechay
B. What are the maturity indices of vegetable crops?
207
ACTIVITY SHEET1.1
Again visit your school vegetable gardens. Determine whether or

not the crops are ready for harvest. Take down your findings. What are
the proofs that your vegetables are ready for harvest? What method of
determining maturity can you employ in your crops? Write your answers
in the boxes below.
CROP MATURITY INDEX METHOD OF

DETERMINING
MATURITY
1.
2.
3.
4.
RESOURCES
vegetable gardens
reading materials
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
208
209
LESSON 2
PRACTICE PROPER WAYS OF

HARVESTING VEGETABLE CROPS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the study of harvesting vegetable crops and
other related activities to harvesting.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Preparations before harvesting are properly observed.

2. Appropriate harvesting materials are used.
3. Different methods of harvesting vegetable crops are followed.
4. The quality of harvests is maintained.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Harvesting – is the process of gathering or picking of

harvestable parts of a plant.
2. Sun scald - is the damage done to plants due to high
temperature.
3. Quality of harvest – refers to the good appearance and
condition of harvest.
4. Quality of harvest – refers to the number of produce.
210
Growing and harvesting vegetables are the primary responsibilities

of farmers who must necessarily be adept at this special phase of
agriculture. After vegetables reach harvest maturity, speedy operations
are required by growers, handlers, marketing specialists, wholesalers and
retailers to move their harvested products from the farm to the
consumer.
Proper timing and promptness are important factors in harvesting
farm vegetables and field crops, especially the perishable ones.
Vegetables should be harvested at the right stage of maturity.
However, some crops can be harvested at any stage after the edible part
has reached a reasonable size and is ready for the kitchen. In other
words, harvesting of vegetable crops is dependent upon the demand of
the consumers.
In harvesting vegetables of any kind, the following factors should
be considered, namely:
 the prevailing market price;
 the distance to the market; and
 the length of time they are kept prior to possible consumption.
Preparations Prior to Harvesting
In order to maintain good quality harvest, the following

preparations before harvesting should be made.
 Conduct an ocular inspection in your vegetable field to find out

whether or not the vegetables are ready to harvest. Check if there
are obstructions in the field that may cause delay in harvesting. If
ever there are, remove them to facilitate harvesting and minimize
possible damages to the harvest.
 Prepare harvesting tools and materials. Remember that vegetables
are perishable and should not to be exposed to sunlight for a long
time.
 In large scale, construct a temporary shed to house your harvest
until they are not transported to the market. Never leave your
harvests in an open field.
Tools and Materials Used in Harvesting
Different crops require different harvesting tools and materials. The

use of appropriate tools and materials in harvesting will facilitate
harvesting and may help maintain good quality of harvests.
The following tools could be used in harvesting vegetable crops:

 Scissors
 Pruning shears
 Knives
211
Various Considerations in Harvesting Vegetables
1. Harvest the crop at the proper time of the day. The time of the
day when the vegetables are harvested affects the quality of the
product. For example, sweet corn should be harvested early in the
morning and late in the afternoon. Harvesting after 9:00 AM
decreases the sweetness because the sugar content is converted to
starch.
For fruit vegetables, harvesting between 9:00AM and 3:00PM
is advisable. Harvesting the fruits earlier or later in the day causes
blemishes which are not observable at harvest but show a day or
more after harvest. This is because the peel is turgid and the
pressure made on the fruit from pulling the fruit out cause the
blemishes.
2. Harvest vegetables at proper maturity. The most common cause
of poor quality of harvest is harvesting too early or too late.
Produce should be harvested at the proper stage of maturity
considering again the purpose and the desire of the consumer.
Over maturity will take the vegetable soggy in consistency,
fibrous, and flat in taste. It also makes the vegetable subject to fast
internal breakdown during display or storage.
Some vegetables like cucumber, sweet corn, peas, snap
beans, and asparagus represent other vegetables which pass their
best edible stage quickly. Thus, they should be harvested daily or
every other day.
3. Harvested vegetables should not be allowed in the sun for a
long period of time. Sun exposure can cause injury, especially to
leafy vegetables. Sun exposure enhances high transpiration in
products resulting to wilting.
When harvesting tomatoes and pepper, it is advisable to put
them in the shade and should not be allowed under the blazing
sun in avoid a disorder known as sunscale.
4. Preventing injury during harvest. During harvesting, care should

be followed to avoid inflicting injuries to produce. Bruising or
crushing impairs vegetable quality and leads to disease infection.
Jostling the tubers during harvesting cause unsightly flapping of
the skin (called feathers) in potato. Pick commodity gently. They
should be laid down on the container carefully, not tossed. The
filled container must not be thrown or walked on.
Deep piling can cause crushing of the bottom layers. It can
also cause “heat up” because the heat of respiration cannot escape
from the center and bottom of the pile of vegetables.
Suitable tools and equipment (including containers) should
be on hand. Thus, there is no substitute for adequate planning,
preparation, and organization. Each of the farm worker should
know the proper handling of the harvested crop.
212
SELF-CHECK
A. Select the correct answer. Write only the LETTER of your answer in
your test notebook.
1. Which of the following is NOT an objective in doing some preparations

prior to harvesting?
a. Determine whether or not the crops are ready to harvest.
b. Find out if there are obstructions in harvesting.
c. Facilitate harvesting and minimize possible damages to crops
during harvest time.
d. View the beauty of the field with harvestable crops.
2. Why is there a need to make use of appropriate tools and materials in

harvesting?
a. To facilitate harvesting
b. To minimize damages to harvests
c. To obtain quality harvest
d. To enjoy harvesting
3. Which of the following tools is not appropriate for harvesting vegetable

crops?
a. bolos
b. knives
c. pruning shears
d. scissors
4. Which of the following may cause injury to the harvest?

a. Don’t pile the harvest too high because it may cause “heat up” that
will cause damage to the harvest.
b. Toss the harvested crops to the containers.
c. Practice TLC in harvesting.
d. Use appropriate tools and materials in harvesting.
5. Which of the following is not a characteristic of over maturity among

vegetable crops?
a. fibrous
b. flat in taste
c. soggy in consistency and has fast internal breakdown during
display or storage.
d. none of these
B. Why do you need to practice Tender Loving Care in harvesting?
C. In what activities can you apply TLC to obtain good quality harvests?
213
ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
At this point in time, your vegetables are ready for harvesting. This
time, practice harvesting by following the considerations that you have
studied in your lessons. Remember to make use of the appropriate tools
and materials in harvesting. Don’t forget to practice the principles of TLC
if you want to have quality harvest.
RESOURCES
pair of scissors
pruning shears
knife
baskets with lines
wooden/pastic crates
temporary shed
sacks
cart
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
214
POST-TEST
Direction: Select the correct answer. Write only the letter of your answer
in your test notebook.
1. The condition of the crop that is ready to harvest refers to _____.
a. maturity
b. maturity indices
c. harvestable
d. all of these
2. The observable indications or signs that a crop can already be

harvested refers to ______.
a. color c. maturity indices
b. composition d. size and shape
3. The growth stage of a crop that marks the beginning of aging of the
tissues is called _____.
a. commercial maturity
b. physiological maturity
c. chemical maturity
d. field maturity
4. This refers to the stage in the development of a crop in relation to time

of harvest according to use or market demand.
a. chemical maturity
b. commercial maturity
c. field maturity
d. physiological maturity
5. The maturity of tomatoes can be determined through _____.

c. feel method
d. visual method
6. What method will you use to determine the maturity of cabbage and
lettuce heads?
c. feel method
d. visual method
7. Which of the following is NOT a maturity index of vegetable crops?

a. color description
c. size
d. weight
8. Which of the following is NOT a preparation prior to harvesting?

a. Make ocular inspection in the field to find out whether or not the
215
vegetables are ready for harvest.
b. Prepare harvesting tools and materials.
c. Construct temporary shed.
d. Harvest the crops.
9. Which of the following tools should NOT be used in harvesting

vegetable crops?
a. axe c. scissors
b. knife d. pruning shears
10. Which one is NOT a consideration in harvesting?

a. Harvest crop at a proper time.
b. Harvest at a proper maturity.
c. Harvested vegetables are allowed to stay under the sun.
d. Prevent crops from injuries during harvest time.
216
Y3 MODULE6 ANSWER KEY
PRE-TEST LESSON1 LESSON2

1. A A. 1. – 7 – FEEL METHOD 1. D
2. C 8.– 10 – VISUAL METHOD 2. D
3. B B. 1. COLOR 3. A
4. B 2. SIZE 4. B
5. D 3. TEXTURE 5. D
6. C 4. SHAPE
7. B 5. COMPOSITION AND WEIGHT
8. D 6. FIRMNESS
9. A
10. C
217
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Unit of Competency: PERFORM POST-HARVEST OPERATIONS OF
MAJOR LOWLAND AND SEMI-TEMPERATE VEGETABLES
Module No. 7 Module Title: PERFORMING POST-HARVEST
OPERATIONS OF MAJOR LOWLAND AND
SEMI-TEMPERATE VEGETABLES
218
MODULE VII
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : PERFORM POST-HARVEST
OPERATIONS OF MAJOR
LOWLAND AND SEMI-
TEMPERATE VEGETABLES
MODULE TITLE : PERFORMING POST-HARVEST
OPERATIONS OF MAJOR
LOWLAND AND SEMI-
TEMPERATE VEGETABLES
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary

in performing harvest technologies of major lowland vegetables in semi-
temperate areas. It includes the maintenance of quality vegetables for
distribution.
EXPECTED OUTCOME
Upon completion of the module, you should be able to:
1. conduct post-harvest technologies;

2. market the vegetable products; and
3. keep farm records and accounts.
219
PRETEST
Direction: Read and analyze the questions carefully. Select the correct
answer. Write your answer in your test notebook.
1. Which of the following post-harvest technologies vegetable crops

should be done first?
a. Storing
b. Harvesting
c. Sorting and grading
d. Trimming an cleaning
2. Which one is the primary objective of post-harvest handling of
vegetables?
a. Make the harvest look attractive.
b. Maintain quality of vegetable products.
c. Discard diseased harvests.
d. Eliminate damaged harvests.
3. ‘ Which of the following is a physiological loss of vegetable harvests?
‘ a. Abrasions
b. Cuts
c. Punctures
d. Rots
4. What procedure should you do in order to maintain the quality of
harvests?
a. Harvests should be placed in containers with liners.
b. Harvests should be stocked or placed in temporary shed.
c. Harvests should be gently laid down, never toss them into the
containers or into the shed.
d. All of the above
5. Which one is NOT a cause of post-harvest losses?
a. Adverse weather conditions
b. Inefficiency of distribution and lack of transportation
c. Lack of market demands
d. None of the above
6. The harvests need to be trimmed _____.
a. to express the whitish color of roots
b. to remove soils dirt adhering to the harvests
c. to remove undesirable and ugly parts of the harvested
vegetables
d. all of the above
7. The process of separating and grouping of commodities set by the
industry or consumer is _____.
a. sorting
b. grading
c. evaluating
d. standardizing
220
8. These are alterations in the appearance of a commodity due to careless
harvesting and handling of products.
a. bruises
b. abrasions
c. mechanical damages
d. physiological damages
e. sorting
f. grading
g. evaluating
h. standardizing
10. These are alterations in the appearance of a commodity due to
careless harvesting and handling of products _____.
e. bruises
f. abrasions
g. mechanical damages
h. physiological damages
11. The practice of putting and arranging the produce to appropriate
containers before shipping or storing is _____.
a. sorting
b. grading
c. storing
d. packing
12. The movement of the harvested vegetables from the farm, sorting
and grading stations, packing house, warehouses to market places
refers to _____.
a. curing
b. storing
c. packing
d. transporting
221
LESSON 1
CONDUCT POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson deals with the post-harvest technologies of semi-

temperate vegetables. It includes proper handling of harvest, trimming,
cleaning, sorting, grading of harvests, and proper packaging and
transporting of harvest.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Proper handling of harvest is practiced.

2. Trimming and cleaning of the harvests are done as
prescribed.
3. Sorting and grading of the harvests are carefully done.
4. Proper packaging and transporting of harvests are practiced.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Abrasion – partial to full separation of the outer covering of the

commodity.
2. Sorting – the process of separating and grouping of commodities
according to a set of criteria according to a set of criteria
recognized by the industry or consumer
3. Grade – the unit of classification
4. Standard – the quality requirement of each grade
5. Grading – the process of classifying vegetables according to size,
shape, color, and appearance
222
Depending on the nature of the crop, the harvest passes through

one or all of the following processes before it is used:
 Trimming and cleaning
 Sorting and grading
 Drying, curing
 Storing
Handling of Harvested Products
It is to the advantage of a farmer to know not only how to grow his

crops but also to handle his harvests properly in order to get the most
out of them. Likewise, consumers in the largest measure.
The primary objective of post-harvest handling is to maintain

vegetable quality. Carelessness at any phase after harvest can quickly
change the grade of the harvests. Typical quality parameters include
color, firmness, size, shape, flavor, aroma, and freedom from injury and
disease.
Vegetable quality is most often reduced by two factors:
1. Mechanical injury – Mechanical injuries include cuts, abrasions,

and punctures incurred during harvesting and handling
operations, and bruises caused by drops or over-filled containers.
These injuries provide entry points for decay organisms and reduce
storage life.
2. Poor temperature management - To maintain quality of
vegetables after harvest, they should be stocked or placed in
temporary shed to avoid wilting and sun-scalding. Harvests should
not be tossed but should be gently laid down in containers with
liners.
Causes of Post-Harvest Losses
Post-harvest losses of vegetable could be due to causes that are

technological in nature such as decay, yellowing, and wilting, or non-
technological such as lack of transportation and storage facilities,
adverse weather conditions, inefficiency of distribution, and lack of
market demand.
Some of the post-harvest losses of vegetables are due to changes in

the commodity that are obvious such as yellowing, softening, rotting, and
sprouting, all of which will result in the direct loss of commercial value of
the vegetable. Such losses usually contribute considerably to the total
post-harvest losses of the vegetable.
223
Deterioration in texture, flavor and aroma which affect the quality
of the vegetable may occur. Example of such loss is the development of
pithiness in radish, celery, and cucumber and the toughening of beans.
These changes are accompanied by a decrease in the nutritive value of
vegetables. These types of losses are called physiological losses since they
are caused by changes in physiological processes.
Losses due to rough and careless picking, packing, loading or

unloading are common. The damages may be in the form of cuts,
punctures, cracks, splits, changes in form and shape (distortion) or
partial to full separation of the outer covering (abrasion). An alteration in
the appearance of a commodity may occur. These types of damages are
called mechanical damages.
Usually, rots are the greatest single cause of loss. However, most
micro-organisms enter through mechanically damaged tissue. Weakened
tissues caused by natural (physiological) deterioration are also very
susceptible to microbial attack. Physiological changes of vegetables other
than wilting, cause deterioration.
Vegetables Signs of Deterioration

Leafy vegetables Yellowing
Cauliflower and broccoli Opening and florets, softening
Sweet corn and young corn cob Loss of sweetness
Okra Softening
Cucumber Yellowing
Beans Toughening, yellowing
Chayote, tomatoes, pepper Seed germination
Asparagus Elongation and feathering
Onions, garlic, sweet potato, ginger Sprouting and rooting
Carrot softening
Cleaning the Harvested Crops
Post-harvest operation is done specifically with celery, green,

onions, radish, and carrot. It may be done with other vegetables
especially those harvested during wet conditions.
The purpose is to expose the whitish color of roots, remove soil,

dirt, spray or dust residues, refresh the products, and improve the appeal
to the customer.
Wiping the vegetables with a clean, dry and soft cloth often gives
better results than washing. This is most suitable for tomatoes, melons,
and other fruit vegetables.
224
Trimming
Trimming is done mostly to leafy vegetables such Chinese cabbage,

pechay, celery, broccoli, cabbage, green onions and some rot crops like
carrots and radish. The purpose is to remove undesirable and ugly parts
such as damaged, discolored, malformed parts and vegetable parts that
can cause injury to ensure the attractiveness of the products.
Trimming also includes the removal of disease-infected parts to

avoid the spread of the disease during the transport or storage of the
commodity.
Trimming lessens the expense for transporting and handling and

most especially improves the appearance or maintain the good quality of
the products.
Sorting and Grading
Sorting is the process of separating and grouping commodities

according to a set of criteria recognized by the industry or consumer. The
set of criteria are termed standard.
The grade is the unit of classification while the standard defines

the quality requirement of each grade. Quality is usually defined in terms
of color, size, shape, maturity, and amount of defects. In grade, there are
usually 1-5 grades: Grade No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 or off-grade or unclassified.
The off-grades are usually left in the field for the animals.
Honest grading will pay dividends. Graded products of good quality

often sell better than poorly graded products. If the products are intended
for export or for processing plants or for institutional buyers such as
hotels, restaurants, and military bases, the grade standards developed by
the Bureau of the Standards have to be followed. Top grades (grades 1-2)
are sold to these buyers at a premium price. Lower grades (grades 3-4)
are disposed to public market for common buyers.
Unmarketable vegetables should be discarded at the farm to avoid

transportation expenses. Vegetables of poor quality should not be mixed
with those of good quality. This will not only lower the price but will also
hasten deterioration of the good ones.
Packing
This is the practice of putting the produce into appropriate

containers before shipping or storing. This promotes efficiency and
accuracy in shipping or storing.
Although packing adds additional expenses to the vegetable grower

or middlemen, it prevents considerable losses due to bruises and, at the
same time, maintains the quality and appearance of the vegetables.
225
It has been observed that the type of container used may greatly
influence product loss during handling and transport. The best
packaging materials for most vegetables are the crates (wooden or plastic
crates) with lining at the bottom and inner sides to avoid injury of the
produce. However, in trading, polyethylene bags are now commonly used
for packing vegetable products. Do not mix different grades in a
container, putting the first class above and lower class at the bottom of
the container. In doing such, your reputation as a trader will not be
questioned and you will be patronized again.
Curing
This is a technique of subjecting newly dug tubers or roots to

intermediately high temperature and high relative humidity to heal
bruised or wounded produce to prolong storage life. The recommended
temperature range may be from 15-19°C for tubers, sweet potato roots,
and onion bulbs.
Transporting
Transporting refers to the movement of the harvested vegetables

from the farm, sorting or grading stations, packing house, trading posts,
bus stores, warehouses to the point of sale.
More often than not, vegetables are transported in trucks,

passenger jeeps, and buses. In this case, much damage is incurred by
the product. A significant observation in transporting that should be
looked into and improved is the practice of traders or merchants in
loading packaged vegetables. These are: 1. indiscriminate throwing of
packed vegetables into trucks, jeeps or buses; 2. tramping of the packs
by people handling the loading job; and 3. putting heavy packs over
smaller ones. If these can be minimized, a lot of loss from vegetable
damage maybe saved and the quality of the products will be preserved.
Storing
The technique in delaying or postponing the distribution,

movement or sale of vegetables is by keeping them in appropriate
environment. The purpose is to control supply, stabilize price, and bring
the produce when market price is high. However, this technique is not
true to all vegetable products. Several vegetables are easily destroyed or
are perishable which should not be stored for a long time.
Harvests that are properly and carefully handled before they are
brought to the market command higher prices.
226
SELF-CHECK
1. What are the post-harvest technologies in vegetable production? (4

points)
2. Give three (3) examples of mechanical and physiological causes of
post-harvest losses. (6 points)
227
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
Perform the post-harvest techniques that you have studied in your

project (vegetable production). List down the harvesting and post-harvest
techniques that you practice on your harvested crops.
Harvesting & Post-harvest

Operations in Vegetable Crops
Harvesting operations Post-harvest operations

1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
RESOURCES
pail of water
clean cloth
knife
scissors
baskets
wooden/plastic crates
delivery van
cart
storage facilities
228
REFERENCES
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G.; Elementary Agriculture: Saint Mary’s Publishing:

1983.
Cheah Kok Kheong, at.al.; Modern Agriculture for Tropical Schools: Oxford
University Press: 1979
Resource Manual on Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM) in
Vegetables: World Education (INGO) Philippines, Inc.; Laguna,
Rivera, Aquilino R.; Home and School Vegetable Gardening: Grace Printing,
Inc.: Laoag City. 1988
Ware, George W. and J.P. McCollum; Producing Vegetables Crops: Second
Ed., Interlino Printing Co., Inc.: Quezon City 1977
229
LESSON 2
MARKET VEGETABLE PRODUCTS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson focuses on marketing of vegetable products. It includes

honesty in the preparation of products for the market and selling of the
products.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. The quality of the vegetable crops for market is maintained.

2. Honesty in the preparation of products for the market is
observed.
3. Methods of marketing vegetable crops are practiced.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Market – a place where people meet to sell and buy
2. Marketing – the buying and selling of goods or the transfer of goods

from one who produces to the one who uses the goods
230
The fruits of vegetable growers’ toil are determined during marketing.

Marketing involves the methods of selling farm products. In the farmer’s
language, marketing is the bringing and selling of goods from the producer
to the consumers.
Marketing of vegetables from small-scale growers is usually by
retailing to the end users, while harvest of commercial vegetable growers is
marketed by wholesale through cooperatives or companies.
A market is a place where people meet to sell or buy things. If the
market is within the town or municipality, it is called local market. If the
market is in another town or municipality, this type of market is called
nearby town market.
From this early form of simple exchange comes marketing as
we know it today. We can find this type of people daily not only in our
simple local markets but also throughout the world. But where farming
(crops, animals, and fish) predominates, a much wider market is required.
Leafy vegetables and other perishable farm products should be
marketed or sold as soon as they are harvested because of the following
reasons:
 They can be sold at a better price in the market when still fresh or
newly harvested.
 Leafy vegetables retain higher amounts of vitamins and minerals
when they are fresh.
 Fresh leafy vegetables are more attractive to consumers.
Methods of Marketing
There are several methods or systems of selling farm products. What

method/system to use is mostly of the producer’s personal choice
depending upon what is most convenient for him. In most cases, this
depends upon the present economic situation of the farmer/producer.
These methods are:
1. Retailing directly to consumers. This method of marketing is

commonly used by small-scale growers of farm crops. They sell directly to
the consumers by bringing their products to the local or nearby public
markets. They are in direct contact with the end-users and know
immediately what they want. Since the farmer does the job of transporting
and marketing his produce from the farm directly to the consumers, he
gets all the profits from his crops. However, one disadvantage of this
method is that the farmer devotes more time and spends more money on
transportation in marketing his own produce than using his time and
money for improving his farming management practices.
2. Selling to middlemen or wholesalers. Some farmers sell their produce
to wholesalers or middlemen who come to the farm, harvest the crops
themselves, and sell them to the market. In the Philippines, we call this
“pakyawan” system of marketing. This method is advisable when the point
of consumption is far from the point of production. This method assures
231
the farmer of a ready market and is relieved of the many risks of losing
money because of shrinkages, damages, changes in prices, and additional
costs of transportation. However, since the wholesalers are the ones selling
the products direct to the end-users, the farmer gets only a small share of
what the consumers pay.
3. Selling in the farm. This method is commonly practiced by small-scale
farm crop producers and consumers. Sales are negotiated by sellers and
buyers on face-to-face and cash-and-carry basis. Prices are specified at the
time of the sale. Sales are for immediate delivery or for continuous supply
over an extended period. Through this method, the farmer is freed from
additional costs of transportation, but it creates a high risk since the time
and method of harvesting and changes in prices of the produce are
unpredictable.
4. Selling through a contracting company. Information and

communication are important aspects of this method of marketing. This
method brings the producer into contract with a company who usually
specifies what farm crops the farmer will raise. Contracts are varied, from
simple, verbal agreements to written documents specifying in detail the
conditions to be fulfilled by both parties. Usually, in the contract, items
such as the following are specified:
 Crops to be planted;
 Date of planting;
 Time and method of harvesting;
 Time of delivery for the continuous supply of the products agreed
upon; and
 Prices for the produce.
Through this method of marketing, the farmer or producer is assured

of a market for his products; at the same time, he is relieved of the risks of
marketing and changes in prices. However, the farmer is deprived in some
instances of a chance to raise his prices according to the prevailing prices
unless this is specified in the contract.
5. Selling through cooperatives. This method of marketing usually
operates at low cost so that a farmer-member gets enough profits and, at
the same time, the end-users get cheaper commodities. Marketing through
cooperatives is carried on usually in the barrio or town where farmer-
members deliver their produce at the buying station. Through this method,
the members are assured of a market of their products and are relieved of
the risks of marketing operations. The cooperative marketing method has
been proven to be effective and helpful to producers or consumers with
limited capital.
SELF-CHECK
1. Differentiate retailing from wholesaling.

2. What are the methods of marketing vegetables?
232
ACTIVITY SHEET 2.1
1. Practice marketing your vegetable products honestly.

2. Conduct a survey about the prevailing market price of vegetables in
the market. Make a list of vegetables in the market and indicate their
prevailing prices. This would be your basis in pricing your own
product.
233
POSTTEST
Direction: Read and analyze the questions carefully. Select the correct
answer. Write your answer in your test notebook.
1. Which of the following post-harvest technologies in vegetable crops

should be done first?
a. storing
b. harvesting
c. sorting and grading
d. Trimming an cleaning
4. Which one is the primary objective of post-harvest handling of vegetables?
a. make the harvest look attractive.
b. maintain quality of vegetable products.
c. discard disease harvests.
d. eliminate damaged harvests.
5. Which of the following is a physiological loss of vegetable harvests?
a. abrasions
b. cuts
c. punctures
d. rots
6. What procedure should you do in order to maintain the quality of
harvests?
a. harvests should be placed in containers with liners.
b. harvests should be stocked or placed in temporary shed.
c. harvests should be gently laid down, never toss them into the
containers or into the shed.
d. all of the above
7. Which one is not a cause of post-harvest losses?
a. adverse weather conditions
b. inefficiency of distribution and lack of transportation
c. lack of market demands
d. none of the above
8. The harvests need to be trimmed _____.
a. to express the whitish color of roots
b. to remove soils dirt adhering to the harvest
c. to remove undesirable and ugly parts of the harvested vegetables
d. all of the above
industry or consumer is ______.
a. sorting
b. grading
c. evaluating
d. standardizing
a. bruises
b. abrasions
234
a. sorting
b. grading
c. evaluating
d. standardizing
a. bruises
b. abrasions
13. The practice of putting and arranging the produce to appropriate
to appropriate containers before shipping or storing is _____.
a. sorting
b. grading
c. storing
d. packing
14. The movement of the harvested vegetables from the farm, sorting, and
grading stations, packing house, warehouses to market places refers
to ______.
a. curing
b. storing
c. packing
d. transporting
RESOURCES
delivery van
market basket
plastic/wooden crates with liners
sacks
weighing scale
plastic bags
235
REFERENCES
Asuncion, Jr. Ramon G.; Elementary Agriculture: Saint Mary’s Publishing:

1983.
Cheah Kok Kheong, at.al.; Modern Agriculture for Tropical Schools: Oxford
University Press: 1979
Resource Manual on Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM) in
Vegetables: World Education (INGO) Philippines, Inc.; Laguna,
Rivera, Aquilino R.; Home and School Vegetable Gardening: Grace Printing,
Inc.: Laoag City. 1988
Ware, George W. and J.P. McCollum; Producing Vegetables Crops: Second
Ed., Interlino Printing Co., Inc.: Quezon City 1977
236
Y3 MODULE 7 ANSWER KEY
POST-TEST LESSON2
1. D 1. RETAILING IS THE MARKETING OF PRODUCTS

2. B TO END USERS WHILE WHOLESALING IS
3. D SELLING OF GOODS IN LARGE QUANTITIES
4. D USUALLY TO MIDDLE MAN.
5. C 2. A. RETAILING
6. C B. WHOLE SALING
7. A C. SELLING IN THE FARM
8. C D. SELLING THROUGH CONTRACTING COMPANY
9. D E. SELLING THROUGH COOPERATIVE
10. D
LESSON1
1. A. TRIMMING
B. CLEANING
C. SORTING
D. GRADING
E. PACKEGING
F. SORTING
2. MECHANICAL LOSSES
A. CUTS
B. CRACKS
C. ABRASION
D. SPLITS
E. BRUISES
F. PUNCTURES
3. PHYSIOLOGICAL LOSSES
A. DECREASE IN THE NUTRITIVE VALUE
B. ROTS
C. DETERIORATION IN TEXTURE, FLAVOR AND AROMA
237
HIGH SCHOOLS
COMPETENCY-BASED
LEARNING MATERIAL
THIRD YEAR
HORTICULTURE NC II
Unit of Competency: PERFORM POST-HARVEST OPERATIONS OF
MAJOR
LOWLAND AND SEMI-TEMPERATE VEGETABLES
Module No. 8 Module Title: KEEPING FARM RECORDS AND
ACCOUNTS
238
MODULE VIII
CROPS
MODULE TITLE : KEEPING FARM RECORDS AND
ACCOUNTS
MODULE INTRODUCTION
This module deals with the knowledge, skills and attitudes in keeping
farm records and accounts.
EXPECTED OUTCOME
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. keep farm records and accounts.
239
PRETEST
Select the correct answers. Write only the letter in your quiz
notebook.
1. Why should you keep farm records and accounts?

a. Farm records and accounts will keep track of all transactions in
the business.
b. It has reliable and updated information on what is going on in the
project.
c. It will show the financial status of the project and reflect whether
or not the project is gaining.
d. all of the above
2. This refers to the costs incurred whether or not production takes

place.
a. cash c. fixed costs
b. non-cash d. variable costs
3. These are costs which vary depending on the quantities of

production.
a. cash c. variable costs
b. expenses d. depreciation costs
4. This refers to the current money on hand or the money readily

available.
a. cash c. fixed cost
b. expenses d. variable cost
5. These are written statements or collection of facts and figures on a

subject for a definite purpose.
a. cash c. farm accounts
b. farm records d. depreciation cost
240
LESSON 1
KEEP FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS
INTRODUCTION
This lesson covers the importance of keeping farm records and

accounts.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Different farm records and account such as records of sales,

inventory, expenses, and miscellaneous are properly
prepared.
2. Entries are recorded accordingly and accurately.
3. Different farm records and accounts are regularly updated.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. farm records – written statements or collection of facts and

figures on a subject for a definite purpose
2. farm accounts – written financial statements
241
To keep track of what is happening in your business, you should

keep farm records and accounts. Farm records and accounts will inform
you whether or not your business is gaining or not.
Honesty and diligence should always be practiced in keeping

records to ensure the success of your business.
Importance of Keeping Farm Records and Accounts
Financial, farm operation records and reports are very important in

a business. They enable the project manager to keep track of all
transactions made by the enterprise or project. Thus, the manager has
reliable and updated information on the financial status of the project.
In collecting data for record keeping, request the vegetable grower
to record his farm activities and transactions for a year. Daily recording
is ideal, but experience shows that weekly recall and recording has been
found to be satisfactory.
Classification of Costs
Costs in production may be classified into four major categories:

1. Fixed costs – refer to costs incurred whether or not production
takes place. The fixed costs in vegetable production would
include land tax, government irrigation fee, and depreciation
and interest charges on equipment such as tractor or irrigation
pump and the maintenance cost of work animals.
2. Variable costs – refer to costs which vary depending on the

quantities of production. Land rent is a variable cost if there is
shared management. Seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, and hired
labor are also examples of variable costs. Other variable costs
would include harvesting and threshing, operating cost for
equipment like the tractor and irrigation pumps, and pest
control.
3. Cash – current money on hand or money readily available. It is
the item that most farmers lack, especially before planting.
Farmers resort to borrowing money from various sources to
cover expenses for crop production. Interest of borrowed money
is considered cash. Hired labor is classified under cash.
4. Non-cash – includes interest on operating capital, if the capital
is not borrowed. Likewise, the farmer’s labor and family labor
are non-cash costs.
242
1. Variable cost 2. Fixed cost
a. cash a. cash
 seeds  irrigation fee
 fertilizers  land tax or land
 pesticides rent
 hired labor and equipment  interest on capital
 land preparation b. non-cash
 planting/transplanting  care of carabao
 care of crop  care of
 harvesting & threshing implements
 hauling  depreciation of
b. non-cash implements
 family labor
 land preparation
 planting/transplanting
 care of crop
 harvesting & threshing
In computing the net income, consider the gross income, the cost
of production, and the cost of marketing. To get the gross income,
multiply the number of kilograms of your product by the price per kilo.
Determine the total cost of production; include both fixed and variable
costs. Deduct total cost of production from gross income to get net
income.
Data to be Collected/Recorded
The farmer has to keep records and accounts of his enterprise.

Farm records and accounts are written statements of facts and figures on
a subject for a definite purpose. The data to be included and the
sequencing of the data or information depend on your purpose. They may
include data on money, dates and events, or quantities of farm produce.
Examples are:
1. inventory record
2. farm sales
3. farm expenses
Farm accounts are written financial statements. Examples are:
4. fertilizer accounts
5. insecticide accounts
Money values are included in these accounts from purchase
records, fertilizer records, and insecticide records.
243
EXAMPLE OF RECORDS
SALES RECORD
Unit Total
Date Unit Description
Value Value
FARM OPERATIONS RECORD

Cost of Labor
Date Activity
man/day man-animal/day
INSECT/DISEASE CONTROL RECORD

Name of Name of Pests Control
Vegetable Remarks
Insect Disease Attacked Measure
244
SELF-CHECK
Put a check mark in the appropriate column where vegetable
production expenses are classified.
Expenses Fixed Variable Non-
Cash
Cost Cost Cash
1. seeds
2. family labor
3. fertilizer
4. irrigation fee
5. rent of carabao
6. maintenance of
implements
7. land tax/rent
8. pesticides
9. depreciation
10. harvest & threshing
245
ACTIVITY SHEET 1.1
A. Prepare the following records to where you record your data:

1. Record of farm operations (from land preparation to harvesting)
2. Record of sales
B. Update your record regularly. Present your record to your teacher for
approval.
RESOURCES
reference
farm record
REFERENCES

Publishing: 1983.
246
POST-TEST
1. Why should you keep farm records and accounts?

a. Farm records and accounts will keep track of all transactions in
the business.
b. It has reliable and updated information on what is going on in
the project.
c. It will show the financial status of the project and reflect
whether or not the project is gaining.
d. all of the above
2. This refers to the costs incurred whether or not production takes
place.
a. cash c. fixed costs
b. non-cash d. variable costs
3. These are costs which vary depending on the quantities of
production.
a. cash c. variable costs
b. expenses d. depreciation costs
4. This refers to the current money on hand or the money readily
available.
a. cash c. fixed cost
b. expenses d. variable cost
5. These are written statements or collection of facts and figures on a
subject for a definite purpose.
a. cash
b. farm records
c. farm accounts
d. depreciation cost
247
Y3 MODULE 8 ANSWER
KEY
LESSON1
1. D
2. C
3. C
248
249

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REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

MODULE 1 - Conducting Pre-horticultural Farm

MODULE 2 - Preparing the Land for Planting

Lesson 1 – Prepare the land for planting vegetable

MODULE 3 - Growing of Seedlings

Lesson 1 - Select quality seeds

MODULE 4 – Direct Planting and Transplanting of

Lesson 1 –Perform direct planting of vegetable crops

MODULE 5 – Maintaining the Growth of Vegetable

MODULE 6 – Harvesting of Vegetable Crops

Lesson 1 – Apply post-harvest technologies

MODULE 8 – Keeping Farm Records and Accounts

Lesson 1- Keep farm records and accounts

UNIT OF COMPETENCY : CONDUCT PRE-

This module covers the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in

After completing this module, you should be able to:

A. Identification. Identify the words being described by each of the

a. shop building e. wheel barrow i. bolo

1. A structure where agricultural chemicals are being kept

10. What preventive structure shall we provide if the area of our

PREPARE FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND SIMPLE EQUIPMENT

The lesson deals with the identification and pre-operative check up

1. Appropriate tools and farm equipment are identified and sorted

Farm tools, implements, and equipment play a very important role in

1. Bolo is used for cutting grasses

2. Crowbar is used for digging big

3. Pick-mattock is used for digging

5. Spade is used for removing trash

6. Shovel is used for removing trash,

7. Rake is used for cleaning the

8. Spading fork is used for loosening

10. Hand trowel is used for loosening

11. Hand cultivator is used for

12. Hand fork is used for inter-row

13. Pruning shears is used for cutting

15. Knife is used for cutting planting

Farm implements are accessories pulled by working animals or

1. Plows. They refer to farm implements used in horticultural

Native Plow Disc Plow

Native Wooden Harrow Disc Harrow

3. Rotavator. The rotavator is an implement mounted to a tractor

Equipment is machineries used in horticultural operations

1. Hand tractor is used to pull a plow and harrow in preparing a large

Other Materials, Tools, and Equipment

Water Pails Sprinklers Wheel Barrow

Trigger Sprayer Knapsack Sprayer Power Sprayer

Tools that are defective should be segregated and be fixed

PRE-OPERATIVE CHECK UP OF FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS, AND

Armed with your working clothes and personal protective

Answer the question below. (10 points)

Name ___________________________ Date ___________________

Activities Weight Score Points (weight x score)

Points Earned - Descriptive Rating

Agricultural Arts for Secondary

MAINTAIN FARM FACILITIES

This lesson deals with the maintenance of farm facilities. It

1. Simple repair and modification of farm tools, implements,

1. Facility – something designed or created to provide a service or

Maintaining Farm Facility

The most common facility in horticulture is the nursery shed or the

In cooperation with the users, the staff should:

For productive, cost-efficient, and effective farm facilities, here are

 Schedule a regular clean up at least twice a year. This is also

How to Clean Your Tools

Name _________ Date _