T A M P I N E S J U N I O R C O L L E G E

M A T H E M A T I C S H I G H E R 2
C H A P T E R 4
S E Q U E N C E S A N D S E R I E S

1. Introduction
A sequence or progression is a set of numbers in a defined order with a rule for obtaining the
numbers or terms.
Eg.
Sequence Next term Conjecture
for nth term
(A) Sequence of first 5 odd positive integers: 11 2n − 1
1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(B) Sequence of negative integers: -4 −n
-1, -2, -3, ...
(C) Sequence of first 10 positive multiples of 3: 33 3n
3, 6, 9, …, 30
1 1 ⎛ 1⎞
n
(D) Sequence of integral powers of - : ⎜− ⎟
2 16 ⎝ 2⎠
1 1 1
- , , - , ...
2 4 8
(E) Sequence of squares of positive integers: 16 n2
1, 4, 9, …
Which of the above sequences are finite?
Which of the above sequences are infinite?

Note: Two special types of sequences are the arithmetic progression and the geometric
progression. Sequences (A), (B) and (C) are examples of an arithmetic progression.
Sequences (D) is example of a geometric progression. We shall closely examine
arithmetic and geometric progressions in the next chapter.

Sequences and Series 1

To obtain a series, we simply add the terms of a sequence.
Eg.
Series Sum of first n terms of series
(A) Series of first 5 odd positive integers: 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 2n − 1
1+3+5+7+9
(B) Series of negative integers: -1 - 2 - 3 - ... - n
-1 - 2 - 3 - ...
(C) Series of first 10 positive multiples of 3: 3 + 6 + 9 + … + 3n
3 + 6 + 9 + … + 30
1 1 1 1 ⎛ 1⎞
n
(D) Series of integral powers of - : - + - + ... + ⎜− ⎟
2 2 4 8 ⎝ 2⎠
1 1 1
- + - + ...
2 4 8
(E) Series of squares of positive integers: 1 + 4 + 9 + … + n2
1+4+9+…
Which of the above series are finite?
Which of the above series are infinite?

In this chapter, we shall first investigate sequences in greater detail before moving on to
examine various series.

2. Generating a sequence
In this section, we shall learn how to generate sequences.
We may use an , un , Tn and so on to denote the nth term of a sequence.
1 1 1 1
Eg. For the sequence , , , , … ,
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
1st term u1 = , 2nd term u2 = , 3rd term u3 = , 4th term u4 = , ...
2 3 4 5
A sequence may be generated in 2 ways:
(i) using a formula for the nth term;
(ii) using a recurrence relation.
We shall now study the first way.
Example 2.1
Without using a GC, list the first 5 terms of the following sequences.
Formula for nth term Sequence
(a) u n = 2 n +1 − 1 3, 7, 15, 31, 63

(b) un = n 2 1, 4, 9, 16, 25

( −1) 1 1 1 1 1
n

(c) un = − , ,− , ,−
( n + 2 )( 2n − 1) 3 ×1 4 × 3 5× 5 6× 7 7×9

Sequences and Series 2

Using a GC, we may easily generate a sequence based on a formula for the nth term.
Let us now look at how to generate the sequence (a) in the above example.
Method 1
Keys to press on GC Screen output
To change to the mode for sequences:
Press .
Select SEQ and press .

To define the sequence:

Press .
For nMin, press 1.
For u(n)=,
press .

To check that your table setup is correct:

Press [TBLSET].

To view the sequence in table form:

Press [TABLE].

Method 2
Keys to press on GC Screen output
To call out the sequence function:
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Press .

Sequences and Series 3

 To define the sequence:
Press
.

This computes
the values of the function 2 x +1 − 1
for integer values of x from 1 to 5.
Can you use a GC to generate the sequences (b) and (c) in the above example?
If your GC is in the mode for functions,
you will obtain the above screen.
If your GC is in the mode for sequences,
your screen output would be similar to
the one above. The only difference is
that the variable “X” would be replaced
by the variable “n”.

We shall now examine the second way of generating a sequence,

namely by using a recursive relation.
A recurrence relation for a sequence is an equation which defines a sequence recursively,
ie. un +1 = f ( un ) .

Hence, each term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms.

Example 2.2
Without using a GC, list the first 5 terms of the following sequences.
Recurrence relation Sequence
(a) u1 = −5 , -5, -3, 6, 10, -5

u n − (− 1) u n −1 = n , n ≥ 2
n

(b) u1 = 3 , 3, 5, 25, 629, 395629

un +1 = un 2 − 4 ( 2 − n ) , n ∈ Z+

(c) u1 = 4 , 4, -8, 6, 19, 14.5

2un +1 + 3un = 4 (1 − 2n ) , n ≥ 1

Using a GC, we may easily generate a sequence based on a recurrence relation, but we must
always express the nth term in terms of the (n-1)th term.

Let us now look at how to generate the sequence (a) in the above example.

Sequences and Series 4

First of all, we need to rearrange the terms in u n − (− 1) u n −1 = n
n

to obtain u n = (− 1) u n −1 + n .
n

Keys to press on GC Screen output

To change to the mode for sequences:
Press .
Select SEQ and press .

To define the recurrence relation:

Press .
For nMin, press 1.
For u(n)=,
press
[u]
.
For u(nMin), press .
To view the sequence in table form:
Press [TABLE].

Can we generate the sequence (b) in the above example where un +1 is expressed in terms of un ?
The answer is yes, but we need to make certain modifications in order to express un in terms of
un −1 .

Now we are given un +1 = un 2 − 4 ( 2 − n ) .

Replacing n by n − 1 , we have un −1+1 = un −12 − 4 ⎡⎣ 2 − ( n − 1) ⎤⎦ ,

which would lead to un = un −12 − 4 ( 3 − n ) .

Sequences and Series 5

 Keys to press on GC Screen output
To change to the mode for sequences:
Press .
Select SEQ and press .

To define the sequence:

Press .
For nMin, press 1.
For u(n)=,
press [u]
.
For u(nMin), press .
To view the sequence in table form:
Press [TABLE].

Can you use a GC to generate the sequence (c) in the above example?

3. Factorial (!)
Consider the recurrence relation defined by u1 = 1 and un +1 = ( n + 1) un for n ∈ Z+.
We have u1 = 1 = 1!
u2 = (1 + 1) u1 = 2 (1!) = 2 x 1 = 2!
u3 = ( 2 + 1) u2 = 3 (2!) = 3 x 2 x 1 = 3!
u4 = ( 3 + 1) u3 = 4 (3!) = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 4!
u5 = ( 4 + 1) u4 = 5 (4!) = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5!
The recurrence relation above would thus lead us to the sequence of factorials,
ie. un = n ! .

The factorial of a positive integer n is defined by

n! = n (n -1) (n -2) (n -3) … 3 x 2 x 1, n ∈ Z+.

Note:
a) We define 0! = 1.
b) n! = n (n -1)(n -2)(n -3)…3 x 2 x 1 = n [(n -1)!] = n (n -1) [(n -2)!]

Sequences and Series 6

Eg. 5! = 5(4!) = 5(4)(3!)
6! = 6(5!) = 6(5)(4!)
(r +1)! = (r + 1) (r!)
(n -2)! = (n - 2)[(n - 3)!]

Now let us study the use of the factorial function in the GC. Say we wish to compute 5!.
Keys to press on GC Screen output
To type 5! in the home screen:
Press [QUIT] to go to the
home screen.
Press .
Press .
Select PRB from the top row.
Press to call out the factorial
function.

Can you use the GC to compute 10! ?

1
Can you generate the sequence defined by u1 = and un +1 = ( n − 1) !un , n ∈ Z+ ?
4

4. Deducing general term

If we are given a recurrence relation, we may need to use deductive reasoning to establish the
expression of the general term, with the aid of a graphic calculator or otherwise.

Example 4.1
A sequence of positive integers u1 , u2 , u3 , ... is defined by u1 = 6 and un +1 − 4 = 2un for all
positive integers n.
(i) Write down the first 7 terms of the sequence defined by un .
(ii) By considering a particular multiple of 2n , make a conjecture for a formula for un in
terms of n.

Solution:
(i) Rearranging u n +1 − 4 = 2u n , we have u n +1 = 2u n + 4 .
Replacing n with n – 1, we have u n = 2u n −1 + 4 .

Sequences and Series 7

(ii)
Keys to press on GC Screen output
To define the sequence:
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Press .
Press
.

This computes
the values of the function x
for integer values of x from 1 to 10.

To store Press .
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Scroll up
and select B: L by pressing .
(*) Press [N] .

Of course, we may assign different

names to our lists. For example, if we
wish to name the previous list as
“NUM1”, we merely repeat our previous
steps, but we replace the last step marked
(*) with the following step:
Sequences and Series 8
 “Press [N]
[U]
[M]
”.

Alternatively, we may wish to store our

values in one of the 6 pre-named lists.
For example, if we wish to store our
values in the pre-named list “L6”, we
press .

To shorten our working for generating new lists, we may perform certain operations on
our current lists.

Keys to press on GC Screen output

To define List “L1”:
Press .
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Scroll up
and select B: L by pressing .
Press [N].
Press .
To define List “L2”:
Press to repeat the previous
entry.
Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to
L1and press .
Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to
LN and press .
Use the arrow keys to move the cursor to
^ and press .

Sequences and Series 9

 Do the same for other multiples of 2n

Actual working to be shown for (ii):

n 5 ( 2n ) 5 ( 2n ) -4
1 10 6
2 20 16
3 40 36
4 80 76
5 160 156
6 320 316
Hence, a possible conjecture is un = 5 ( 2n ) − 4 , n ∈ Z+ .

Note
We may view our lists in the form of a table. Let us see how to do this for part (ii) in the
previous example.

Keys to press on GC Screen output

To call out the function to choose the
lists to be displayed in the form of a
table:
Press .
Method (i): Select 5 and press .
Method (ii): Press .
To choose the lists to be displayed in the
form of a table:
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Scroll up
and select B: L by pressing .
Press [N].
Press .

Sequences and Series 10

 To view the chosen lists in the form of a
table:
Press .
Press .

Remarks
We have just learnt how to deduce the formula for the general term of a sequence. In a later
chapter, we shall take a close look at how to prove this formula through the method of
mathematical induction.

5. Practical examples of finite and infinite sequences

We are required to give real-life examples of finite and infinite sequences.

Example 5.1
A right-angled triangle labeled A1 has a height of length 1 unit and a base of length 1 unit. A
second right-angled triangle labeled A2 has a height of length 1 unit and a base which is formed
by the hypotenuse of the triangle A1. A third right-angled triangle labeled A3 has a height of
length 1 unit and a base which is formed by the hypotenuse of the triangle labeled A2 and so on
for subsequent triangles.
Let the length of the hypotenuse of triangle An be ln . A4 A3
n ln
A2
1 12 + 12 = 2
A1
2

The recurrence relation is given by

3
, n ≥ 2 and

4
The general term is given by

Sequences and Series 11

Example 5.2
An e-mail system automatically generates welcome messages to greet people who join the
system. When the first person joins, a welcome message is sent from the system to the first
person. When the second person joins, one welcome message is sent from the system to the
second person and from the first person to the second person. When the third person joins, one
welcome message is sent from the system to the third person, from the first person to the third
person and from the second person to the third person.
Let the total number of welcome messages sent after the nth person joins the system be Sn .
n Sn
1 1 The recurrence relation is given by

2 1+2=3 , n ≥ 2 and S1 = 1 .

3
4
5
Can you come up with the general term for the total number of welcome messages sent after the
nth person joins the system? [Hint: This is related to an arithmetic progression.]

Example 5.3
A 400g sample of radioactive substance has a half-life of 0.1 seconds. This means that the
amount of this substance present in a sample is halved every 0.1 seconds.
t Amount in sample at time t
0 400 Let the amount of substance in the
0.1 sample at the nth second be Tn .
400
= 200
2
0.2 The recurrence relation is given by
, n ∈ Z+, and T1 = 400 .
0.3

M M
1

Can you come up with a formula for the general term for Tn ?

Sequences and Series 12

Example 5.4
A man has a handphone subscription plan at $18 per month. The handphone company charges
20% monthly interest on the outstanding balance for a handphone bill. When the man has an
outstanding balance of $10, he forgets to pay his handphone bill subsequently.
Let the total amount (in dollars) owed in his nth bill with overdue charges be Sn .
n Sn
1 120 The recurrence relation is given by
10 × + 18 = 30
100 , n ≥ 2 and S1 = 30 .
2

For those who enjoy challenges, can you come up with a formula for the general term Sn ?

Can you come up with more real-life examples of sequences?

6. Series
As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, a series is obtained by forming the sum of the
terms of a sequence. There are many different kinds of series, such as binomial expansions,
arithmetic progressions and geometric progressions. We shall examine these special series more
closely in later chapters. In this section, we shall learn to express a series in sigma notation.

6.1 Use of Sigma Notation ∑

It is useful to have a short way of writing expressions like 12 + 22 + ...... + n2 . This is done
by writing ∑ r 2 which means “the sum of squares of positive integers”. The numbers placed
below and above the ∑ notation show where the series begins and ends.
Thus,
n

∑rr =1
2
= 12 + 22 + 32 + ....... + n 2

General term
Index of summation
Lower limit
Upper limit

Sequences and Series 13

Example 6.1
Write down the series represented by the ∑ notation in each of the following:
5
(a) ∑r
r =1
3
=13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53
4
(b) ∑ (−1)
r =1
r +1 2
r = 1 − 22 + 32 − 42
∞
(c) ∑2
r =0
−r
= 20 + 2−1 + 2−2 + ...
n
(d) ∑a
i =1
i = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an

( −1)
r
2n
1 1 1 1
(e) ∑ (r + 1)(r + 2) = − (4)(5) + (5)(6) − (6)(7) + ....... + (2n + 1)(2n + 2)
r =3

We may use a GC to obtain a numerical value for the sum of a series if we are given the
formula for the general term and if such a numerical value exists.
We shall now evaluate the series (a) in the above example.

Keys to press on GC Screen output

To define List “L1”:
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Press .
Press
.
Press .

To call out the function for the

cumulative sum of a sequence:
Press [LIST].
Select OPS from the top row.
Press .

Press .

Sequences and Series 14

 5
Hence ∑r
r =1
3
= 225 .
1 2 3 4
Note that ∑ r 3 =1,
r =1
∑ r 3 =9 ,
r =1
∑ r 3 =36 and
r =1
∑r
r =1
3
=100 .

Can you evaluate the series (b) in the above example?

Note
If a series comprises of terms with alternating signs and we wish to find the formula for the
general term in this series, we may make use of ( −1) or ( −1) in the formula.
n n+1

⎧ 1, when n is an even integer

( −1) =⎨
n

⎩ −1, when n is an odd integer

⎧−1, when n is an even integer
( −1) = ⎨
n+1

⎩ 1, when n is an odd integer

Example 6.2
Express the following series in Σ notation.

Series General term Lower limit Upper limit

a) 1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + n
=

d) 1x3 + 2x5 + 3x7 + ...to 20th term

=

e) 2 4 6
+ + + ...
1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 5
=

c) 1 - x + x2 - x3 + ...
=

f) -1 + 3x2 - 5x4 + ... to (2n)th term

=

g) 12 (n) + 22 (n-1) + ... + n2 (1)

=

Sequences and Series 15

6.2 Basic properties of Σ
In this section, we shall study certain properties of sigma notation. We shall also see some
examples which illustrate how to use these properties.

n n n
(i) ∑ (ur + vr )
r =1
= ∑ ur +
r =1
∑v
r =1
r

n n n
(ii) ∑ (ur − vr )
r =1
= ∑ ur −
r =1
∑v
r =1
r

n n
(iii) If k is a constant, then ∑ ( kur ) = k
r =1
∑u
r =1
r .
n n m −1
(iv) ∑ ur
r =m
= ∑ ur −
r =1
∑u
r =1
r

n
(v) ∑
r =1
k = kn , where k is a constant

Proof :
(i)
n
∑ (ur + vr ) = (u1 + v1 ) + (u2 + v2 ) + (u3 + v3 ) + ... + (un + vn )
r =1
= (u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un ) + (v1 + v2 + v3 + ... + vn )
n n
= ∑ ur + ∑ vr
r =1 r =1
(ii) Similar to (i). (Exercise)

(iii)
n
∑ (kur ) = ku1 + ku2 + ku3 + ... + kun
r =1
= k (u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un )
n
= k ∑ ur
r =1
(iv)
n

∑u
r =m
r = um + um +1 + um + 2 + ... + un

= ( u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + um −1 + um + ... + un ) − ( u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + um −1 )

n m −1
= ∑ ur − ∑ ur
r =1 r =1

Sequences and Series 16

(v)
n
∑k =1
k + k + k + ... + k
442443
r =1
n terms
= kn

Note: n ⎛ n ⎞⎛ n ⎞
∑ ur vr ≠ ⎜⎜ ∑ ur ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ∑ vr ⎟⎟
r =1 ⎝ r =1 ⎠ ⎝ r =1 ⎠
For example, take ur = vr = r .
2
Then ∑ (r )(r ) = 1 + 2 = 5 .
2 2
r =1
But ⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ∑ r ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ∑ r ⎟⎟ = (1 + 2)(1 + 2) = 9 .
⎝ r =1 ⎠ ⎝ r =1 ⎠

Example 6.3
n
Find ∑
r =0
(n 2 − 7 r − 2) in terms of n, simplifying your answer.
n
n ( n + 1)
[Hint: Use ∑r =
r =1 2
which is found in the formula booklet.]

Solution:

Sequences and Series 17

Example 6.4
n
n 2 (n + 1) 2 2n
If ∑ r 3 =
r =1 4
, find ∑r
r = n +1
3
.

Solution:

7. Obtaining general term from sum of first n terms

In this section, we shall focus on how to obtain a formula for the general term of a sequence
based on the sum of the first n terms of this sequence.

Let the nth term of a series be denoted by un .

Let the sum of the first n terms of this series be denoted by Sn .
Hence,

S n = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un
n
= ∑ ur
r =1

The sum of the first ( n − 1) terms of this series is denoted by S n −1 .

S n − S n −1 = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un −1 + un − ( u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un −1 )
= un

Hence,
un = Sn − S n −1
n n −1
= ∑ ur − ∑ ur
r =1 r =1

Sequences and Series 18

Example 7.1
n
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) ⎛ 1⎞
Given that
r =1
∑r 2
=
6
and the nth term of a series is given by ⎜12n − ⎟ , find the
⎝
2

2⎠
sum of the first n terms of this series.

Solution:

Example 7.2
n

∑ a = ( n + 1) ( n!) − 1 , find the nth

2
Given that the sum of the first n terms of a series is given by r
r =1

term an .

Solution:
n −1

∑a = ⎡⎣( n − 1) + 1⎤⎦ ( n − 1) !− 1
2
r
r =1

= n 2 ( n − 1) !− 1

Sequences and Series 19

8. Method of Differences
In this section, we shall study how to obtain the sum of the first n terms of a series by using the
method of differences.

If the general term ur of a series can be expressed as f ( r + 1) − f ( r ) , then we have

u1 = f ( 2) - f (1)
u2 = f ( 3) - f ( 2)
u3 = f ( 4) - f ( 3)
M
un − 2 = f ( n − 1) - f (r )
un −1 = f (n) - f ( n − 1)
un = f ( n + 1) - f ( n)
n
Adding the n equations, ∑u
r =1
r = f ( n + 1) − f (1) .

Example 8.1
n
1 1 1 1
Show that − =
r r + 1 r (r + 1)
and evaluate ∑ r (r + 1) .
r =1

Solution:

Sequences and Series 20

9. Convergence of a series
In this section, we need to learn how to use a graphic calculator to “guess” if a series converges.
Also, we must learn to identify the conditions for the convergence of a series. In addition, if a
series is convergent, we need to evaluate the value of the sum to infinity.

Let the sum to infinity of an infinite series be denoted by S∞.

S∞ = u1 + u2 + u3 + ...
∞
= ∑ un
r =1
n
= lim ∑ un
n →∞
r =1

= lim S n
n →∞

Example 9.1
n
6
By using partial fractions and the method of difference, find ∑ 4n
r =1
2
−1
.
∞
6
Hence, deduce ∑ 4n
r =1
2
−1
.

Solution
Using partial fractions,

Sequences and Series 21

Example 9.2
1
The nth term of a sequence is given by bn = .
n!
n
(i) Write down the values of bn and ∑b
r =1
r for 1 ≤ n ≤ 8 , leaving your answers correct to 5

decimal places.
∞
(ii) Explain whether the series ∑b
r =1
r exists.
∞
xr
(iii) By substituting a suitable value of x into ex = ∑ , x ∈ R, find the exact value of the
r =0 r !
∞
sum to infinity ∑b
r =1
r .

Solution:
(i)
n n! bn n

∑b
r =1
r

1 1 1 1
2 2 0.5 1.5
3 6 0.16667 1.66667
4 24 0.04167 1.70833
5 120 0.00833 1.71667
6 720 0.00139 1.71806
7 5040 0.00020 1.71825
8 40320 0.00002 1.71828

(ii) From the table in (i), as n → ∞ ,

(iii)

Sequences and Series 22

Remark
∞
xr
(a) ex = ∑ ,x∈R
r =0 r !
This series is one of the Maclaurin’s series found in your formula booklet. We shall
investigate how to derive this and other Maclaurin’s series in a later chapter on the
applications of differentiation.
(b) To find the sum to infinity of a convergent series, apart from the Maclaurin’s series, we
may require the use of other series such as the convergent geometric series and the
binomial series which we shall learn in subsequent chapters.

Sequences and Series 23