Extensive Survey Project Geological Report

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT
PROJECT:2018
:2018
A Project report submitted in partial ful
fulfilment
filment of the requirement for the award of
Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
FROM
DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(An
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Approved by AICTE & ISO9001:2008 Certified)
Certified
SUBMITTED BY: BATCH 09
NANDAN RAMAPPA TADAGALALE SAHANA J

POOJA N DOTHIRE SAHANA S
PUNITH J SAINATH R DHATTI
RUDRAGOUDA SAMEER RAJ
S NAVEEN KUMAR VENKATESH T S
SACHIN SOURABH M K
SACHIN H S MOHAMMED NADEEM M TORGAL
TORGA
Under the guidance of

of:
Dr.M.R.RAJASHEKAR
M.R.RAJASHEKAR Mr.B.T.
Mr.B.T.SHIVENDRA
(Prof. & Camp Officer) (Prof. & Camp Officer)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Kumaraswamy
araswamy Layout Bangalore – 560078
(An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to V.T.U, Belagavi)
SHAVIGE MALLESHWARA HILLS, KUMARASWAMY LAYOUT, BANGALORE

BANGALORE-78
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project entitled “EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT” carried out by SAMEER
RAJ bearing USN: 1DS15CV1
1DS15CV114, a bonafide student of Dayananda Sagar College of
Engineering, an Autonomous college, affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU
(VTU),
Belagavi, in the partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering,
during the year 2018. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated have been
incorporated in the report. The report has been approved as it satisfies the academic
requirements in respect of project work prescribed for the above said degree.
Dr. H.K. RAMARAJU

(HOD, CIVIL ENGG)
Mr. B.T. SHIVENDRA INTERNAL EXAMINER

(Prof. & Camp Officer)
Dr. M.R.RAJASHEKAR EXTERNAL EXAMINER

E
(Prof. & Camp Officer)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We consider ourselves privileged to express gratitude and respect towards all those teaching and
non-teaching faculty members who have guided us for successful completion of Extensive Survey
Project-2018
We express our sincere gratitude to our Chairman, Vice Chairman, Secretary and the Principal Dr.
C.P.S. Prakash & DSI Management for providing us the necessary infrastructure and his kind
encouragement during the project.
We would like to express our deep and sincere gratitude to our Head of the Department, Dr.H.K
Ramaraju and survey camp officers, Dr.M.R.Rajashekara, & Prof.B.T.Shivendra, and women
welfare officer Mrs. Madhu K S for providing us the necessary facilities and encouraging us to
make this project a grand success.
We feel it a great pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to faculty
members who guided us the
New Tank Project- Mr Sanjeev T P, Mr Vinay A & Mr Abhinandan K S
Old Tank Project- Mr Shailesh Hundekar & Mr Sunil C L
Public Health Engineering- B.T.Shivendra, Mrs. M Tejaswini, Mrs. Madhu K S.
Highway Alignment Survey- Dr.M.R.Rajashekara , Mr Nithin Kumar & Mr Shahaji Patil.
Soil Investigation Report- Mr Abhinandan K S
Geology Report- G.Venkatesh for their valuable guidance, unrelenting assistance and support
throughout the projects
We are thankful to the non teaching staff Mr Hemanth and Mr Shiva Kumar T for their support in
field work.
We also express our thanks to Mr Sanjeev T P and Mr B T Shivendra faculty members of civil
engineering department who shared their knowledge during the preparation of detailed project
report. Finally, we would like to thank our parents & friends for their support in making this project
a success.
CONTENTS
SYNOPSIS
GEOLOGICAL REPORT
NTP
 INTRODUCTION
 DESIGN
 DRAWINGS
HIGHWAY
 INTRODUCTION
 DESIGN
 DRAWINGS
OTP
 INTRODUCTION
 DESIGN
 DRAWING
PHE
 INTRODUCTION
 DESIGN
 DRAWING
CONCLUSION
SYNPOSIS
The extensive survey project is aimed at planning various projects like New
tank project, Old tank project, Public health engineering and Highway projects.
The purpose of this survey project is to gain the knowledge of practical

application of theory aspects.
The location “Melukote”is nearly at 154km from Dayananda Sagar College of

Engineering. It a religious place which is developing area in RuralMandya. The place
is provided with many small water tanks for drinking purposes and it is self sufficient.
The transportation facility is good. The economy of the place is dependent upon the
tourists, hence the living standards are quite low.
A new plan for village is done to improve the water treatment and waste water
disposal without disturbing the existing system. The pre constructed road has to be
upgraded and a plan is done to construct a highway. A pond was found to be half full.
The existing water source is planned to improve the water storage. The pond had bund
on one side, it was planned to increase the bund level. By increasing the bund level, it
would improve the irrigation, yield per acre, provide employment and improve the
overall economy of the village.
GEOLOGICAL REPORT 2018
INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGY
The science that deals with the dynamics and physical history of the earth, the rocks of
which it is composed, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that the earth has
undergone or is undergoing.
We need to know where to find these resources so that society can continue to function.
But, we must also recognize that many of earth’s resources are finite and could eventually run
out. So we mustalso know how to manage our resources and recognize how our use of the
resources may ultimately be impacting on the planet.
We also need to know about geology for practical reasons, like choosing a safe place to
construct buildings where they will be safe from river flooding,landslides,earthquakes,volcanic
eruptions and other natural disasters. We also need to be able to pick safe sites for building
dams and bridges, nuclear power stations and for disposing of society’s waste products so as
not to create environmental disasters.
STUDY AREA:
Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one

of the sacred places in Karnataka. The place is also known as Thirunarayanapuram. It is built
on rocky hills, known as Yadugiri, Yaadavagiri and Yadushailadeepa, overlooking the Cauvery
valley. Melukote is about 51 km (32 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (83 mi) from Bangalore.
DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 1

(DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING)
Fig 1.1 : Study Area map
TOPOGRAPHY:
Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth and other
observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an
area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description (especially their
depiction in maps).
In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale
detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines, but historically
using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both
natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made
up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line
connecting places of equal elevation.
The Survey of India is responsible for all topographic control, surveys and
mapping of India.

Fig 1.2 : Highway allignment, NTP and OTP sites map
FAULTS:
In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which
there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement. Large faults within
the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the
boundaries between the plates, such as seduction zones or transform faults. Energy release
associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
STRIKE AND DIP :

Strike is defined as the direction of the line formed by the intersection of a fault, bed or
other planar feature and a horizontal plane. Dip is the angle at which a planar feature is inclined
to the horizontal plane; it is measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike of the
feature.
Fig 1.3 : Geological structure Map

CONTOUR:
A line on a map joining points of equal elevation above a given level, usually mean sea
level. The change in elevation between one contour line and the next is the contour interval.
Fig 1.4 : Toposheet

ROAD AND RAIL MAP OF PANDAVAPURA TQ
Fig 1.5 : Transportation network map

NEW TANK PROJECT

STUDY AREA
Fig 1.6 : Study Area of NTP site
CATCHMENT AREA
A catchment area is a hydrological unit. Each drop of precipitation that
falls into a catchment area eventually ends up in the same river going to the sea if
it doesn't evaporate. However, it can take a very long time. Catchment areas are
separated from each other by watersheds.

Fig 1.7 : Drainage Map of the Proposed NT catchment
MINI WATERSHED MAP
Fig 1.8 : Mini Watershed Map

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA

1. Sindhughatta 6.1877 14.51
2. Singapura 11.1870 26.25
3. Melukote 13.2604 31.141
4. Horalahalli 11.9659 28.08

Table 1.1 : mini water shed with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
GEOMORPHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.9 : Geomorphology map of the proposed NT catchment Map
SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA
69.32205563 21.89711
1. Pediment – Inseberg Complex
Shallow weathered/shallow 6.972651272 2.202487

2.
buried Pediplain

240.176681 75.86583
3. Vally Fill/ Filled-in vally
0.109444208 0.034571
4. Water body Mask
Table 1.2 : Geomorphology with unit wise area with percentage of NTP
LITHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.10 : Lithology Map
SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

MIGMATITE AND
1 GRANDDIORITE – TONALITIC 5.25 100
GNESS
Table 1.3 : Lithology description with unit wise area with percentage of NTP

WEATHERING
Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and
animal life, atmosphere and water are the major causes of weathering. Weathering breaks down
and loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported away by agents of erosion
such as water, wind and ice. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.
Mechanical weathering
Mechanical weathering is the disintegration of rock into smaller and smaller fragments.
Frost action is an effective form of mechanical weathering. When water trickles down into
fractures and pores of rock, then freezes, its volume increases by almost 10 percent. This causes
outward pressure of about 30,000 pounds per square inch at -7.6 Fahrenheit. Frost action causes
rocks to be broken apart into angular fragments. Idaho's extreme temperature range in the high
country causes frost action to be a very important form of weathering.
Exfoliation is a form of mechanical weathering in which curved plates of rock are

stripped from rock below. This results in exfoliation domes or dome-like hills and rounded
boulders. Exfoliation domes occur along planes of parting called joints, which are curved more
or less parallel to the surface. These joints are several inches apart near the surface but increase
in distance to several feet apart with depth. One after another these layers are spalled off
resulting in rounded or dome-shaped rock forms. Most people believe exfoliation is caused by
instability as a result of drastically reduced pressure at the earth's surface allowing the rock to
expand.
Exfoliation domes are best developed in granitic rock. Yosemite National Park has
exceptional examples of exfoliation domes. Idaho has good examples in the Quiet City of
Rocks near Oakley as well as in many parts of the granitic Idaho Batholith. In fact, these
characteristic rounded forms make rock exposure of the granitic Idaho Batholith easy to
identify.
Another type of exfoliation occurs where boulders are spheroidally weathered. These
boulders are rounded by concentric shells of rock spalling off, similar to the way shells may be
removed from an onion. The outer shells are formed by chemical weathering of certain
minerals to a product with a greater volume than the original material. For example, feldspar in

granite is converted to clay which occupies a larger volume. Igneous rocks are very susceptible
to mechanical weathering.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering transforms the original material into a substance with a different
composition and different physical characteristics. The new substance is typically much softer
and more susceptible to agents of erosion than the original material. The rate of chemical
weathering is greatly accelerated by the presence of warm temperatures and moisture. Also,
some minerals are more vulnerable to chemical weathering than others. For example, feldspar
is far more reactive than quartz.
The soil harvesting structure should be construct in the site because the sediment
accumulation takes place in the proposed site.
Fig 1.11 : Physical Disintegrated rock pieces

Fig 1.12 : Briefing about Geological condition of Proposed NT area
Fig 1.13 : Strike and Dip of Rock in proposed New Tank area

SLOPE MAP:
Fig 1.14 : SlopMap of the proposed NT catchment
SI.NO % OF SLOPE AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

0.298258176 1.49383
1. 10-15
1.314390477 6.58314
2. 15-35
15.11036777 75.68045
3. 3-5
3.242994615 16.24258
4. 5-10%
Table 1.4 : Slop map unit wise area with percentage of NTP

SOIL TEXTURE MAP:
Fig 1.15 : Soil texture map of NTP
SI.NO SOIL TEXTURE AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

1. LOAMY SAND 51.08257807 63.00869
2. SANDY LOAM 23.99831989 29.60115
3. ROCK OUTCROPS 1.961342103 2.419252
4. SANDY CLAY LOAM 0.786274164 0.969844
5. WATER BODY MASK 0.109444208 0.134996
6. GRAVELLY LOAMY SAND 1.508901405 1.861181
7. HABITATION MASK 0.026652222 0.032875
8. GRAVELLY SAND 1.598756534 1.972014
Table 1.5 : Soil texture with unit wise area with percentage of NTP

LAND USE/LAND COVER MAP:
Fig 1.16 : Land use / Land cover map
SL.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

0.219175948 0.919767
1. Fallow Land
12.78558643 53.65445
2. Crop land
0.109444208 0.45928
3. Lake / Tank
10.68863784 44.85465
4. Land with scrub
0.026652222 0.111846
5. Village
Table 1.6 : Land use/ Land cover with unit wise area with percentage of NTP

Fig 1.17 : Profile of NTP bund using GPS data
Fig 1.18 : Length of bund using GPS data

OLD TANK PROJECT

STUDY AREA
Fig 1.19 : Study area of OTP

CATCHMENT AREA MAP:
Fig 1.20 : Catchment area map of OTP
LITHOLOGY MAP:
Fig 1.21 : Lithology map of OTP


55.2307026 1.371359
1. PINK & GRANULITE
MIGMATITES AND
3972.212553 98.62864
2. GRNODIORITE -
TONALTIC GNEISS
Table 1.7 : Lithology description with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
Fig 1.22 : Strike and Dip of Rock in Old Tank area

Fig 1.23 : Weathering of Rock In Old Tank Area
SLOPE MAP:
Fig 1.24 : Slop map of OTP

SI.NO DESCRIPTION(%) AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA
0.599342734 3.164017
1. 0-1
15.11036777 79.76983
2. 3-5
3.232749237 17.06615
3. 35-50
Table 1.8 : Slop description with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
LAND USE / LAND COVER MAP:
Fig 1.25 : Land use / Land cover map of OTP
SI. NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

Kharif + Rabi (Double
1.
Crop) 2.386021693 34.10871
2. Kharif crop 0.832557991 11.9016
Barren Rocky / Stony
3.
Waste / Sheet Rock Area 3.087712296 44.13953

4. Village 0.651038095 9.306733

5. Lake / Tanks 0.038014826 0.54343
Table 1.9 : land use / Land cover description with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
GEOMORPHOLOGY MAP:
Fig 1.26 : Slop map of OTP

0.306779358 0.125374
1. PEDIMENT / VALLY FLOOR
4.170699805 1.704468
2. RESIDUAL HILL
VALLEY FILL/ FILLED-IN 240.176681 98.15462

3.
VALLEY

0.038014826 0.015536
4. WATER BODY MASK
Table 1.10 Geomorphology description with unit wise area with percentage of OTP
SOIL TEXTURE MAP:
Fig 1.27 : Soil texture map of OTP

1. SANDY LOAM 22.5029 94.15045
2. LOAMY SAND 0.70905 2.966612
3. HABITATION MASK 0.651038 2.723894
4. WATER BODY MASK 0.038014 0.159048

Table 1.11 soil texture description with unit wise area with percentage of OTP

HIGHWAY
STUDY AREA
Fig 1.28 : Study Area of Highway using Google earth
LITHOLOGY MAP
Fig 1.29 : Lithology map

The area consits of a Migmatites and Granodiorite – Tonalitic Gneiss and Pink & grey
Granite therefore this area is suitable for construction of State highway.
LAND USE MAP
Fig 1.30 : Land use Map
Fig 1.31 : Highway tracing using satellite Fig 1.32 : Length of Highway using Satellite data

2018 New Tank Project
MELUKOTE
B-9
DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, CIVIL DEPT
NEW TANK PROJECT 2018
INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT
General introduction
Surveying is an art of plotting the natural terrain on a plane. There is no civil
engineering without surveying. Though the individual use of various surveying equipment
are taught to us in the lower semester, it is, in this extensive survey project, we get to learn
the inter-dependability and collective usage of all the equipment’s at a given location. This
enhances our understanding of the design, execution or implementation and maintenance of
a given project.
Need For Irrigation

Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for rising
crops. India is basically an agricultural country and its economy depends to a great extent on
the agricultural output. Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life. Water is
normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains. However, the total rainfall in a
particular area may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it is
essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain correct timing of watering.
This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system- that is:
Collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop, as
and when needed is only thing human can do with uncertain climatic nature of the earth.
The need for irrigation can be summarized in the following four points.
THE NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION CAN BE SUMMARIZED IN THE

FOLLOWING FOUR TYPES
1.Less rainfall
When the total rainfall is less than that needed for the crop, artificial supply of
water is necessary. In such a case, irrigation system should be developed at the place where
more water is available, and then, the means to convey this water to the area where there is
deficiency.

2.Non-uniform rainfall
The rain in a particular area may not be uniform throughout the crop period. During
the early periods of the crops rains may be there, but water may not be available at the end,
with the result, that either, the yield may be less or the crop may wither. But the
accumulated or stored water during the excess rainfall period may be supplied to the crop
during the period when there may not be rainfall, but there is a need for watering.
3.Commercial crop with additional water

The rainfall in a particular area may be just enough to raise the usual crops, but
more water may be necessary for raising commercial or cash crops in addition to increasing
the annual output by adopting multiple cropping patterns distributed throughout the year.
4.Controlled water supply
By constructing a proper distribution system, the yield of crop may be increased.

Application of water to the soil by modern methods of irrigation serves the following purpose:
It adds water to the soil to supply moisture essential for the plant growth.
Importance of irrigation
Every irrigation project is designed keeping its economy in view. All irrigation schemes
are designed so that they increase food production.
1) Increase in food production
2) Cultivation of crops.
3) Addition to wealth of country.
4) Protection from famine.
5) Protection from flood damages.
6) Generation of hydroelectric power
7) Facilities of communication
8) Inland navigation
9) Lowers the production risk
10) Domestic water supply

11) Canal plantation
12) Aid in civil engineering
Scope of irrigation
The scope of irrigation can be divided into 3 headings namely:
Engineering aspects
• Storage, diversion and lifting of water.
• Conveyance of water to the agricultural fields
• Application of water to the fields
• Drainage and relieving water logging
• Water power development.
Geological investigation
• Water drought of reservoir basin
• Stability of foundation
• Geological and structural features like folds, faults, fissures of rock basins 
Location of permeable and soluble rocks.
Hydrological investigation
It is very important aspect of reservoir planning. The capacity of irrigation canal
and the install capacity of the power house will depend on the available supplies
of reservoir. This can be divided into:
• Study of runoff pattern at proposed site
• To determine spillway capacity and design
Selection of site for reservoir

• Geological condition of catchment area should be such that the percolation
losses are minimum and the runoff is maximum.
• Suitable dam site should exists.

• Adequate storage of water.
• Area of submergence should be less, and submergence cost should be as

minimum as possible.
HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is a study of the water cycle. It is the science that deals with the
occurrence, Circulation and distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. As a
branch of earth science, it is concerned with the water in the streams and lakes, rainfall and
snowfall, snow and ice on the land and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the
pores of the soil and rocks.
Hydrology finds its greatest application in the design of water resources engineering projects
such as
• Irrigation
• Water Supply
• Flood Control
• Water Power
• Navigation
In all the projects, hydrological investigations for the proper assessment of the following
factors are necessary.
• The capacity of the storage structures such as reservoirs.
• The magnitude of the flood flow to enable safe disposal of the excess flow.
• The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various seasons.

• The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulic structures such as reservoirs,
barrages and bridges.

Hydrograph
A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically is called a hydrograph.
We have different types of hydrographs such as annual, monthly, seasonal and flood
hydrographs.
Yield
The total quantity of water that can be expected from a stream in a given period is known as
yield of that stream. Yield of a year represents annual runoff volume.
Hydrological cycle
Water occurs on the earth in all its three forms, i.e. solid, liquid and gas and in
various degrees of motion. These aspects of water related to earth can be explained in
terms of a cycle known as the hydrological cycle.
A convenient point to describe the cycle is oceans. Water in the oceans evaporates
due to the heat energy provided by the solar radiation. The water vapour moves upwards
and form clouds. These clouds are driven over the land areas by winds and there they
condense and precipitate onto the landmass as rain, snow, etc. A part of the precipitation
may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while raining. Another part may be intercepted
by vegetation, structures and other surface modifications from which it may be either
evaporated back to the atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.
Fig – I Hydrologic cycle

A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through
infiltration, enhancing the moisture content of the soil and reaches the ground water body.
Vegetation sends a portion of the water from the ground surface back to the atmosphere
through the process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground surface after
Meeting the needs of infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slopes over the
surface and through a network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The ground
water may come to the surface through springs and other outlets after spending a
considerably longer time than the surface flow. The portion of the precipitation, which by
variety of paths above and below the surface of the earth reaches the stream channel, is
called runoff. Once it enters stream channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
Irrigation
Irrigation is the process of supplying of water to the soil artificially for rising crops.it is
the science of planning and designing an efficient, low-cost, economic irrigation system
tailored to fit natural conditions.
Classification of Irrigation
 Perennial irrigation
 Flow irrigation
 Inundation irrigation
 Direct irrigation
 Storage irrigation
 Combine or diversion irrigation
 Lift irrigation

FIG – II Lift irrigation and Modern irrigation

(Traditional lift irrigation (right) (Modern lift irrigation)
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
 Wild flooding
 Free flooding
 Counter flooding
 Border flooding
 Controlled flooding
 Levees
 Basin flooding
 Zigzag method
 Furrow
 Contour
SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION
 Sprinkler irrigation
In this method water is applied to the soils in the form of spray through a network of
pumps and pipes. It is a kind of artificial rain therefore yields a very good result.
Installation of systems is costly. It can be used for all types of soil and different
topographies and slopes. (see fig.)

Fig - III Sprinkelr irrigation
 Drip or trickle irrigation

This method is adopted at places where there is acute scarcity of irrigation
water and other salt problems. In this method water is slowly and directly applied to the
root zone of the plants.
TYPES OF CROPS
A. Wet crop (crop requires water from irrigation)
B. Dry crop(doesn’t require water from irrigation)
C. Gardner crop(requires water through the year)
D. Summer crop(sown in summers)
E. Winter crop(sown in winters)
CROP RATIO: It is ratio of the area of irrigation in rabi season to that in kharif season.
THE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF IRRIGATION WATER
• It acts as a solvent for the nutrients-nutrient carrier.
• It reduces hazards of soil piping.
• It softens the tillage pans.
• Irrigation water washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.

• Water cools the soil and atmosphere and thus makes more favorable environment
for healthy plant growth.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION
Duty
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit volume of water. It is the relation
between the area of a crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the
entire period of growth of hat crop.
For example, if 3 cumecs of water supply is required for a crop sown in an area of
5100 hectares, the duty of irrigation water will be 5100/3=1700hectares/cumec, and the
discharge of 3 cumecs will be required throughout the base period.
Delta
Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period from the
day of sowing of seeds to the harvesting. It is denoted by.
For example, if a crop requires about 12 watering at en interval of 10 days, and a water
depth of 10 cm in every watering then the delta for that crop will be12 * 10 = 120 cm = 1.2
metres. If the area under that crop is ‘A’ hectares, the total quantity of water required will be
1.2 * A = 1.2 A hectare-metres in a period of 120 days.
Crop period
Crop period is the time, in days, that a crop takes from the instant of sowing to that of its
harvesting.
Base period
Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time of first
watering for preparation of soil for sowing the seeds to the last watering before harvesting.
The duty of water is reckoned in the following ways: -
• By the number of hectares that 1 cumec of water can irrigate during base period i.e.
1700 hectares per cumec.
• By the total depth of water i.e. 1.20 metres
• By number of hectares that can be irrigated by million cubic metre of stored water.
This system is used for tank irrigation.

• By the number of hectare metres expended per hectare irrigated. This is also used in
tank irrigation.
Relation between duty (D), delta () and base period (B) in metric system:
Let there be a crop of base period b days. Let one cumec of water be applied to this
crop on the field for B days.
Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days (V)
V = (1x60x60x24) m3
= 86 400(cubic metre)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic metre supplied for B days matures D hectares of
land.
Therefore this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D square meters
of area. Total depth of water applied on this land
= Volume / area
= 86,400 B/104 D metres
= 8.64 B/D in metres
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta ().

Therefore
△ = 8.64 B/D in metres
Or
△= 864 B/D cm.
Where, △ is in cm or m, B in days,and D
is duty in hectares/cumec.
Gross commanded area:

An area is usually divided into a number of watersheds and drainage valleys. The
canal usually runs on the watershed and water can flow from it, on both sides, due to
gravitational action only up to drainage boundaries. Thus in a particular area lying under the

canal system, the irrigation can be done only up to the drainage boundaries. The gross
commanded area is thus the total area lying between drainage boundaries, which can be
commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
Cultivable Commanded Area

The gross commanded area also contains unfertile barren land, alkaline soil, local
ponds villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are known as uncultivable areas.
The remaining area on which crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as cultivable
commanded area. The cultivable commanded area can be further classified as cultivable
cultivated area and cultivable uncultivated area.
Factors Affecting Duty

The duty of water canal system depends upon a variety of the factors. The principle
factors are:
 Methods and System of Irrigation
In the perennial irrigation system, soil is continuously kept moist, and hence water
required for initial saturation is less. Also, due to shallow depth of the water table, deep
percolation losses are less. In the inundation irrigation, there is wastage of water. Hence,
the perennial irrigation system has more duty than the inundation irrigation. The flow
irrigation system has a lower duty due to the conveyance losses in the network of canals,
while the lift irrigation system has higher duty because the commanded area of each well
is very near to it. Tank irrigation gives high duty to rigid control.
• Mode of Applying Water

The flood irrigation system has lesser duty than the furrow system. Sub-irrigation
system gives still higher duty. The basin irrigation and uncontrolled flooding give less
duty.
• Method of Cultivation
If the land is properly ploughed and made quite loose before irrigating, the soil will
have high water retention capacity in its unsaturated zone. Thus, the number of watering

can be reduced, increasing the duty. The old and conventional methods of cultivation give
less duty in comparison to the modern methods.
Time and Frequency of Tilling

Frequency of cultivation reduces the loss of moisture through weeds. Soil structure
affects the plant growth to a very great extent. A good structure of soil particles is called good
tilth of soils. When the soil is in good tilth, evaporation losses from the surface of soil is less,
soil becomes properly aerated, and hence the yield of crop is also better.
Types of Crop
Base Period of the Crop
If the base period of the crop is more, the amount of water required will be high; hence
duty will be low and vice-versa.
Climatic Conditions of the Area

The climatic conditions, which affect the duty, are temperature, wind, humidity and
rainfall. Due to high temperature and wind, evaporation losses will be more, and duty will be
less. A humid atmosphere reduces the losses. Rainfall during the crop period will reduce the
irrigation water requirement, and the duty will thus be higher.
Quality of Water
If the harmful salt-content and alkali content of the water is more, water will have to be
applied liberally so that the salts are leached off. This will, in turn, reduce the duty. More
fertilizing matter in water will cause less consumption of water, and increase duty.
Method of Assessment
Volumetric method of assessment always leads to a higher duty. This is because the
farmer will use water economically. If, however, the method of assessment is based on the
area under cultivation, the farmer will have a tendency to use more water, and the duty will be
low.

Consumptive use of water

Consumptive use of water or evapotranspiration is defined as the total quantity of
water used by the vegetative growth of a given area in transpiration and building of plant
tissue, and that evaporated from the adjacent soil in the area in any specified time. It therefore
includes the water removed from the soil by transpiration and evaporation. Consumptive use
is expressed in hectare-metres per hectare or depth of water in metres for specific periods such
as days, months or crop growing season. Consumptive use of water for each crop can be
determined which gives the water requirement of the crop.
Minor Irrigation
Irrigation Projects can be classified as:
• Major and Multipurpose, for irrigating vast tracts of land.
• Medium irrigation Projects, for development of irrigation and for drinking water
supply.
• Minor irrigation Projects.

Minor irrigation consists of irrigation from:
• Tanks
• Lift irrigation
• Diversion schemes on small streams
Irrigation Tanks
Irrigation tanks are a small storage reservoir formed across a stream in a valley. These
tanks depend upon the rainfall in their catchments. Some tanks may also have a supply
channel from a neighbouring stream, which has a dependable flow.
An irrigation tank essentially consists of the following:
 An earthen bund across the valley creating a storage area.

 Surplus weir to dispose off flood discharge.
 Sluices to feed the channel.
 Channels from the sluices

BASIS FOR FORMATION OF TANK
Area of the catchment basin:

The catchment area for the proposed tank should be determined accurately. If the
catchment is large, it could be traced from the Survey of India contour map. However, if the
area is small, the watershed has to be traced by a compass and the area is to be determined by
running a closed traverse.
Nature of the catchment:
The nature of the catchment has to be examined to check whether it is good, average or
bad for purposes of computing runoff. Generally, catchment with vegetation gives good yield.
Those with porous soils give poor yield.
If there are already some tanks with their ayacuts in the catchment of the proposed
tanks, the details of storage capacities and the ayacuts they irrigate have to be gathered and
noted.
The rainfall details have to be collected from the rain gauge station in the catchment
area or the nearest rain gauge station. From these rainfall data the mean rainfall of the
catchment area is computed. Once the gross yield is obtained, deductions are made for the
upper abstractions, i.e. yield used by the upper tanks and the yield to be let down for the
Lower tanks already functioning. After all these deductions, we get the net available yield at
the site where the new tank is proposed.
Storage capacity of the tanks:

If the tank has more than one irrigation sluice, then the useful storage capacity, i.e. the
live capacity of the tank, is the volume of water it can hold between the full tank level and the
lowest sluice level.
If the tank has more capacity below the lowest sill of the sluice, the water stored below
that level (dead capacity) is useful in trapping silt during the years of operation. Once this
dead capacity of the tank is completely filled up with silt, further silting of tank will encroach
on the useful storage of the tank. So, it is always better to leave a sufficient dead storage while
proposing new tanks. Thus, the capacity of the tank fixes the F.T.L (Full Tank Level), which
is also the top of the surplus weir of the tank.

After fixing the alignment of the tank bund, contours at ½ meter intervals are to be
plotted. Then the areas between the successive contours are determined. From these areas and
contour intervals, the capacity of the tank at various contours is determined.
EARTHEN DAM
Earth dams are built of locally available soils and gravels with less skilled labours, and
hence they are cheap. They can be constructed on earthen foundation but they are more
susceptible to failure as compared to rigid dams. If the properties of soil used in the dam are
properly controlled then this dam can be designed with a fair degree of accuracy. Continuous
filed observations regarding the pore water pressures and deformations are to be made during
construction and design should be modified according to them. Therefore are the most
common type dams used up to moderate height. Their construction involves utilization of
materials in the natural state, requiring a minimum processing. With the advancing knowledge
of soil mechanics and with the advent of more sophisticated earth moving equipment, earthen
dams are now becoming more common, even for higher heights. The foundation requirements
of earth dams are less stringent than for other types.
Earthen dams are of three types as follows

Homogeneous Embankment Earthen Dam
It is made of single material throughout. They are preferred for low dams. They have
the problem of seepage and hence require huge sections for protection against stability piping
hence drainage filters are provided to keep the phreatic line (top flow line) well within the
dam body. This internal system provided helps in reducing the section of the dam and
providing steeper slopes.
Zone Embankment Earthen Dam

The central core checks the seepage. The transition zone prevents piping through
cracks, which may develop in the core. The other pervious zones give stability to the central
core and also distribute the loads over larger area of the foundation. Clay with fine sand or
gravel is used for the central core. Coarse sand or Gravel is used for outer shell. The transition
filters are provided when there is an uprupt change in the permeability from zone to another.

Fig -IV Earthen bund with drainage filter
Diaphragm Embankment Dams

The diaphragm is an impervious core made up of impervious soil, concrete, steel,
timber, etc. It acts as a water barrage to prevent seepage through dams. It is normally
connected to bed rocks.
Gravity Dams
A gravity dam is the one in which the external forces such as water pressure, silt
pressure, uplift pressure etc. are resisted by the weight of the dam itself. Thus the forces
disturbing the stability of the dam are resisted by the gravity forces of the dams. A gravity
dam may be either of masonry or of concrete.
Masonry gravity dams are nowadays is constructed of small height.
Advantages of gravity dams

Gravity dams are well adapted for the use as an overflow spillway rest. Earth dams cannot be
used as overflow dams. Due to this, a gravity overflow dam is often used for spillway feature of
earth and rock fill dams.

Gravity dams can be constructed of any height, provided suitable foundations are available to
bear the stresses. The height of an earth dam is usually limited by the stability of its slope
requiring a very wide base. Highest dams in the world are gravity dams only.
Gravity dams are specially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of downpour. The
slopes of earth dams might get washed away in such a situation.
A gravity dam requires least maintenance
The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning time before the area
to downstream side is flooded due to the damage of gravity dam.
Disadvantages of gravity dams:

Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundation. They are unsuitable on
weak foundations or on permeable foundations on which earth dams can be constructed with
suitable foundation treatment.
The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than an earthen dam. Hence where
funds are limited and where suitable materials are available for construction on an earth dam,
earthen dams may be preferred.
Gravity dams require skilled labours or mechanized plants for its construction.
It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam unless specific
provisions have been made in the initial design.
Selection of Sites of Dams

 Geological formation for reservoir banks walls etc. should be such that there is
minimum leakage.
 Geology of catchment area or basin should be in such a way so as to assume minimum
absorption and percolation losses.
 The site should be such that a deep reservoir can be formed since it has a merits of
lower land cost per unit capacity, less evaporation loss, less weed growth, etc.
 The site should have adequate capacity to store water so usually a valley profile is
chosen.
 Too much silt-laden tributaries must be avoided.
 Reservoir basin should have deep narrow opening in the valley so that the length of dam
is minimum.
RESERVOIRS
When a barrier or dam is constructed across, water gets stored on the upstream side of the
barrier is called dam or reservoir. Water is stored in the reservoir during rainy season can be
utilized throughout the year for many purposes like irrigation, water supply, navigation,
hydroelectric power, etc.
STORAGE ZONE OF RESERVOIR
Dead Storage
It is the volume of water stored below minimum pool level. It is not used in reservoir operation.
Valley Storage
It is the amount stored in the stream channel before the construction of the dam.
Useful Storage
It is the volume of water between minimum and normal pool level. It may be divided
into conservation and mitigation storage in multipurpose reservoir.
Fig V Storage zones of reservoir
Surcharged Storage:
This is uncontrolled storage which is given by the volume of water stored between
Normal and Maximum pool level.
Bank Storage:
It is the volume of water collected only in the permeable reservoir bank. This can be
used when reservoir is depleted. The amount of water depends on type of geological
formation.
Minimum Pool Level:

It is the lowest water surface for irrigation that has to be kept under normal operation.
It is kept equal to elevation of lowest outlet sluice of dam or at minimum head of turbine.
Normal Pool Level:

It is the maximum elevation to which water surface will rise during normal water
operations. It is kept at elevation of spillway crest.
Maximum Pool Level or Full Reservoir Level:

It is maximum level to which water rises during the worst design flood.
Catchments Yield:
The total yearly runoff expressed as volume of water entering the outlet point of
catchment. It in expressed in hectare-meters or mm3.
Reservoir Yield:
The amount of water that can be drawn from reservoir in a specified time interval. It
depends on catchment yield and reservoir losses like evaporation, leakage, etc.
Mass-curve of Inflow:
It is a plot of annual inflow to reservoir with respect to time.
Mass-curve of Outflow:
It is a plot of annual outflow from reservoir with respect to time.

Dependable Yield or Design Yield

Normally 50% or 75% dependable flow is design for a reservoir since both the critical
values (100% or 1%) of inflow cannot be taken for design. If we consider the least value, the
surplus water will be more and if we consider the highest value, the reservoir will be empty
for most of the year. Hence, the optimum value of yield called Design Yield is designed. The
value depends on the type of project. It is computed based on past record of inflow for about
30 to 50 years.
Safe or Firm Yield:

The yield which corresponds to the worst or most critical yield of the year.
Secondary Yield:
Water available in excess of firm yield during years of higher inflow.
Average Yield:
It is the arithmetic average of firm and secondary yield.
Optimum Storage of a Reservoir:

It depends upon the type of project, initial cost of construction for storage capacity,
probability of exceeding its storage capacity in any year. It is the storage for which the benefit
is maximum for minimum cost of construction.
EARTHEN BUNDS
Earthen bund is the main barrier across the valley and streambed, to store water in the
tank. For small tanks the height of the bund may be around 3 to 5 metres. For bigger tanks
(reservoirs) heights may be around 10 metres and may go up to 15 metres also.
Selection of the earthen bund
There is generally no problem in forming earthen bund up to 5metres. It is always
advisable and economical to use the available earth from the tank foreshore.
Generally soils are of three types: -
• Sandy soils
• Gritty, gravelly and loamy soils

• Plastic and heavy clays

It is advisable not to use sandy soils, as they are pervious. The foundation of the earthen
bunds should be stripped and all lose and sandy layers must be removed.
SALIENT FEATURES OF EARTHEN DAM:

TOP WIDTH:
This must be wide enough to carry a roadway with enough carriageways to
accommodate earthmoving machinery to go over it in case of emergency. Upstream Slope:
This slope depends upon the height of the dam and decided by the stability analysis of
soils obtained at the site. Generally, it will be flatter than 2.5 horizontal to 1 vertical.
Bank Section:
The main bank section may be a homogeneous section or a zonal section with casing
and hearting zones, depending upon the soils available at the site. The section of the earth dam
will be large in case it has o be in a homogeneous section. The top of the hearting zone will be
taken up to maximum water level.
Top Width and Free Board of the Bund:
The height of the bank between MWL (Maximum water Level) and the top of the bank
is called the free board. Free board will increase with the increase in size of the bank, as the
height of waves will be more in bigger tanks than in smaller ones.
Col. Ellis recommends the following dimensions for board and top width of the bank
depending upon the maximum height of the bank.
Table – I Top width and free board of bund
Depth Of Deep Bed Free Board Above M.W.L Top Width Of Bund
(metre) (metres)
Below F.T.L( metres)
2 to 3 0.25 1.25
3 to 5 0.35 1.75
5 to 7 0.45 2.00
Over 7 0.5 3.00

There is no harm in having an extra height of the free board and extra top width on the
bank. In order to have at least a good cycling path, a top width of not less than 2 m in
desirable.
Failure by Slipping or Sliding:
If the soil with which the bank is formed does not possess the necessary shear strength
to withstand the super imposed height of the earth, then the earth will fail by sliding.
This failure may occur at the foundation level if the foundations are of poor nature and
at the slopes, if the bank is formed with slopes than at which they can be retained by the
combined friction and cohesion between particles composing it.
While forming banks higher than 10 m, it is necessary to test the soils for their various
parameters and test the foundation pressure also for bearing capacity, etc.
Failure by Over-topping:
This generally happens if insufficient free board is provided. In high gales, the wave
will be generally high and if enough free board is not provided, the waves, while riding the
slopes may clear the top. The height the wave depends upon the water spread before the bund
9also called the fetch) and the velocity of the wind. The wave as it approaches the bank, has a
tendency to smoothly ride up along the slope. If the slope is a flat one the height to which the
wave can ride along the slope will be greater than if the slope is steep. It will destroy itself by
striking against the slope. Free board should be at least 1.5 times the wave height.
If the free board is not enough, a breach may occur. To prevent this from happening,
while providing sufficient free boards, wave breakers, which are generally vertical stones
fixed in the riprap on the upstream slope in a zigzag pattern, are also provided. This will help
in breaking the waves as they come riding along the slope.
Also when there is a large inflow into the tank, the water level rises quickly and if the
surplus capacity is not enough, the water level may rise above M.W.L. and may even top over
the bank. Once this happens then bank will be harmed and it will breach.
NECESSITY OF THE NEW TANK:

Primarily all the irrigation structures are developed and built to cater to the needs of : -

Irrigation
Water supply
Recharging of ground water resources
Flood mitigation
Drought relief measures or any other such relevant needs of the community
A bund is usually constructed in a valley keeping in mind the greatest possible ratio of
height to length for a given capacity. In deep gorge, the length of bund will be usually less
capacity of water stored will be more, which is directly proportional to the height of the bund.
In all such cases, due to storage of water environmental mismanagement invariably
occurs. As per basic human instinct, to develop civilisation near waterfront, habitations begins
to develop leading to deforestation and environmental changes. Deforestation will lead to soil
erosion and erosion of the green cover.
Soil erosion will lead to situation in tank due to removal of the topsoil by surface
runoff. This results in a gradual reduction of storage capacity of tank and the rate of siltation
is directly proportional to rate of denigration of green cover.
The erosion of green cover invariably has a disastrous effect on environment. With the
present much talked about phenomenon of global warming and its resulting effect, it has
generally lead to either untimely or scanty rainfall in many areas. This necessitates the
development of proper storage system to optimise the solution for our needs.
The development of civilisation invariably exerts pressure on scantily available natural
resources. In the greed for economic prosperity we humans sacrifice nature thereby depleting
the available natural resources at an exponential rate while caring nothing about
replenishment of the same.
These acts of ours from the past few hundreds of years have now resulted in us being
deprived of basic minimum decent standard of living.
Since there is a wide area of land left barren especially on side of a gradual slope being
on the left side of the stream the proposal of a new tank is appropriate. More over the earth
and rock necessary for construction is available at the site. The labour would be easily
available from the local area for people seem to be relatively in need of such jobs as there is
lesser part of their area is not cultivated and quite a lot sell coconut along the road though
there isn’t much scope of earning from the moderately dense population.

DETAILED EXPLANATION OF SURVEY WORK CARRIED OUT IN

THE FIELD
Fly Levelling:
Flying levelling is a process adopted in the field to transfer the reduced level from a
given permanent benchmark as near to the starting point of the project as possible.
Procedure:
1) The dumpy level is set up near permanent bench mark and perfectly levelled.
2) A reconnaissance survey is done to align the route for the fly levelling, from the existing
permanent benchmark to the proposed temporary benchmark keeping in mind the inter-
visibility and the terrain on either side of proposed route for positioning dumpy level.
3) Back sight is taken on the permanent benchmark from the first position of dumpy level.
The level staffs are then shifted to the first location on proposed fly levelling route
determined earlier. Care is taken to ensure that linear distance between position of dumpy
level and the two level staff positions are approximately same if not the exact
measurement. The level staff should be held vertically plumb.
4) With level staff still in place in new position P1, the dumpy level is shifted and set up in a
new location P2 on the other side of proposed fly levelling route. Back sight is taken on
the level staff. Level staff is shifted to a new position on proposed route, ensuring
conformity with the standards enlisted above. The process is continued till temporary
benchmark is reached. The above procedure has been adopted to have zero tolerance
level or to minimise all the error usually prevalent in levelling, like manual, instrumental
error, due to curvature etc.
5) On reaching the temporary benchmark, which is necessarily, be a permanent object on
the site of work. Its reduced level is marked on its surface.
6) All the readings are entered in the level book.
DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRE LINE OF THE BUND
The appropriate and usual width of the top of the bund is four metres and the
imaginary line passing along the middle of the top of the bund length. It separates the

upstream side and downstream side. Determining the centreline of the bund is to fix the two
points of the same reduced levels on the either side of the valley.
Procedure
From the temporary benchmark the fly levelling is done towards one side of the valley
to get the RL of the given top-level bund. On getting the point with required RL of the top
bund the point is marked prominently. Then theodolite is set up and the temporary
adjustments are done. The readings on the vertical circular plate is made zero. The upper
clamp crews and lower clamp screw are clamped. The H.I of the theodolite is determined.
Then another point on the other of the valley is located at the same R.L as that of the point
near the theodolite, by making a person a hold levelling staff and move back and forth till
reading on the staff is same as H.I.
Longitudinal and Cross Section of the Bund

Longitudinal section of the bund is necessary to set the profile along the bund. It is by
the use of longitudinal section and cross section that we can calculate the volume of earth and
all other materials require for the construction of the bund. Objectives:
To get construction details and to estimate the cost of the bund.
Specifications:
1.The length of the proposed bund should be minimum.
2.There should be good foundation available.
3.A natural subsidiary is desirable at the bund side for locating waste weir. To meet the above
specification the central line of the bund is fixed by the means of at least two flag ports (p & q)
on the either side at an elevation of 2 m
4.Above the top level of the bund. The position of the central line is also marked on the top
sheet.
Equipment Required:
 Level with stand
 Levelling staff

 30 m chain and tape

 Arrows
 Ranging rods
 Theodolite
 Cross-staff
 Wooden pegs
CAPACITY CONTOURING:
A contour is the line of level surface or it is an imaginary line joining points of equal
reduced levels or elevations. It is the method of taking measurements in the field so that
contour lines can be drawn on a map to give a complete picture of earth’s surface. The vertical
distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour interval. The contour interval
depends on the nature of ground, scale of map, purpose and extent of survey etc.
Characteristics of Contours:
A contour line is always uniformly spaced, while a plane is indicted when they are
straight and equally spaced.
Contour lines cross ridgelines or valley lines at right angle. A ridgeline is shown when the
higher values are inside the loop and or bend in the contour, while in the case of a valley line
the lower values are inside the loop. The same contour appears on either side of a ridge or
valley. Valley contours are convex toward the stream.
Contours lines cannot merge or cross one another on the map, except in the case of
overhanging cliff. Contour lines cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within or
without the limits of the map.
Uses of Contours:
By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the character of the tract of the
country is obtained; whether it is flat, undulating or mountains, etc.
The most economical or suitable site for engineering works such as a reservoir, canal, sewer,
road, or railway may be approximately selected.
Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the contour maps.

Contours may be used to determine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity of the
reservoir.
METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOUR

Direct Method:
In this method the contours to be plotted are actually located on the ground with the
level by marking various points on each contour. These points are then surveyed, and plotted
on the plan. Though this method is very slow and tedious it is the most accurate, and is used
for contouring small areas.
To begin with, fly levels are taken from the nearest permanent benchmark near the site
of survey. The level is then set up in a commanding position and accuracy levelled. The
height of the instrument (H.I) is determined by taking a back sight on the benchmark. From
the known elevations of the contours and the H.I., the required staff readings to fix points on
the various contour lines are obtained to the first place of a decimal by subtracting the
elevation of each of the contours from the H.I.
Indirect Method:
By squares:
This method is suitable if the area is not very extensive. In this method, area is divided
into a series of squares, and the corners of the squares are marked with the pegs. The squares
need not be of same size through out. Each separate square is pegged out and the elevations of
the ground of the corners of the squares are determined with a level. Intermediate points
within the squares may be taken when required and may be located on the diagonals of the
squares, or by the measurement from the corners. The system of squares is plotted and in each
corners its elevation is written. The contour lines are then interpolated in the usual way.
Tachometric method
This method is suitable when the contour map of a hill is required. A number of lines
are set out radiating at a given angular interval from each of the transverse stations, and the
representative points on these lines are located in the field by observing the vertical angles and
the staff readings of the bottom, middle and the top wire, with a tachometer. The elevations and

the distances of these points are calculated. The survey is plotted and the contour lines are then
interpolated.
Objectives:
To fix the capacity of the tank bund
To fix full tank level
To fix the maximum water of the tank
To fix sill level of the sluice
Equipment’s Required:
• Dumpy level with stand
• Levelling staff
• Plane table with stand and its accessories
Weir:
Weir is a structure constructed to raise the water level on the upstream side of the
obstruction, and thus, to feed the main canals taking off from its upstream side at one or both
of its flanks. It also discharge excess water. If the major part or the entire pounding of water is
achieved by a raised crest, then this barrier is known as a weir.
BLOCK LEVELS AT THE WASTE WEIR SITE:

A Detailed survey at the waste weir site is necessary to design the body wall of waste
weir, the approach and draft channel and other protective works and to arrive at the cost of
their work. In choosing the site for waste weir the following points must be borne in mind:-
A saddle disconnected from the tank bund is the best site for a surplus work.
The natural ground surface at the weir site should be approximately at F.T.L.
The height of body wall must be minimum possible and should be located as far as possible in
cutting.
The soil should be hard both at the weir site and along the draft channel.
There should be natural diversion to lead the water safely from the bund.
Cost of protective work should be minimum.

Classification of Weir:
Gravity Weir:
A Gravity weir is the one in which the uplift pressure due to the seepage of water
below the floor is restricted entirely by the weight of the floor.
Gravity dams are further classified as:
 Vertical drop weir.

 Sloping weir
 Masonry or concrete slope weir
 Dry stone slope weir
 Parabolic weir
The Vertical Drop weir:

The vertical drop weir consists of a vertical drop wall or crest wall with or without
crest gates. At the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor, cut off piles are
provided. To safe guard against scouring action, launching aprons are provided both at
upstream and downstream end of the floor. A graded inverted filter is provided immediately at
the downstream end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure. These types are
suitable for any types of the foundations.
Weirs of these types are of recent origin. They are suitable for soft sandy foundations
and all generally used where the difference in weir crest and down stream riverbed is limited
to 3 m. when water passes over such a weir hydraulic jump is formed on the sloping glacis.
Dry Stone Slope Weir:

A dry stone slope weir or a rock-fill weir consists of a body wall and upstream and
downstream rock-fills laid in the form of glacis with few intervening core walls.
Parabolic weir:
A parabolic weir is similar to the spillway action of a dam. The body wall for such a
weir is designed at the low dam. A cistern is provided at the downstream side to dissipate the
energy. The upstream and downstream protection works are similar to that of a vertical drop
or sloping glacis weir.

Objective:
To dispose off the surplus water.
Specifications:
• There should be a natural diversion to carry the surplus water.
• There should be good soil at the weir site for foundation.
• The length and height of the body wall must be minimum.
• The cost of protective works must be minimum.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT:
DETAILS OF SITE:
Place of Project Melkote, Pandavapura(tq), Mandya

district
Nature of the Project New Tank Project
Type of Bund Homogeneous Earthen Bund
DETAILS OF STORAGE RESERVOIR:

Table II – Detail of storage
Catchment area of tank 20000 hectares(20 km2)
Area Irrigated 272.844 Hectares
Proposed crop pattern Wet crops & vegetables
Average Annual Rainfall 80 cm (assumed)
DETAILS OF BUND:
Table III Details of Bund
Type of Bund Homogeneous type earthen dam
Length of Bund 75m
Maximum Height of Bund 10.10m
Top Level of Bund (TBL) 927.744m
Maximum Water Level (MWL) 926.744m

Full Tank Level (FTL) 925.744m

Dead Storage Level (DSL) 920.921m
Lowest Bed Level (LBL) 917.644m
Sluice level 919.664m
Top width of Bund 4.00 m
Upstream slope 2:1
Downstream slope 2.5:1
DETAILS OF WASTE WEIR:
Table IV Detail of waste weir
Type Broad Crested Surplus Weir
Crest level 925.744m
Depth of Spillage 1.000 m
Waste Weir Length 33.51m
Top width of Weir 1.5m
Bottom width of Weir 3m
DETAILS OF MAIN CHANNEL:

Table V Detail of main channel
Canal zero chainage on the centreline of the 922.83m
proposed bund
Longitudinal Gradient provided 1: 1000
*Bottom width of channel 1.0m
*Depth of water 1.0m
*Side slopes 1:1
Free Board 0.5 m
Canal Length Surveyed 57.6m
TOP WIDTH OF BUND:

The top width of large earthen dams should be sufficient to keep the seepage line well
within the dam, when the reservoir is full. It should also be sufficient to withstand earthquake

shocks and wave action. For small dams, this top width is generally governed by minimum
roadway width requirements.
The top width (A) of the earth dam can be selected as per the following recommendations:
A=H/5+3 for very low dams
A= 0.55H1/2+0.2H for dams lower than 30meters
A=1.65(H+1.5) 1/3 for dams higher than 30meters, Where H is the height of the dam.
UPSTREAM AND DOWN STREAM SLOPES:

The side slopes depend upon various factors such as the type and nature of dam
and foundation materials, height of the dam etc., the recommended values of side slopes as
given by TERZAGHI’S are tabulated in the following table,
Table – VI Upstream and down stream slopes
TYPE OF MATERIAL UPSTREAM SLOPE DOWNSTREAM
(H:V) SLOPE (H: V)

Homogenous well graded 2.5:1 2:1
Homogenous coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
Homogenous silty clay 2.5:1 2:1
1.height less than 15 meter
2.height more than 15 meter 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or sand and gravel 3:1 2.5:1

with a central clay core
Sand or sand and gravel 2.5:1 2:1
with R.C diaphragm
Table from Irrigation Engineering, Santhosh Kumar Garg-24th Revised Edition
The various dimensions of low earth dams for their preliminary section may sometimes be
selected from the recommendations of strange, as given in the following table:

STRANGE’S RECOMMENDATIONS:
Table – VII Strange’s Recommendations
Height of dam Maximum Top width (A) Upstream Down stream
in meters freeboard in meters slope (H: V) slope (H: V)
in
meters
Up to 4.5
1.2 to 1.5 1.85 2:1 1.5:1

4.5 to 7.5
1.5 to 1.8 1.85 1.5:1 1.75:1

15 to 22.5
2.1 3.0 3:1 2:1
Table from Irrigation Engineering, Santhosh Kumar Garg-24th Revised Edition
SLOPE PROTECTION:
PROTECTION OF UPSTREAM SLOPE:

The upstream of earth dam is protected against the erosive action of
waves, by Stone pitching or by stone dumping as shown in the figure.
Fig.VI Typical rip rap for earthen embankment slope

The thickness of the dumped rock should be about one meter, and should be Placed
over the gravel filter of about 0.3-meter thickness. The filter prevents the washing of fines,
from the dam into the riprap. The provision of such a dumped riprap has been found to be
most effective and has been found to fail only in 5% cases.
The stone pitching, i.e. the handpicked riprap requires a lesser thickness and may prove
more economical if suitable rock is available only in limited quantity. However, when
provided in smaller thickness (i.e. single layer), it is more susceptible to damage and has been
found to fall in about 30% cases. Concrete slabs may also be laid over the upstream slope of
the earth dam. Then such slabs are constructed, they must be laid over a filter and weep holes
should be provided so as to permit escape of water, when the reservoir is drawn down. If the
filter is not provided, the fines from the embankment may get washed away from the joints,
creating hollows beneath the slab and causing the consequent cracking and failure of the slab
under its own weight. Concrete slab protection has been found to fail in about 36% cases
mainly because of not providing filter below them.
PROTECTION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE:

The downstream slope of the earthen dam is protected against the erosive action of
wave up to a slightly above the water depth, in a similar manner as is explained above for
upstream slope. Moreover, the downstream slope should be protected against erosive action of
rain and its runoff by providing horizontal berms at suitable intervals, say about 15 meter or
so has to intercept the rainwater and discharge it safely. Attempts should also be made so as to
grow grass and plants at the downstream slope, soon after their construction.
Formula for Estimation of Flood Discharge:
Ryves formula:
Qf = CA2/3
Where Qf = flood discharge
C = constant = 9 to 10
A = area of catchment in KM2
Qf = The area of the catchment is calculated from the top sheet using planimeter.

Formula for Length of Waste Weir:
Qf = 2/3 cd(2g) LH2/3, where Qf = Flood discharge
Cd = Coefficient of discharge =0.6
H = Head over weir (MWL-FTL)
L = Length of the weir in m

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2
Hence, knowing cd, Qf, g & H, ‘L’ length of the waste weir is
calculated. Qf = 2/3 cd(2g) LH2/3
CANAL ALIGNMENT:
A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground

to carry water to the fields either from the river or from a tank or reservoir. Canals can be
classified in following ways
a)Classification based on the nature of source of supply:
1) Permanent canal. 2) Inundation canal.

A canal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source of supply. The
canal is a well made up regular graded channel. It has also permanent masonry works of
regulation and distribution of supplies. A permanent canal is also sometimes known as
perennial canal when the sources from which canal takes is an ice fed Perennial River.
Inundation canals usually draw their supplies from rivers whenever there is a high stage
in the river. They are not provided with any headworks for diversion of river water to the
canal. They are, however, provided with a canal head regulator. The head of the canal has to
be changed sometimes to suit the changing pattern of river course.
b) Classification based on financial output :

1) Productive canal.
2) Protective canal.

Productive canals are those which yield net revenue to the nation after full development of
irrigation in the area. Protective canal is a sort of relief work constructed with the idea of
protecting a particular area from famine. c)
c) Classification based on the function of the canal
1) Irrigation canal.
2) Carrier canal.
3) Feeder canal.
4) Navigation canal.
5) Power canal.
An Irrigation canal carries water to the agricultural fields. A Carrier canal besides
doing irrigation carries water for another canal. Upper Chenab canal in West Punjab
(Pakistan) is the example of one such canal.
A feeder canal is constructed with the idea of feeding two or more canals. Examples of such
canals are: Rajasthan feeder canal and Sirhind feeder.
d) Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a given

network of canals.
1) Main canal.
2) Branch canal.
3) Major distributaries
4) Minor distributaries
5) Water course
Main canal generally carries water directly from the river. Such a canal carries heavy
supplies and is not used for direct irrigation except in exceptional circumstances. Main canals
act as water carriers to feed supplies to branch canals and major distributaries.
Branch canals are the branches of the main canal in either direction taking off at regular
intervals. In general, branch canals also do not carry out any direct irrigation, but at times

direct outlets may be provided. Branch canals are usually feeder channels for major and
minor distributaries. They usually carry a discharge of over 5 cumecs.
Major distributaries usually called Rajbha, take off from a branch canal. They may also
sometimes take off from the main canal, but their discharge is generally lesser than branch
canals. They are real irrigation channels in the sense that they supply water for irrigation to
the field through outlets provided along them.
Their discharge varies from ¼ to 5 cumecs.
Minor distributaries called minors take off from branch canals or from distributaries. Their
discharge is usually less than ¼ cumecs. They supply water to the water courses through
outlets provided along them.
A water course is a small channel which ultimately feeds the water to irrigation fields.
Depending upon the size and extent of the irrigation scheme, a field channel may take off
from a distributaries or minor. Sometimes, it may even take off from the branch canal for the
field situated very near to the branch canal.
e) Classification based on canal alignment
According to the alignment, a canal may be classified as under:
1) Contour canal.
2) Watershed canal.
3) Side slope canal.
The characteristic features of these canals are discussed in the next article.
Head due to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to seepage and evaporation, so that
additional areas
CANAL ALIGNMENT:
A Canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be
irrigated, with shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including the cost of cross

drainage works is a minimum. A shorter length of canal ensures less loss of can be brought
under cultivation.
According to alignment, the channels may be
1) Ridge canal.
2) Contour canal.
3) Side slope canal.

General considerations for alignment
a. The alignment of the canal should be such as to ensure
1. The most economical way of distributing the water to the land,
2. As high a command as possible, and
3. Minimum number of cross drainage works.
b. The alignment of a canal on a watershed, being the most economical Is preferred. As a

general rule, all the watershed lying in a command should be occupied by distributaries.
c. The length of the main canal from the point where is takes off from a river to a point where
it mounts on a watershed should be minimum.
d. The contour alignment should be changed this way or that way in order to reduce the
number of cross drainage works to a minimum.
e. The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places, places of worship
and other valuable properties.
f. The alignment should pass through the balances depth of cutting. It not, it should involve
minimum depth of cutting or minimum height of filling.
g. The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
h. Idle length of canal should be minimum and branches etc. should be economically planned.
i. The alignment should not be made in rocky, brackish or cracked strata.
Alignment of a field channel

Though the maintenance of a field channel is the responsibility of the farmers, its alignment
should have the following features:
1. They should be laid along field boundaries.
2. They should be capable of supplying sufficient water to the tail end.

3. Separate field channels should be provided for high and low lands.
4. The field channels should not pass through rocky, brackish, or cracked
strata.
CHANNEL DESIGN:
Month RAINFALL DATA
(in mm)
Jan 0
Feb 0
March 35
April 80
May 210
June 94
July 147
Aug 210
Sep 151
Oct 197
Nov 70
Dec 20
Table – XII Rainfall data
From Topo sheet:
Assuming, CCA= 40 hectares
PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN:

Table – VIII Proposed cropping pattern
Name of the Delta (cm) Cultivated Total water Cultivated area Total for
required for during season 2 required
crop (2) area during
season 1 season 2
(1) season 1 (ha) (4)=(2)x(3)
(3)

PADDY 120 0.5X40= 20 2400 0.3X40= 12 1440
RAGI 45 0.2X40= 8 360 .3X40=12 540
MAIZE 50 0.2X40= 8 400 0.2X40= 8 400
30 0.1X40= 4 120 0.2X40= 8 240

VEGETABLES
TOTAL 3280 2620
Table – IX Runoff co-efficient
Total water required for Season 1 = 3.280hect-cm
Total water required for Season 2 = 2.620hect-cm
Total water Required = 5900hwct-cm

The runoff coefficients K for discharge land used during different months are tabulated below:
NOTE:
The overall runoff coefficient is 0.4 for Melukote region.
1. The catchment area of 2000hect.

2. 30% of area comes under land use type1.

3. 40% of area. comes under land use type2.
4. 30% of area. comes under land use type3.
The rainfall of each month should be multiplied by corresponding runoff coefficient to get
amount of runoff produced by each type of land use
The total runoff is then calculated by multiplying the runoff produced by each land use type
with weightage of the corresponding land use in the catchment area. Effective rainfall is taken
as 90% of rainfall.
Table –X Rainfall details
Month Rainfall in Effective Rainfall from Rainfall from Rainfall from

(mm) rainfall in land use1 land use2 land use3
mm (gravel) (plantation) (paved area)
JAN 0 0 0 0 0
FEB 0 0 0 0 0
MARCH 35 31.5 12.6 9.45 28.35
APRIL 80 72 28.8 14.4 64.8
MAY 210 189 75.6 37.8 170.1
JUNE 94 84.6 42.3 16.92 76.14
JULY 147 132.3 79.38 39.69 119.07
AUGUST 210 189 113.4 75.6 170.1
SEP 151 135.9 54.36 27.18 122.31
OCT 197 177.3 70.92 35.46 159.57
NOV 70 63 25.2 12.6 56.7
DEC 20 16 6.4 3.2 14.4
TOTAL 508.92 272.3 981.48
Therefore, total runoff = (508.92*30%)+(272.3*40%)+(981.48*30%)=556.04mm = 55.604cm

Total water required for season1 is distributed equally to all 4 months of season1,
i.e.=(328*103/4) = 82000m3
Therefore, cumulative value of these months is as follows,

 June: 82000 m3
 July: (82000+82000) m3
 Aug:: (82000+82000+82000) m3
 Sep: (82000+82000+82000+82000) m3
Similarly, Total water required for season2 is distributed equally to all 4 months of season1,
i.e=65500 m3
Therefore, cumulative value of these months are as follows,
 Oct: (65500) m3
 Nov: (65500+65500) m3
 Dec: (65500+65500+65500) m3
 Jan: (65500+65500+65500+65500) m3
DESIGN OF CANAL
DETERMINATION OF IRRIGABLE AREA
YEILD OF CATCHMENT =A*C*R= 2*107*0.556*0.45
=5004000 cumec/year
Assume 25% of loss in reservoir
10%-Evaporation
15%-Conveyance loss
Volume of water available for irrigation = (75/100) *5004000 cumec m3/s
=3.75*10 3 cumec
DESIGN OF CHANNEL SECTION USING LACEY’S THEORY

D=8.64 B /△ Average Delta=61.25cm
=8.64*120/61.25
D=16.927 hectares/cumec
Q= (Area/duty) =40/16.927
=2.36 m3/s
Side slope 1:1
Let Lacey’s silt factor = 1.000(for saturated silt)

V=(Qf2/140)1/6
V=(2.36/140)1/6=0.51 m/s
A= Q/V =2.36/0.51=4.62 m2
Wetted perimeter = 4.75(Q)1/2
p= 4.75(2.36)1/2 =7.29m
Depth of channel = (p-(p2-6.944*A)1/2) /3.472
d= 0.778
Base width = p-(2.236*d) b =5.55m Bed slope = 1 in 1000
DESIGN OF WASTE WEIR:

Catchment area (A) = 20km2
Co – efficient (C) = 9
Discharge equation (Q) = CA(2/3)
= 9 X 20(2/3)
Q = 66.31m3/sec
Adopting the BROAD CRESTED WEIR,
Discharge equationQ = (2/3)x Cd x L x √(2g) x h(3/2)
Length of the weir (L) =33.51m
BODY WALL OF WASTE WEIR (CONCRETE)

Top width= 2m
Sloping towards downstream side in 1H:8V
TOP WIDTH OF BUND

A=0.55H1/3+0.2H for dams lower than 30m where H is the height of the dam
=0.55*10.11/2+0.2*10.11
=3.76m
Therefore top width of abutment is 4.0m

NEW TANK PROJECT EARTHWORK ESTIMATION
LENGTH RL OF RL OF TOP WIDTH CENTRAL TOTAL SECTIONAL MEAN TOTAL VOLUME
LENGTH HEIGHT SIDE AREA SIDE AREA
STATION BETWEEN TWO GROUND FORMATION OF BUND AREA (A1) AREA (A1+A2+A3) AREA VOLUME OF
(M) (M) (A2) (M^2) (A3) (M^2)
AREAS (M) (M) LEVEL (M) (M) (M^2) (M^2) (M^2) (M^3) FILLING
A 0 0 927.744 927.744 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
B 5 5 927.035 927.744 0.71 4 2.836 0.503 0.628 3.967 1.984 9.92
C 10 5 924.400 927.744 3.34 4 13.376 11.182 13.978 38.536 21.252 106.26
D 15 5 922.830 927.744 4.91 4 19.656 24.147 30.184 73.988 56.262 281.31

E 20 5 920.921 927.744 6.82 4 27.292 46.553 58.192 132.037 103.012 515.06
F 25 5 917.780 927.744 9.96 4 39.856 99.281 124.102 263.239 197.638 988.19
G 30 5 917.664 927.744 10.08 4 40.32 101.606 127.008 268.934 266.087 1330.43

H 35 5 918.614 927.744 9.13 4 36.52 83.357 104.196 224.073 246.504 1232.52 8400.09
I 40 5 919.351 927.744 8.39 4 33.572 70.442 88.053 192.068 208.070 1040.35
J 45 5 920.492 927.744 7.25 4 29.008 52.592 65.739 147.339 169.703 848.52
K 50 5 921.939 927.744 5.81 4 23.22 33.698 42.123 99.041 123.190 615.95
L 55 5 922.307 927.744 5.44 4 21.748 29.561 36.951 88.260 93.650 468.25
M 60 5 922.987 927.744 4.76 4 19.028 22.629 28.286 69.943 79.102 395.51
N 65 5 923.749 927.744 4.00 4 15.98 15.960 19.950 51.890 60.917 304.58
O 70 5 925.075 927.744 2.67 4 10.676 7.124 8.904 26.704 39.297 196.49
P 75 5 927.744 927.744 0.00 4 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 13.352 66.76
Page 44
CONCLUSION:
1. The Survey carried out at Sri Melukote village is found to be ideal for the
construction of new tank at SR Valley site.
2.
3. The earthen embankment with U/S 2:1 and D/S 2.5:1 is safe ,with FOS as 2.26 for U/S
and 2.628 for D/S
4. The cost of earthen dam construction is approximately Rs.9790561.8

CROSS SECTION OF CANAL
DATUM-900.000 DATUM-900.000
L15 L10 L5 0 R5 R10 R15 L15 L10 L5 7.6 R5 R10 R15

STATION STATION
CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 0 5 5 5 CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 7.6 5 5 5
REDUCED 919.180 919.515 918.840 920.420 919.425 921.165 920.425 REDUCED 919.055 919.135 920.040 920.415 920.780 921.235 921.295
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
FORMATION FORMATION
921.165 921.165 921.165 919.165 921.165 921.165 921.165 921.155 921.155 921.155 919.155 921.155 921.155 921.155
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF 1.260 0.080 0.140

1.255
CUTTING(M) CUTTING(M)
DEPTH OF 0.000 0.740

DEPTH OF
1.650 2.325 1.740 2.100 2.020 1.115 0.375
FILLING(M) FILLING(M)
CHAINAGE @ 0M CHAINAGE @ 7.6M

CROSS SECTION OF BUND
DATUM-910.000 DATUM-910.000
L15 L10 L5 C0 R5 R10 R15 L15 L10 L5 C15 R5 R10 R15

STATION STATION
CHAINAGE 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 CHAINAGE 15 10 5 15 5 10 15
REDUCED 928.135 927.803 927.422 927.744 927.810 928.436 929.125 REDUCED 922.590 922.632 922.670 922.830 923.131 923.037 922.853
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
FORMATION 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 FORMATION 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
0.391 0.066 0.692 1.381 1.096
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
0.059 0.322 1.360 3.824 4.914 3.613 1.707
CHAINAGE @ 0M CHAINAGE @ 15M
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME C/S OF BUND
SCALE 1:100
SIGN
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN M

DATUM-900.000
DATUM-900.000 L15 L10 L5 47.6 R5 R10 R15

STATION
L15 L10 L5 37.6 R5 R10 R15
STATION
CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 47.6 5 5 5
CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 37.6 5 5 5
REDUCED 919.775 918.886 921.140 921.710 921.365 921.085 920.855
LEVEL(M)
REDUCED 920.155 920.045 921.065 921.540 921.580 921.065 921.885
LEVEL(M) FORMATION
921.115 921.115 921.115 919.115 921.115 921.115 921.115
LEVEL(M)
FORMATION
921.125 921.125 921.125 919.125 921.125 921.125 921.125
LEVEL(M)
DEPTH OF 0.025 2.595 0.250
CUTTING(M)
DEPTH OF 2.415 0.455 0.760
CUTTING(M) DEPTH OF
1.340 2.229 0.030 0.260
FILLING(M)
DEPTH OF 0.970 1.080 0.060 0.060
FILLING(M)
CHAINAGE @ 47.6M
CHAINAGE @ 37.6M
DATUM-910.000 DATUM-910.000
L15 L10 L5 C30 R5 R10 R15 L15 L10 L5 C45 R5 R10 R15
STATION STATION
CHAINAGE 15 10 5 30 5 10 15 CHAINAGE 15 10 5 45 5 10 15
REDUCED REDUCED
918.851 918.452 918.208 917.664 918.342 918.759 918.156 919.875 920.215 920.377 920.492 920.116 919.803 919.452
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
FORMATION 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 FORMATION 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
2.643 5.542 8.247 10.080 8.402 5.985 4.588 1.622 3.779 6.117 7.252 6.628 4.941 3.292
BATCH NO B9
SCALE 1:100
SIGN
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM

DATUM-900.000
L15 L10 L5 17.6 R5 R10 R15

STATION DATUM-900.000
L15 L10 L5 27.6 R5 R10 R15

CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 17.6 5 5 5 STATION
CHAINAGE(M) 5 5 5 27.6 5 5 5
REDUCED 919.695 919.315 920.015 920.635 920.555 921.035 921.300
LEVEL(M)
FORMATION REDUCED 919.185 918.965 919.835 921.135 920.595 920.435 920.325
921.145 921.145 921.145 919.145 921.145 921.145 921.145
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
FORMATION
DEPTH OF 921.135 921.135 921.135 919.135 921.135 921.135 921.135
2.510 0.155 LEVEL(M)
CUTTING(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF 2.000

1.450 1.830 1.130 0.590 0.110 CUTTING(M)
FILLING(M)
DEPTH OF
1.950 2.170 1.300 0.540 0.700 0.810
FILLING(M)
CHAINAGE @ 17.6M
CHAINAGE @ 27.6M
DATUM-910.000 DATUM-910.000
L5 C60 R5 L15 L10 L5 C75 R5 R10 R15

STATION L15 L10 R10 R15 STATION
10 5 60 5 10 CHAINAGE 15 10 5 75 5 10 15
CHAINAGE 15 15
REDUCED REDUCED
923.325 923.105 923.051 922.987 922.740 923.046 923.351 927.850 927.404 927.279 927.744 926.907 926.630 926.195
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
FORMATION FORMATION 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744

927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744 927.744
LEVEL(M) LEVEL(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
1.831 0.804 CUTTING(M) 0.106
CUTTING(M)
DEPTH OF DEPTH OF
0.889 3.443 4.757 4.004 1.698 0.340 0.465 0.837 1.114 1.549

BATCH NO B9
SCALE 1:100
SIGN
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CANAL
DATUM-900.000
CHAINAGE (M)
37.6
7.6
17.6
27.6
47.6
57.6
920.420
920.415
920.635
921.135
922.125
919.115 921.710
919.125 921.540
REDUCED
LEVEL (M)
919.155
919.145
919.165
919.105
919.135
FORMATION
LEVEL (M)
1.255
2.415
2.000
DEPTH OF
2.595
3.020
0.990
1.490
CUTTING
DEPTH OF
- - - - - -
FILLING
GRADIENT 1 IN 1000
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME L/S OF CANAL
SCALE 1:100
SIGN

57.6
47.6
37.6
17.6
7.6
0
CAPACITY CONTOUR
927.744
926.7
925
924.744
918.614
917.664
CONTOUR RL AREA in SqM MEAN AREA CONTOUR INTERVAL VOLUME m3
927.744 5271.167 - - -
926.700 4324.639 4797.903 1.044 5009.010
925.000 3365.319 3844.979 1.700 6536.464
924.744 2545.722 2954.025 0.256 756.230
918.614 1994.244 2269.983 6.130 13914.995
917.664 1429.273 1711.758 0.950 1626.170
TOTAL VOLUME 27840.959
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME CAPACITY CONTOUR
SCALE 1:100
SIGN

LEVEL(M)
LEVEL(M)
REDUCED
DEPTH OF
FILLING(M)
FORMATION
DISTANCE(M)
DATUM-910.000
0 927.744 927.744 0
0.709 927.744 927.035 5
3.344 927.744 924.400 10
4.914 927.744 922.830 15
6.823 927.744 920.921 20
9.961 927.744 917.780 25

FTL 925.744
DSL 918.664
TBL 927.744
MWL 926.744
10.080 927.744 917.664 30
9.130 927.744 918.614 35
8.393 927.744 919.351 40
7.252 927.744 920.492 45
5.805 927.744 921.939 50
5.437 927.744 922.307 55
4.757 927.744 922.987 60

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF BUND
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SIGN
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PROJECT NAME
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1:100

WASTE WEIR
BLOCK LEVELING AT
2018 Highway Alignment
MELUKOTE
B-9
HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Introduction to Highway project
1.0 Role of Transportation
Transportation is a non-separable part of any society. It exhibits a very close relation to

the style of life, the range and location of activities and the goods and services which will be
available for consumption. Advances in transportation has made possible changes in the way of
living and the way in which societies are organized and therefore have a great influence in the
development of civilizations. The inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of the
socio – economic development of the country. The adequacy of the transportation system of a
country indicates its economic and social development.
1.1 Economic activity and Transport
The economic activities are the processes by means of which the products are utilized to
satisfy the human wants. Two important factors well known in economic activity are:
 Production or Supply
 Consumption for human wants and demand
In the production stage, good transportation is required for the transporting raw materials
from site where it is available to the site where finished products are made.
In the consumption stage, increase in productivity and its efficient transportation can reduce
the cost of the product.
Man and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance of the
transportation in economic activity is to be founds in its effects on both human wants for the
good and satisfaction through production and distribution. While discussing the general effects
of the transportation, it may be said that the increased productivity and its efficient
transportation can lower the cost of the products. The transportation cost is always an
influencing factor on consumer price commodities.
1.2 Effect of Transportation:
Progress follows the line of the transportation. Population has always settled along the river
shoes, road sides and near railway stations. In the present concept of the transportation

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
network, this kind of the ribbon development is greatly discouraged. Attempts are being made
to decentralize the population centers away from the sides of the main transportation routes.
The various effects of the transportation may be further classified as follows:
 Sectionalism and transportation.

 Concentration of populations into urban area.
 Aspect of safety, law and order.
1.3 Characteristics of Road Transport:
It is an accepted fact that of all the modes of the transportation, road transport is the nearest
to the people. The passengers and the goods have to be first transported by road before reaching
a railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone could serve the remotest
villages of the vast country like ours.
 Roads are used by the various types of the road vehicles like passenger cars, buses, trucks,
two and three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. But railway
tracks are used by the rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by only ships and
boats, airway is only used be the aircrafts.
 Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor vehicles
are much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air
carriers. Construction and maintenance of the roads is also cheaper than that of the railway
tracks, docks, harbors and airports.
 Road transport offers a complete freedom to the road users to transfer the vehicle from one
lane to another and from one road to the according to the need and convenience. This
flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of the travel is not available
to other modes of the transportation.
 In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions and
main stations for the comparatively longer time.
 Speed of the movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road safety
decreases with increasing dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to a high degree
of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offered to the road users.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Road transport is the only means of the transport that offers itself to the whole community
alike.
2.0 Highway Planning:
2.1 Objectives
 To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum cost
 To arrive at the road system which could provide maximum utility
 To fix up data wise priorities for development of each road link
 To plan for future requirements and improvements of road in view of anticipated
developments
 To work out financing systems
2.2 Planning survey:
It involves:
 Economic studies
 Financial studies
 Traffic or road use studies
 Engineering studies
3.0 Highway Alignment:
The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called as the
alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and
curves. Changes in the gradient and vertical curves are covered under the vertical alignment of
the roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in the one
or more of the following disadvantages:
 Increase in the construction cost.

 Increase in the maintenance cost.
 Increase in the vehicle operation cost.
 Increase in the accident rate.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
3.1 Ideal Alignment of Highway:

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between the two terminal stations are that
it should be:
Short: It is desirable to have a short alignment between the two terminal stations. A
straight alignment would be shortest, though there may be several practical considerations
which would cause deviations from the shortest path
Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road
with the minimum problems. Also the alignment should be easy for the operation of the
vehicles with the easy gradients and curves.
Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for the construction and maintenance from
the view point of the stability of the natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes and
foundation of the embankments.
Economical: The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total cost
including the initial cost, maintenance cost and the vehicle operation cost is lowest.
All these factors should be given due consideration before working out the economics
of the each alignment.
3.2 Factors Controlling Alignment:
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
 Obligatory points.
 Traffic.
 Geometric design.
 Economics.
 Other consideration.
In hill roads additional care has to be given for:
 Stability.
 Drainage.
 Geometric standards of hill roads.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Resisting length.
Obligatory Points
These are the control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control
points may be divided broadly into the two categories.
 Points through which the alignment is to pass.

 Points through which the alignment should not pass.
Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or the easiest path. The various examples of this
category may be bridge site, intermediate town, a mountain pass or a quarry.
Obligatory points through which the road should not pass also may make it necessary to
deviate from the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should be avoided
while aligning the road includes religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable land, etc.
Religious places like temples, mosque, church, grave or tomb have been protected by
the law from being acquired for any purpose. Acquiring the costly structure would mean heavy
compensation resulting in the increased cost. Marshy, peaty and water logged areas are
generally unsuitable for the road construction and should be avoided as far as possible.
Traffic:
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and destination study should
be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the trend of the traffic flow.
The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic flow patterns and the
future trends.
Geometric Design:
Geometric design factors such as the gradient, radius of the curve and the sight distance
also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If the straight alignment is aimed at,
often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradients. As far as possible while aligning a
new road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Thus it may be necessary to change the alignment in view of the design speed,
maximum allowable super elevation and the coefficient of the lateral friction. It may be
necessary to make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the
minimum radius of the curve and the transition curve.
Economy:
The alignment finalized based on the above factors should also be economical. In
working out the economics, the initial cost, the maintenance cost and the vehicle operation cost
should be taken into the account. The initial cost of the construction can be decreased if the
high embankments and deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to
balance the cutting and filling.
Other Consideration:
Various other factors which may govern the alignment are the drainage considerations,
hydrological factors, political considerations and the monotony.
The vertical alignment is often guided by the drainage considerations. The subsurface
water level, seepage flow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in the view.
A foreign territory coming across a straight alignment will necessitate deviation of the
alignment around the foreign land. At some times the alignment is decided only on the strategic
considerations.
In a flat terrain it is possible to have a very long stretch of the road, absolutely straight
without the horizontal curve. But straight road of very long stretch may be monotonous for the
driving. Hence after a few kilometers of straight road, it may be desirable to have a slight bend
to break the monotony and keep the driver alert.
Drainage:
Numerous hill side drains should be provided for the adequate drainage facility across
the road. But the cross drainage structure being costly, attempts should be made to align the
road in such a way where the number of the cross drainage structures is minimum.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Geometric Standards Of The Hill Roads:
Different sets of the geometric standards are followed in the hill roads with reference to
gradient, curves and speed and they consequently influence the sight distance, radius of the
curve and other related features. The route should enable the ruling gradient to be attained in
most of the length, minimizing steep gradients, hair pin bands and needless rise and fall.
3.3 Engineering survey for highway alignment:
Before a highway alignment is finalized in the highway track. The engineering surveys
are carried out. The surveys may be completed in the four stages. The first three stages consider
all the possible alternative alignment
 Map study.
 Reconnaissance survey.
 Preliminary survey.
 Final location and the detailed survey.
Map Study:
If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely routes
of the road. In India topographic maps are available from the survey of India, with 15 or 30
meter of contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hill, valleys, etc… are also shown on
these maps. By careful study of the maps, it is possible to have an idea of several possible
alternate routes so that further details of these may be studied later at the site. The probable
alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map.
 Alignment avoiding valley, ponds or lakes.

 When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountainous
pass.
 Approximate location of the bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river
 When a road is to be connected between the two stations, one at the top and one at the
bottom of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the
permissible gradient.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Reconnaissance Survey:
The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the
general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for the detailed studies. A
field survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative
routes of the map in the field. Only very instrument like abney level, tangent clinometers,
barometer, etc. are used by the reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly. All
relevant details not available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be
collected during the reconnaissance are given below:
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
obstructions along the route which are not available in the map.
 Approximate value of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of the alternate
alignments.
 Number and type of cross drainage structure, maximum flood level and natural ground
water level along the probable routes.
 Soil type along the routes from the field identification tests and observation of the
geological features.
 Sources of the construction materials, water and location of the stone quarries.
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow, etc… may be observed so
as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment.
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult
may be done by an aerial survey.
 From the details collected during the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after study
may be altered or even changed completely. As a result of the reconnaissance a few
alternate alignments may be chosen for the further study based on the practical
considerations observed at the site.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Preliminary Survey:
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
 To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography and drainage.
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
 To estimate the quantity of the earth work materials and other constructions aspects and
to workout the cost of the alternate proposals.
 To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.
 The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information which is
necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment. The preliminary survey
may be carried out by any one of the following methods:
 Conventional approach, in which a survey parts carried out surveys using the required
field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out the soil survey.
 Modern rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by
the photogrammetry methods and photo interpretation techniques for obtaining the
necessary topographic and other maps including the details of the soil and geology.
Final Location Survey:

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the Centre line. Next detailed survey should be carried out
for collecting the information necessary for the preparation of the plans and construction details
for the highway project.
Location:
The centerline of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated on the ground
during the location survey. This is done using a total station and by staking of the Centre line.
The location of the Centre line should follow as closely as practicable, the alignment finalized
after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the ground and
the Centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements. However

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential. The Centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals say at 50m intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at
20m in hilly terrains.
3.4 Instruments Required for Surveys:
 Leveling instruments with stand and leveling staff for profile.

 Compass or plane table with accessories.
 Arrows, chains, tapes, cross staff, ranging rods, pegs etc.
3.5 Office Work from Field Data:
Reduced levels are computed from field data by Height of Instrument rise and fall
method for all the observed levels of longitudinal sections, cross sections and block leveling in
the field book. Page checks for R.Ls computed must be carried out to ensure correct entry and
calculating. Details of physical features, computed R.Ls, observed bearings for the center line
etc. are to be transferred to drawings as required in a standard.
3.6 Drawings To Be Prepared:
Index Map:
Details are to be presented by a neat and proportionate free hand sketch, showing
various alignments considered for connection station points, obligatory points, physical features
like land , valleys, ponds, streams, buildings etc. using appropriate symbols on a sheet of size
30X20 cms.
Initial Alignment Plan:
This is drawn to scale of 1:1000m generally or as specified. The plan shows center line
alignment with bearings R.Ls along L/S and C/S, chainages, stream crossings and all the
physical features surveyed. The details are symbolically represented on a standard size drawing
sheet ink in Black, North line is represented for reference.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Final Alignment Plan:
Finalized alignment details after the designs are shown in Red ink on the initial
alignment plan sheet only. Horizontal curves, transition curves designed are presented in Green
ink with radius, length etc. and are numbered. Final center line alignment with designed curves
is marked clearly from station points connecting obligatory points.
Road Plan:
Road plan is Drawn on a separate sheet to a scale of 1:1000 by transferring the final
alignment preferably showing existing features and formation width and right of way along the
alignment finalized.
3.7 Survey Objectives:
 To trace the initial and final alignment of highway in the field

 To obtain the longitudinal and cross sectional profile of existing ground for the
alignment.
 To obtain details of drawing works, soil types, terrain and other essential features
important for highway alignment and design.
3.8 Details of Field Works:
General: Survey work is started with carrying fly levels from a specified reference
B.M to the starting point from local B.M.(as specified). Starting point is fixed with reference to
three permanent objects by taking bearings and measurements.
Centre line alignment: This is carried out by stretching one chain length fully in
the direction of survey as guided by gentle and flowing gradients of the terrain. Generally
gradient of 1 in 100 is provided for plain and rolling terrains. After ensuring the direction and
gradient, bearing (FB) are taken for the center line thus fixed by using compass, frequent zig-
zags, sharp and reverse turns are avoided for center line alignment.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
3.9 Leveling Work:
To start with, fly levels are carried from a permanent B.M. to the starting point of
survey. At beginning of day’s work similarly fly levels can be carried back from the terminal
point of survey at the end of day’s work (to check errors in field work). Leveling work for
highway alignment includes:
 Longitudinal sections are taken at every 10m intervals along the center line as the
survey proceeds.
 Cross sections are taken at 30m intervals and the cross levels taken at 5m intervals
extending upto 15m on either side of center line.
3.10 Soil Sampling:
Representative samples of soil are collected from different stretches of the alignment for
analysis and testing in the laboratory. Sampling procedure and quantities to be obtained as
specified at site.
3.11 Pavement Thickness Details
Minimum of three cross sections of the pavement showing the thickness of individual
layers of flexible pavement must be indicated on a separate sheet, after the designs are
finalized. It contains details of different layers like sub-base, base and wearing coarse, stretches
where such thickness are proposed are also indicated.
3.12 Project Report:
The project report forms an important part of the project document:
 Objectives.
 Minimum geometric design standards as per IRC.
 Field work details.
 Geometric deficiency and re-design details.
 Laboratory work and graphs.
 Pavement design details.
 Mix design details.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Estimation of quantities of materials.

 Drawings.
 Recommendations.

4.0 Highway Project:
The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
 Route selection.
 Collection of materials.
 Construction stages including quality control.
4.1 Steps In New Project Work
The various steps in a highway project may be summarized as given below
 Map Study: With the help of available topographic maps of the area.
 Reconnaissance Survey: A general idea of the topography and other

features, field identification of the soils and survey of the construction materials by an
on the spot inspection of the site.
 Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along the alternate
alignments, considerations of the geometric design and other requirements of the
alignment, preparation of the plans and comparison of the alternate routes, economic
analysis and selection of the final alignment. Typical plan, longitudinal section and
cross section drawing for the new alignment.
 Location Of The Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the
drawings to the ground by driving pegs along the Centre line of finally chosen
alignment, setting out the geometric design elements by location of the tangent points,
apex points, circular and transition curves, elevation of the Centre line and super
elevation details.
 Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work for the
preparation of the longitudinal and cross section, computations of the earthwork

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
quantities and other construction materials and checking details of the geometric design
elements.
 Material Survey: Survey of the construction materials, their collection and
testing.
 Design: Design details of the embankment and cut slopes, foundation of the
embankments and bridges and pavement layers.
 Earth Work: Excavations for the highway cutting and drawings system,
construction of the embankments.
 Pavement Construction: Preparation of the sub-grade, construction of the
sub base and surface courses.
 Construction Controls: Quality control tests during the different stages of
the construction and check for the finished road surface.
Geometric Design
5.0 Highway Geometric Design:
5.1 Importance:
The geometric design deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersections.
The geometrics of the highway should be designed to provide the optimum efficiency in
traffic operations with the maximum safety at the reasonable cost. The designer may be
exposed to either planning of new highway network or improvement of the existing highways
to meet the requirement of the existing and anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of a road in stages, but it is very
expensive and rather difficult to improve the geometric elements of the road in the stages at a
later date. Therefore it is important to plan and design the geometric features of the road during
the initial alignment itself taking into consideration the future growth of the traffic flow.
Geometric designs of the highway deals with the following elements: -

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Cross sectional elements

 Sight distance elements
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignment details
 Intersection elements.
5.2 Factors Controlling The Design Of The Geometric Elements
The geometric design of the highways depends upon the several designs factors. The important
of these factors which control the geometric elements are:
 Design speed
 Topography
 Traffic factors
 Designs hourly volume and capacity
 Environmental and other factors
Design Speed:
The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements
of the highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of
the highway. In India different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the
importance of the class of the road such as nation, state highway, major/other district roads and
village roads. Further the design speed standards have modified depending upon the terrain and
the topography .Design of almost every geometric design elements of a road is dependent on
the design speed.
Topography:
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric designs of the highway
significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment, as plain rolling, mountainous rolling, and steep rolling. The designs standards
specified for different classes of roads are different depending upon the terrain condition.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Traffic Factor:
The factors associated with the traffic that affect the geometric design of the roads are
the vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the
design vehicle or the standard traffic lane under the mixed traffic flow condition especially on
urban roads of the developing countries. The different vehicle classes such as passenger cars,
buses, trucks, motor cycles, etc… have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart
from having the different dimensions and weights. The important human factors which affect
the traffic include the physical, mental and psychological behavior of drivers and pedestrians.
Design Hourly Volume And Capacity:
The traffic flow or volume keeps on fluctuating from time to time, from a low value
during the off peak hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to
design the roadway facilities for the peak flow or the highest hourly volume traffic. Therefore a
reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called ads design hourly
volume.
Environmental And Other Factors:
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution and other local
conditions should be given due to consideration in the design on the road geometrics. Some of
the arterial high speed highways and expressways are designed for the higher speed standards
and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing grade separated intersections and controlled
access.
5.3 Highway Cross-Sectional Element
 Pavement Surface Characteristics:

The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decided based on the
availability of the materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grade and
climatic condition. Construction facilities and cost considerations, the important surface
characteristics are the friction unevenness, light reflecting characteristics and drainage of
surface water.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Friction:
It is a force developing in between the tires and the pavement surface during the
movement of the vehicles. Friction is important factor in determining the operating speed,
distance, requirements in stopping and accelerating the vehicles. There are two types of
frictions:
 longitudinal friction.
 Lateral friction
Longitudinal friction occurs along the longitudinal direction (length) of the road. Indian
road congress had recommended the coefficient of friction as 0.4, considering the worst
pavement condition (wet condition)
Lateral friction occurs when vehicles moves along a horizontal curve and Indian road
congress has suggested a coefficient of friction as 0.15, considering the pavement as mud
surface.
Skid occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or when the wheels partially
revolve. When the brakes are applied, the wheels are locked partially of fully. If vehicle moves
forward longitudinal skidding takes place.
Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the correspondence longitudinal
movement along the roads. Slipping normally occurs when the wheel rapidly accelerates from
the stationary position or from the slow speed on pavement surface which is either slippery or
when the road surface is loose with mud.
Factors Affecting The Friction Or Skid Resistance:
The following are the factors affecting the friction:
 Type of pavement surface namely cement concrete, bituminous, water bound macadam
road, earth surface, etc…
 Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness.
 Condition of the pavement namely wet or dry, smoothened or rough, oil spilled, mud
or dry sand on pavement.
 Type and condition of tire i.e., new with good treads or smoothened and worn out tire.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Speed of the vehicle.

 Extent of brake application or brake efficiency.
 Load and tire pressure.
 Temperature of tire and pavement
 Type of skid.
 Cross Slope Or Camber

Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface.
Usually the camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the center of the carriage
way with respect to the edges. Forming a crown or highest point on the center line. The rate of
camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in N which means that the transverse slope in
the ratio 1 vertical to N horizontal. Camber is also expressed as a percentage.
6.0 Width Of The Pavement Or Carriageway:
The pavement or carriageway depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a traffic lane. The
lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance
which may be provided for the safety. When the side clearance is increased, there is an increase
in operating speed of vehicles and hence an increase in capacity of the traffic lane. Width of
3.75 m is considered desirable for single lane for vehicles of maximum width 2.44 m. For
pavements having two or more lanes width of 3.5 m per lane is considered sufficient. The
maximum width of the vehicles as per IRC specification is 2.44m. If a single lane carriage of
width 3.8m is provided, a side clearance of 0.68m would be obtained. In case of two lane
pavements of the width 0.7m a minimum clearance between two lanes of traffic would be
1.06m for the widest vehicles on the road.

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Recommended Carriageway Width [According To Irc:Sp:20-2002]
Road Classification Carriageway Width (m)
Rural Roads (ODR and VR) 3.75
6.1 Side Slopes:
Side slope for rural road where embankment height less than 3.0 m is given in table below:
Side Slope For Rural Roads [According To Irc:Sp:20-2002]
Condition Slope (H:V)
Embankment in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 2:1
Embankment in clay or clayey silt or inundated condition 21/2 to 3:1
Cutting in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 1:1 to ½:1
Cutting in disintegrated rock or conglomerate ½:1 to ¼:1
Cutting in soft rock like shale ¼:1 to 1/8:1
Cutting in medium rock like sandstone, phyllite 1/12:1 to 1/16:1
Cutting in hard rock like quartzite, granite Near vertical

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6.2 Recommendation Values Of Camber For Different Types Of Road

Surface:
RANGE OF CAMBER IN
AREAS OF RAINFALL
SL. NO TYPE OF ROAD SURFACE
RANGE
(HEAVY TO LIGHT)
1. Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50 (2.0%) to 1 in 60 (1.7%)

bituminous
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) to 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3. Water bound macadam and gravel 1 in 33 (3.0%) to 1 in 40 (2.5%)

pavement
4. Earth surface 1 in 25 (4.0%) to 1 in 33 (3.0%)
6.3 Total Reaction Time
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. The amount of time gap depends on
several factors. During this time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the original speed or
the design speed. Thus the stopping distance increases with increases in reaction time of the
driver. The total reaction time may be split up into two parts.
 Perception time
 Brake reaction time
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realize that brakes must be
applied it is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the
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instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped. The various other environment factor.
Often the total brake reaction time of the driver is taken together.
IRC Recommends The Following F- Values For Design
SPEED, kmph 20-30 40 50 60 65 80 100
LONITUDNAL
COEFFICIENTOF
0.4 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35
FRICTION [f]
The minimum stopping sight distance hence should be equal to the stopping distance in one-
way traffic lanes and also in two-way traffic roads when there are two or more traffic lanes. On
roads with restricted width or on single lane roads when two-way movement of traffic is
permitted, the minimum stopping sight distance should be equal to TWICE the stopping
distance to enable both vehicles coming from opposite directions to stop. The safe stopping
distance values calculated in the similar manner for various design speeds and recommended
by IRC are given below.
6.4 Overtaking Sight Distance (Osd)

If all the vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically there should be
no need for any overtaking. In fact all vehicles do not move at the designed speed and this is
particularly true under mixed traffic conditions. In such circumstances, it is necessary for fast
moving vehicles to overtake or pass the slow moving vehicles. It may not be possible to
provide the facility to overtake slow moving vehicles throughout the length of a road. In such
cases facilities for overtaking slow vehicles with adequate safety should be made possible at
frequent distance intervals.
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the
minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance available.

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The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the Centre of the
road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object
1.2 m above the road surface.
Some Of The Important Factors On Which The Minimum Overtaking Sight

Distance Required For The Safe Overtaking Maneuver Depends Are:
 Speeds of (i)overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle and (iii) the vehicle coming from
opposite direction, if any.
 Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum spacing depends
on the speeds.
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road, if any
At overtaking sections, the minimum overtaking distance should be (d1+d2+d3)when
two-way traffic exists. On divide highways and on roads with one way traffic regulation, the
overtaking distance need be only (d1 +d2) as no vehicle is expected from the opposite
direction. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggest that it is not necessary to
provide the usual OOD; however the sight distance on any highway should be more than the
SSD, which is the absolute minimum sight distance.
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible ahead
at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there may be
stretches where the safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. In such zones where
overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, sign posts should be installed indicating
“Overtaking Prohibited” before such restricted zones starts. But the overtaking opportunity for
vehicles moving at design speed should be given at frequent intervals. These zones which are
meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones.
6.5 Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)

Sufficient overtaking sight distance should be available on most of the road stretches.
On horizontal curves the overtaking sight distance requirements cannot always be fulfilled

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especially on sharp curves, if the safe overtaking sight distance requirements are high. In such
cases overtaking should be prohibited by regulatory signs. In case of vertical summit curves, it
is possible to provide the sight distance requirements by suitably designing the vertical
alignment. At stretches of the road where required overtaking sight distance cannot be provide
as far as possible Intermediate Sight Distance, ISD equal to twice SSD may be provided. The
measurement of the ISD may be made assuming both the height of the eye level of the driver
and the object to be 1.2 meters above the road the road surface.
7.0 Design Of Horizontal Alignment
7.1 Design Speed:
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends. The
design speed of roads depends upon
 Class of the road

 Terrain
The speed standards of a particular class of road thus depend on the classification of the
terrain through which it passes. The terrains have been classified as plain, rolling, mountainous
and steep.
7.2 Super Elevation:
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the
vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This
transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation or cant or banking.
To avoid the danger of toppling of loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to limit
the value of maximum allowable super elevation. IRC has fixed the maximum limit of super
elevation in plain and rolling terrains and is snow bound as 7% taking mixed traffic into
consideration. However on hill roads not bound by snow a max. Super elevation up to 10 % has
been recommended.

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Therefore, in order to assess the Super elevation e required, the speed is taken as equal
to the design speed of the road and the minimum value of transverse skid resistance f for design
purpose is standardized equal to 0.15.
From drainage considerations it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to drain off
the surface water. In very flat curves with large radius the centrifugal forces developed will be
very small and in such cases the normal camber may be retained on the curves.
Super elevation rates for various design speeds
7.3 Widening Of Pavement On Horizontal Curves:
On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is common to
widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. This is called as extra widening. Thus
the required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal curves depends upon the length
of wheel base of the vehicle, radius of the curve negotiated and the psychological factor which
is a function of the speed of the vehicle and the radius of the curve. It has been a
practice therefore to provide extra width of pavement on horizontal curves when the
radius is less than about 300m.

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The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts,
 Mechanical Widening
It is the widening required to account for the off-tracking due to the rigidity of wheel
based.
 Psychological Widening
Extra width of pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such as, to provide
foe greater maneuverability of steering at higher speeds, to allow for the extra space
requirements for the overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater chance for crossing and
overtaking vehicles on the curves. Psychological widening is therefore important in pavements
with more than one lane.
7.4 Horizontal Transition Curve
A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a
designed radius of the circular curve. When a transition curve is introduced between a straight
& circular curve, the radius of the transition curve decreases becomes minimum at the
beginning of the circular curve.
Function Of Transition Curves:
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.
 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security.
 To enable introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening of pavement
at the start of the circular curve.
 To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types Of Transition Curves:
 Spiral
 Lemniscuses
 Cubic parabola
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7.5Set-Back Distance
In the design of horizontal alignment, the sight distance along the inner side of the
curves should be considered. Where there is sight obstruction like buildings, cut slopes, or tree
on the inner side of the curves, either the obstruction should be removed or the alignment
should be changed in order to provide adequate sight distance.
In case of new highways for the design speed and distance requirements, the actual
condition in the alignment should be checked and necessary adjustments be made in a manner
most fitting to provide adequate sight distance.
The clearance distance or set back distance required from the center line of a horizontal
curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance
depends upon the following factors
 Required sight distance

 Radius of horizontal curve
 Length of the curve
8.0 Design Of Vertical Alignment:
While aligning a highway body it is the general practice to follow the general
topography or profile of the land. But the natural ground may be level only at some places and
otherwise the ground may have slope of varying magnitudes. Hence the vertical profile of a
road would have level stretches as well as slopes or grades. The vertical alignment consists of
grades and vertical curves, sight distance and comfort in vehicle movements at high speeds.
8.1 Gradients:
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is sometimes the gradient is also expressed in percentage, i.e. n in 100.when the
angle of gradient, α is small the gradient which is 1 in α or tan α is approximately equal to the
circular measure or α in radians. The ascending gradients are given in the positive signs and are
denoted as + n1, + n2 etc., and the descending gradient are given in the negative signs and are
denoted as –n3, - n4 etc. The angle which measures the change of direction at the intersection
of the two grades is called deviation angle N which is equal to the algebraic difference between
the two grades.
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Deviation angle = + n1 - (-n2) = n1 + n2
Where,
n1 = ascending gradient
n2 = descending gradient
8.2 Vertical Curves:

Due to the changes in the vertical alignment of the highway, it is necessary to introduce
vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and
thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles.
The vertical curves in highway may be classified into two categories
 Summit curves or crest with convexity upwards.
 Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards.
8.2.1 Summit Curves

The deviation angle between the two interacting gradients is equal to the algebraic
difference between them .Of all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when an
ascending gradient meets with a descending gradient i.e., N=n1–(-n2) = (n1+n2).when the fast
moving vehicles travels along the summit curves, the centrifugal force will act upwards, against
the gravity and hence a part of the pressure on the tires and spring of the vehicle suspension is
relieved.
Length Of The Summit Curve:
Parabolic summit curves are generally adopted the equation which is given by:
Y=ax2,with value of a=N/2L.Here N is the deviation angle and L is the length of the summit
curve. since the summit curve are long and flat, the length of the summit curve L is taken as
equal to its horizontal projection and it is particularly equal to the actual length of the curve.
Length Of The Summit Curve For The Stopping Sight Distance:

Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length:
 When the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance (L> SSD)
 When the length of the curve is less than the sight distance (L<SSD)

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 When L>SSD
The general equation for the length L of the parabolic curve is given by
𝑵𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒. 𝟒
 When L<SSD
The general equation of the parabolic summit curve, when it is less than the sight distance is
𝟒.𝟒
given by L= 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑵
Length of the Summit Curve for the Overtaking Sight Distance Or

Intermediate Sight Distance:
Two cases are considered in deciding the length is
 When the length of the curve is greater than the overtaking sight distance or intermediate
distance (L>OSD)
 When the length of the curve is less than the overtaking sight distance (L<OSD)
𝑵𝑺𝟐
 When L>OSD𝑳 = 𝟗.𝟔
𝟗.𝟔
 When L<OSD𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 − 𝑵
Where,
L = length of the parabolic summit curve
N = Deviation angle, radians or tangent of the deviation angle
S = over taking or intermediate sight distance (OSD, ISD)
8.2.2 Valley Curves
Valley curves or gradient meets the sag is formed when the ascending gradient meets
the descending gradient with some deviation angle.
The most important factors considered in the design of valley curves are,
 Impact free movement of the vehicles at the design speed or the comfort to the
passengers.

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 Availability of the stopping sight distance under the head lights of the vehicles for night
driving.
Length Of The Valley Curves:
The length of the valley curve is designed based on the following the criteria:
 The allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.

 The head light sight distance, and the higher two values is adopted. Usually the second
criterion of the head light sight distance is higher is and therefore governs the design.
The total length of valley curve is based on rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is given
by the following equation
𝑵𝑽𝟑
L= 𝟐 𝑪
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖√𝑵𝑽𝟑
Where,
L= total length of the valley curve in m
N=deviation angle in radius or tangent of the deviation angle or the algebraic difference
in grades
V= design speed, Kmph.
The Length Of The Valley Curve For The Head Light Sight Distance:
It can be determined by the following conditions
 When the total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD
 When L is less than SSD, as given by
L>SSD L<SSD
𝑵𝑺𝟐 (𝟏.𝟓 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑺)
L=(𝟏.𝟓 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑺)
L =𝟐𝑺 − 𝑵
Where, L=total length of the valley curve, S=SSD in meters, N =deviation angle = (n1+n2),
with slopes –n1 and n2.

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9.0 Design Of The Highway Pavement
Objects and Requirements of Pavements: The surface of the roadway should be stable
and non-yielding, to allow the heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with the least possible
rolling resistance. The road surface should also be even along the longitudinal profile to enable
the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at the design speed. The earth may not be able
to fulfill any of the above requirements, especially during the varying condition of traffic loads
and the weather. The unevenness undulation of the surface along the longitudinal profile of the
road causes vertical oscillations in the fast moving automobiles, increasing the fuel
consumption and the wear of the vehicle components, resulting in a considerable increase in the
vehicle operation cost. Apart from this uneven pavement surface causes discomfort and fatigue
to the passengers of the fast moving vehicles and cyclists. Therefore, in order to provide a
stable and even surface for the traffic, the roadway is provided with a suitably designed and
constructed pavement structure. Thus a pavement consisting of a few layers of pavement
materials is constructed over a prepared soil subgrade to serve as carriageway.
The pavement carries the wheel loads and transfer the load stresses through a wider area
on the soil subgrade below. Thus the stresses transferred to the subgrade soil through the
pavement layers are considerably lower than the contact pressure or compressive stresses under
the wheel load on the pavement surface. The reduction in the wheel load stress due to the
pavement depends both on its thickness and the characteristics of the pavement layers. A
pavement layer is considered more effective or superior, if it is able to distribute the wheel load
stress through a larger area per unit depth of the layer.
Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement maybe constructed over an embankment, cut or almost at the ground level itself. It is
always desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the ground water
to keep the sub grade relatively dry even during monsoons.
Design Factors
The various factors to be considered for the design of pavements are given below:
 Design wheel load

 Sub grade soil

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 Climatic factors
 Pavement component materials
 Environmental factors
9.1 Special Factors In The Design Of Different Types Of Pavements Are:
 The thickness design of pavement primarily depends upon the design wheel
load. Higher wheel load obviously need thicker pavement, provided other design factors
are the same. While considering the design wheel load, the effect of total static load on
each wheel, multiple wheel load assembly, contact pressure, load repetition and the
dynamic effects of transient loads are to be taken into account.
 The properties of the soil sub grade are important in deciding the thickness
requirement of pavements. A sub grade with lower stability requires thicker pavement
to protect it from traffic loads.
 Among the climate factors, rainfall affects the moisture conditions in the sub
grade and the pavement layers. The daily and seasonal variations in temperature have
significance in the design and performance of rigid pavements and bituminous
pavements.
 The stress distribution characteristic of the pavement component layers depends
on characteristics of materials used. The fatigue behavior of these materials and their
durability under adverse conditions of weather should also be given due consideration.
 The environmental factors such as height of embankment and its foundations
details, depth of cutting, depth of sub-surface water table, etc. affect the performance of
the pavement. The choice of bituminous binder and the performance of the bituminous
pavement depend on the variations in the pavement temperature with the seasons in the
region.
10.0 Highway Construction:
Engineers have been always with open mind to adopt any material available to them for
its use for the construction purposes. Research facilities at hand help them to judge the suitable
of the materials. It is logical to see that the purpose of highway construction is to provide a firm
and even surface for the carriageway or the pavement which could stand the stress caused due

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to number of load applications. Hence the pavement is prepared using broken stones or soil and
binder material to bind the aggregate to form a homogenous pavement section. The binders
employed are mainly soil slurry, bituminous material and cement. Depending upon the desired
strength of the pavement the aggregate gradations and the type and proportion of binders are
decided.
10.1 Types Of Highway Construction
The highway types are classified as below:
 Earth road and gravel roads

 Soil stabilized roads
 Water bound macadam road
 Bituminous or black top roads
 Cement concrete roads
10.2 Type Of Bituminous Construction
Number of types and methods are used for bituminous pavement construction. The following
construction techniques are in use
 Interface treatments like prime coat and tack coat.

 Surface dressing and seal coat.
 Grouted or penetration type constructions
 Penetration macadam.
 Built-up spry grout.
 Premix which may be any of the following:
 Bituminous bound macadam.
 Carpet.
 Bituminous concrete.
11.0 Highway Drainage
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-soil
within the right of way. This includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface

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and sub grade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is an
essential part of highway design and construction. Removal and diversion of surface water
from the roadway and adjoining land is termed as surface drainage. Diversion or removal of
excess soil-water from the sub grade is termed as sub-surface drainage. Some water is retained
in the pores of the soil mass and on the surface of soil particles by surface tension and
adsorptive forces, which cannot be
drained off by normal gravitational methods and this water is termed as held water.
11.1 Data For Drainage Design:

 The following data are to be collected for the design of road side drain
 Total road length and width of land from where water is expected to flow on the stretch
of the side drain.
 Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces in the drainage area and their
respective areas.
 Distance from farthest points in the drainage area to the inlet of the side drain along the
steepest gradient and the average value of the slope.
 Type of soil of the side drain, roughness coefficient allowable velocity of flow in the
drain.
 Rainfall data including average intensity and frequency of recurrence of flood.
11.2 Cross Drainage:
Whenever streams have to cross the roadway, facility for cross drainage is to be
provided. Also often the water from the side drain is taken across by these cross drain in order
to divert the water away from the road, to a water or valley. The cross drainage structures
commonly used are culverts and small bridges. When small stream crosses a road with a linear
waterway less than about six meter, the cross drainage structure provided is called culvert; for
higher values of linear waterway, the structure is called a bridge. The common types of culverts
in use are
 Slab culvert
 Box culvert

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 Arch culvert
 Pipe culvert
Various types of bridges are in use. The choice is based on several considerations
including the span. RCC and steel bridge are commonly constructed these days.
On less important roads, in order to reduce the construction cost of cross drainage
structures, sometimes submersible bridges or cause ways are constructed. During the floods the
water will flow over the road. The total period interruption to traffic has however to be kept as
low as possible, not exceeding about 15 days in a year.
11.3 Sub–Surface Drainage:
Changes in moisture content of subgrade are caused by fluctuations in ground water table
seepage flow, percolation of rain water and movement of capillary water and even water vapor.
Only the gravitational water is drained by the usual drainage systems.
11.4 Lowering Of Water Table
The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of sub grade, in order
that the sub grade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture. From practical
considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept at least 1.0 to 1.2m below the
sub grade. In places where water table is high the best remedy is to take the road formation on
embankment of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter. When the formation is to be at or below
the general ground level, it would be necessary to lower the table. If soil is relatively
permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table by merely construction of
longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand.
11.5 Control Of Seepage Flow:
When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are slopping, seepage
flow is likely to exist. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 meter from the
subgrade level, longitudinal pipe drain in trench filled with filter material and clay seal may be
constructed to intercept the seepage flow.

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11.6 Control Of Capillary Rise:
If the water reaching the subgrade due to capillary rise is likely to be detrimental, it is
possible to solve the problem arresting the capillary rise instead of lowering the eater table. The
capillary rise may be checked either by a capillary cut-off any one of the following two types:
 A layer of granular material suitable thickness is provided during the

construction of embankment, between the subgrade and the highest level of subsurface
water table. The thickness of granular capillary cut-off layer should be sufficiently
higher than the anticipated capillary rise within the granular layer so that the capillary
water cannot rise above the cut-off layer.
 Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or
a bituminous layer in the place of granular blanket.
11.7 Design Of Subsurface Drainage System:
The size and spacing of the subsurface drainage system would depend on the quantity of
water to be drained off, the type of soil and the type of drains. Mostly this is decided based on
experience and other practical considerations. However, proper filler material should be used
for back filling the drainage trenches and also for use in all subsurface drainage.
Design Data And Specifications For The Alignment (IRC: SP: 20-2002)
1. Type of road = Village Road
2. Width of carriage way = 5.5m (two lanes)
3. Road land width (Right of way) = 15m
4. Roadway width = 9.0m
5. Terrain type = Rolling (10-25% cross slope)
6. Rainfall = medium intensity
7. Pavement = Thin bituminous surface

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8. Design speeds for village road (V), kmph = 40(Ruling) & 35 (Minimum) for rolling and
terrain.
9. Minimum radii for village = 60m (ruling min) & 45m (absolute min)
10. Gradients (Rolling country) = 1 in 30 (ruling), 1in 20 (limiting)

1 in 15 (Exceptional)
11. Coefficient of lateral friction, f = 0.15 for 40 kmph (max)
12. Coefficient of longitudinal friction, f = 0.40
13. Super elevation (e) = 0.07 (max)
14. Camber = 1 in 30 or 3% (depends on rainfall)
15. Safe stopping sight distance = 45m for design speed of 40 kmph
16. No super elevation is required for radius beyond 350m for design speed of 40kmph and
2% camber
17. Extra width of pavement (We)-0.60m for single lane for a radius unto 60m(from 21m)
as per IRC in the absence of calculation
18. Reaction time of the driver (t) = 2.5 seconds for speed 40 – 60 kmph
19. Side slopes in ordinary soil = 1:1, soft rock (1/4:1)
11.8 Laboratory Investigations
The following tests are conducted to the soil collected from the field
 Grain size analysis.

 Group index method (Based on Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit tests).
 Compaction test.
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.
Grain Size Analysis:

 We took of soil sample of 1000gm and soaked it for 24 hours.

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 On next day we took 75 micron sieve and washed the soaked soil thoroughly then oven dried
the sample at 105°C to 110°C.
 Then soil sample is place over set of sieves of sizes with finest sieve and pan at the bottom.
 Mass of soil sample taken for sieving = 1000gm
Liquid Limit: The following procedure was followed:
 Take 120g of air dried soil sample, free from organic matter and finer by 425µ is taken and
added with distilled water to stiff consistency.
 Take a portion of the soil using spatula and place it on cleaned liquid limit cup parallel to the
cup(the apparatus must be calibrated to a fall of 10mm).
 Cut a groove symmetrically using proper grooving tool.
Either, a} Cassagrande tool [for clay & clayey soils] b} A.S.T.M tool [for silty soils]
 The handle of the liquid limit apparatus is operated and the number of blows required to join
the groove to a length of 10mm is noted. At this point, the number of blows and moisture
content of the soil are found out.
 Repeat the test for the same soil sample for various moisture contents and record the number of
blows.
 A graph of “number of blows v/s moisture content” is drawn on semi-log sheet, and moisture
content for 25 blows is found out which gives liquid limit of soil sample.
Result: Liquid limit of the soil is 37.1%.
Plastic Limit:
The following procedure is followed
 Take 20g of air dried soil sample, free from organic matter and finer by 425µ is taken and
added with distilled water to stiff consistency.
 Allow it to season for sufficient time to allow water to permeate throught the soil mass.
 The soil is moulded and rolled between fingers and made into a ball.
 This ball is rolled on a sheet of ground glass to form a thread.
 The process is continued until the thread diameter reaches 3mm and fractures.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
 Find the moisture content when it fractures at 3mm, this gives PLASTIC LIMIT.
Result: The soil is non-plastic in nature.
Compaction Test:
Following procedure was followed
 Take sample weighing approx. 3 kg of thoroughly mixed without lumps and passing through
4.75mm sieve.
 Clean the mould and fix it to the base. Take the empty weight of it and inside surface is
greased.
 Mix the soil thoroughly by adding water. And compact it in three layers and each layer is being
compacted by 25 blows.
 Remove the collar cut the excess soil with the help of straight edge. Clean the mould from
outside and weigh it.
 Repeat the same procedure for about 5 to 6 times.
Result: The maximum dry density 1.99gm/cc.
Optimum moisture content 11.5%.
California Bearing Ratio:
The following procedure was followed
 Sieve the material through 4.75mm sieve.

 Take about 5kg of soil mix thoroughly by adding optimum water content.
 Compact the soil in the mould in three layers and each layer being compacted by 55 blows.
 Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil by a straight edge.
 Remove the base plate spar dust and then keep the surcharge weight.
 Immerse the mould assembly and weight in a tank of water allowing free occurs of water to the
top and bottom specimen.
 Keep the setup in soaked condition for 4 days.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Result: for a given soil the CBR value is 6%.
12.0 Design of Flexible Pavement :
From the CBR test conducted, we got a CBR value of 6%.
As per IRC SP: 20-2002 (page 98), the thickness of pavement required for the attained
CBR of 6% and 450 CVPD is 395mm.
Also, as per IRC SP: 20-2002, the thickness of crust required for given CBR is as
shown below.
(a) Bituminous surfacing = 20mm
(b) Base course = 150mm
(c) Sub-base = 225mm

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Horizontal Alignment:
a. Design of Horizontal Curves

1st CURVE
Radius = 23m C1=6m C2 to C5= 10m C6 = 4m
Offset 1 = C1^2/ (2*R) =6^2/ (2*23) = 0.78m
Offset 2= C 2(C1 + C2)/ (2*R) = 10(6+10) / (2*23) = 3.47m
Offset 3&4 = C^2/R = 10^2/23 = 4.34m
Offset n = Cn ( C+Cn )/ (2*R) = 4(10+4)/ (2*23) = 1.217m
2st CURVE
Offset 1 = C1^2/(2*R) =6^2/(2*21) = 0.85m
Offset 2= C 2(C1 + C2)/ (2*R) = 10(6+10) / (2*21) = 3.80m
Offset 3&4 = C^2/R = 10^2/21 = 4.76m
Offset n = Cn (C+Cn)/ (2*R) = 4(10+4)/ (2*21) = 1.33m
3st CURVE

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Offset 1 = C1^2/(2*R) =6^2/(2*17) = 1.05m
Offset 2= C 2(C1 + C2)/ (2*R) = 10(6+10) / (2*17) = 2.82m
Offset 3&4 = C^2/R = 10^2/17 = 5.88m
Offset n = Cn (C+Cn)/ (2*R) = 4(10+4)/ (2*17) = 1.64m
(b) To find the super elevation
e= (0.75V²)/127R i.e. e = (V²/225R)
 (20²/225*16.98)=0.418
 0.105>0.07 therefore, e = 0.07
Check for the value of the friction developed,
f = [V2 / (127*R)] - 0.07
f= 0.115< 0.15; therefore “e” of 0.07 is safe for design speed.
(c) Extra widening of curve (We)
The total widening required on a horizontal curve is given by, We= Wm + Wps
We = [n* l2 / (2 * R)] + [V / (9.5 * √R)]
Where, n = No of lanes = 2
V = Design speed = 20kmph
R = Radius of curve = 16.98m
l = Wheel base of vehicle = 6m
Therefore, We = 1.57m
As per IRC recommendation the radius of curve between speeds 20to 40kmph, for 2lanes is to
be taken as 1.5m. Hence provide an extra widening 1.2m.

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Calculation of S.S.D:
V= 20Km/hr.
S.S.D =0.278 Vt + V²/ (254f).
S.S.D= 17.83m
Where t = total reaction time of the driver = 2.5 sec
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction = 0.40
But S.S.D. for two way traffic single lane = 2S.S.D =35..67m
Horizontal Curve Elements
Radius of Super elevation

Curve Deflection Extra Widening Stopping sight
curve “R”
No angle ∆0 “e” “We” (m) distance (m)
(m)
HC1 73 16.98 0.07 1.5 35.67
Design of Longitudinal Drain of Highway:
Using Ryve’s formula, we can calculate the flood discharge
Q = C * A2/3
Since the rainfall in the area is of medium intensity, we can assume C = 9
A = Catchment area in Sqkm.
Considering 1 km length of highway and 15m width from the center of highway, we
get the road side drainage area = 1.0*15/1000= 0.015sq.km
Therefore, Q = 9*0.015^2/3= 0.547 m3/sec
From, continuity equation we have Q= A * V
Where, A= Cross-sectional area of drain.
V = Velocity in drain = 1.5 m/s (assumed)

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Therefore, A = 0.547/1.5= 0.365 m2
Assuming a trapezoidal section with base width = 0.6m and side slope 1:1
Therefore, Area of trapezoidal drain, A = (B + n * d)* d
Solving the above equation, we get d= 0.37m
Providing a free board of 0.15m,
We get the total depth of trapezoidal drain as 0.52m.
Determination of longitudinal slope of drain:
Consider manning’s formula, V = (R2/3 * s1/2) / n
Where, V = Velocity in drain =1.5 m/s
n = Rugosity co-efficient for bed material = 0.02 (assumed)
A = Area of trapezoidal drain = 0.365 m2
P = Perimeter of trapezoidal drain = B +D√5 =1.76m
Therefore, Hydraulic radius R = 0.365/P = 0.207m
Substituting the above values in manning’s formula, we get
1.5= (0.207^2/3*s^1/2)/0.02
Therefore, s = 7.4*10^-3
Hence provide a slope of 1in 136 for the longitudinal drain
EARTHWORK
MEAN CENTRAL SIDE VOLUME IN
SL CHAINGE DEPTH TOTAL LENGTH
GL IN M FL IN M GRADIENT DEPTH IN AREA IN AREA IN M^3
NO IN M IN M AREA IN M
M M^2 M^2 (CUTTING/FIL
LING)
1 0 954.46 954.46 1 IN 30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 30 0.00

2 30 954.91 955.46 1 IN 30 0.56 0.28 4.16 3.05 7.22 30 216.45
3 60 955.91 956.46 1 IN 30 0.56 0.56 4.16 6.11 10.27 30 308.03

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
4 90 957.08 957.46 1 IN 30 0.38 0.47 2.89 5.17 8.06 30 241.73

5 120 959.21 958.46 1 IN 30 -0.75 -0.18 -5.63 -2.01 -7.63 30 -228.98
6 150 961.03 959.46 1 IN 30 -1.56 -1.16 -11.74 -12.73 -24.47 30 -734.10
7 180 961.50 960.46 1 IN 30 -1.04 -1.30 -7.80 -14.33 -22.13 30 -663.82
8 210 961.30 961.46 1 IN 30 0.17 -0.44 1.24 -4.81 -3.57 30 -107.25
9 240 962.68 962.46 1 IN 30 -0.21 -0.02 -1.61 -0.27 -1.89 30 -56.62
10 270 963.15 963.46 1 IN 30 0.31 0.05 2.33 0.52 2.85 30 85.43
11 300 964.54 964.46 1 IN 30 -0.08 0.12 -0.60 1.27 0.67 30 19.95
12 330 966.76 965.46 1 IN 30 -1.30 -0.69 -9.75 -7.59 -17.34 30 -520.20
13 360 968.95 966.46 1 IN 30 -2.49 -1.89 -18.64 -20.82 -39.45 30 -1183.65
14 390 969.55 967.46 1 IN 30 -2.08 -2.28 -15.64 -25.13 -40.77 30 -1223.17
15 420 970.72 968.46 1 IN 30 -2.26 -2.17 -16.95 -23.90 -40.85 30 -1225.42
16 450 972.28 969.46 1 IN 30 -2.82 -2.54 -21.15 -27.94 -49.09 30 -1472.70
17 480 973.93 970.46 1 IN 30 -3.46 -3.14 -25.99 -34.57 -60.55 30 -1816.65
18 510 975.03 971.46 1 IN 30 -3.57 -3.52 -26.77 -38.69 -65.47 30 -1964.02
19 540 976.68 972.46 1 IN 30 -4.21 -3.89 -31.61 -42.82 -74.43 30 -2232.90
20 570 978.12 973.46 1 IN 30 -4.65 -4.43 -34.91 -48.78 -83.70 30 -2510.92
21 600 979.94 974.46 1 IN 30 -5.48 -5.07 -41.10 -55.74 -96.84 30 -2905.28
22 630 980.68 975.46 1 IN 30 -5.21 -5.35 -39.11 -58.82 -97.93 30 -2938.05
23 660 980.53 976.46 1 IN 30 -4.06 -4.64 -30.49 -51.04 -81.53 30 -2445.82
24 690 979.67 977.46 1 IN 30 -2.20 -3.13 -16.54 -34.48 -51.02 30 -1530.67
25 720 978.45 978.46 1 IN 30 0.01 -1.09 0.11 -12.04 -11.93 30 -357.97
26 750 977.32 979.46 1 IN 30 2.14 1.08 16.05 11.85 27.90 30 837.07
27 780 977.39 980.46 1 IN 30 3.08 2.61 23.06 28.68 51.75 30 1552.35
28 810 978.62 981.46 1 IN 30 2.84 2.96 21.30 32.53 53.83 30 1614.98
29 840 979.71 982.46 1 IN 30 2.75 2.80 20.63 30.75 51.37 30 1541.10
30 870 980.46 983.46 1 IN 30 3.00 2.88 22.50 31.63 54.13 30 1623.75
31 900 980.87 984.46 1 IN 30 3.59 3.30 26.93 36.25 63.17 30 1895.10
32 930 981.82 985.46 1 IN 30 1.22 2.41 9.18 26.48 35.66 30 1069.71
33 960 982.46 986.46 1 IN 30 3.28 2.25 24.61 24.78 49.39 30 1481.55
34 990 983.14 987.46 1 IN 30 4.33 3.80 32.46 41.85 74.31 30 2229.29
35 1020 983.72 988.46 1 IN 30 4.20 4.26 31.51 46.91 78.42 30 2352.51
FILLING CUTTING
23085.38 21018.19

HIGHWAY REPORT 2018
Conclusion:
The preliminary and detailed investigation to align a new road between two obligatory
points was completed effectively by conducting necessary surveys.

ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAY
968.150
969.320
968.940
969.745
0
969.600 966.865
968.605
30 966.790
970.255
964.085
966.460
966.790
60 965.580 964.015
964.910
966.920 965.605 150 964.970
967.140 963.740
120 964.835 965.010
90 180
966.880 210 964.810
965.770 360
965.180 240
966.750 965.065 974.680
964.860
964.910 COMMERCIAL BUILDING SHOPS 965.215
965.460 969.055
390 974.470
964.24 964.920
965.655 965.260 965.950 968.975
965.045 350 974.040
420 966.630
300 971.125 972.575
968.885 974.135 975.385
965.145 966.750 630
965.140 971.290 660
330 965.065 450 967.725 968.905
970.260 570 974.080
340 480 510
540 971.295
966.710
968.870
973.490
971.040
COMMERCIAL BUILDING SHOPS
973.260
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAY
SCALE 1:100
SIGN

ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAY
985.465
982.250
1170
980.870
983.330 1200
983.420 979.770
1140 981.285
980.070
1210
981.585
982.535
983.680 983.765 1240
981.510
984.380 984.555 981.570
1110 984.135 1270
982.855
981.700
984.470
1100
975.385
976.775
660
690 978.120 979.230
720 979.360 981.175 982.435

976.825 980.580 984.090
750 780 981.435 984.440 984.630
982.675
810 983.265 1090
982.065 870 983.005
976.060 979.430 900
840 983.475 984.055
982.580 930 960
976.215 978.945 984.950 984.445
990 985.945
983.380 1020 986.705
1050
984.955
987.350
981.450 1080
985.520
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME ALIGNMENT OF HIGHWAY
SCALE 1:100
SIGN

CROSS SECTION OF HIGHWAY
CROSS SECTION IN CUTTING PARTIALLY CUTTING AND PARTIALLY FILLING
CROSS SECTION IN FILLING

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HIGHWAY
DATUM-960.000
981.990
981.800
965.625
981.770
965.620
FORMATION
981.810
981.760
965.625
965.745 965.735 965.720 965.710 965.705 965.610 965.740 965.665 965.660 965.650 965.635 965.610 965.605 966.750 967.890 969.025 970.165 971.310 972.450 973.595 974.735 975.870 977.015 978.120 979.360 980.720 981.435 981.475 981.505 981.545 981.585 981.615 981.650 981.695 981.725 981.840 981.870 981.955 981.990
LEVEL
DEPTH OF
2.67
5.60
CUTTING 4.00 2.87 1.07 1.43 0.59 1.17 1.46 1.89 2.44 3.30 4.25 4.25 2.66 1.49 0.38 0.58
DEPTH OF
0.48
0.56
0.70
1.92
0.100 0.70 0.77 0.83 0.85 0.74 0.59 0.60 0.39 0.80 1.14 1.30 1.26 1.05 1.16 1.02 0.60 0.49 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 1.05 0.42
FILLING
REDUCED
987.351
984.471
980.071
965.145
965.065
964.920
970.255 968.94 969.32 968.605 966.790 966.92 966.88 966.75 965.01 965.215 965.950 966.750 967.725 968.905 970.260 971.290 972.575 974.135 975.380 976.776 978.121 979.361 980.581 981.436 982.060 982.676 983.006 983.476 984.056 984.951 985.946 986.706 984.441 983.331 982.251 980.871 982.536 981.511
LEVEL(M) 969.745 969.600 968.15
1210
1080
1100
CHAINAGE 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 340 350 360 390
420 450 480 510 540 570 600 630 660 690 720 750 780 810 840 870 900 930 960 990 1020 1050 1090 1140 1170 1200 1240 1270
BATCH NO B9
PROJECT NAME LONGITUDINAL SECTION

OF HIGHWAY
SCALE 1:100
SIGN

TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD
ROAD IN BANKING
ROAD IN CUTTING
2018 Old Tank Project
MELUKOTE
B-9
OLD TANK PROJECT 2018
CONTENTS
1. INRODUCTION
2. DESIGN
3. EARTH WORK ESTIMATION
4. DRAWINGS

1.INTRODUCTION
In the restoration project as the name itself suggests the basic aim is to store the basic
capacity of the tank to its original capacity of decreased due to silting and other weathering
actions.
All rivers may carry certain amount of sediments (sediment load), which is produced due
to erosion in their catchment area. The amount of sediment in a reservoir depends on the
extent of erosion in its catchment area, which depends on the following factors.
 Nature of soil in the catchment area
 Topography of the catchment area
 Vegetal cover
 Intensity of rainfall
The nature of soil in the catchment area is an important factor affecting silting. If the
soil in the catchment area of river is loose and easily erodible, the rivers will begin to carry
larger amount of sediment on the other hand catchments which is hard will not erode
easily.
Further steep slope of the catchments give rise to high flow velocities causing more
erosion of the soil. As such catchments having steep slope will bring more sediment.
Similarly the catchments area having no vegetal covers will be more easily eroded
and hence rivers having such catchment area will carry more sediment on the other hand
and the catchments area having thick vegetal covers will produce less sediment. Again
higher the intensity of rainfall in the catchment area, greater the velocity and more erosion
resulting in more collection of sediments.
Sediment Load
The sediment load carried may be divided to the following two types :
 Bed load

 Suspended load
Hence a restoration project includes a detailed report of existing feature and it also
includes a reconnaissance of the area that are living to be irrigated after restoring and area
possible submergence.
Though there are various alternatives for restoring the tank capacity to its original the
simplest method that is all our approved is the method of dredging. The method of
dredging involves the removal of sediment either by excavation (or) its range usage that if
other reason it becomes necessary to construct a new tank.
At Seethi village the old existing tank is located on the way to Madekiri. The tank is
incapable of supplying water for efficient irrigation hence it is proposed to enhance its
efficient capacity. Thus the project also involves the estimation of earth work required.
The method selected for computation of the area depends upon the shape of the tract
and accuracy required. The areas of figures like triangles, rectangles etc. Can be
determined from the dimensions given in the plan. If the boundaries are irregular, these are
replaced by short straight boundaries and the area is determined using appropriate
methods. These areas of irregular shapes can be determined by the means of a planimeter.
The planimeter is also commonly used to check the areas computed by other methods.
Units
In S.I. units’ area is measured in square meters, hectares or square kilometers.
1 hectare = 104 m2
1 sq km = 106 m2 = 100 hectare
Methods used for computation of areas
 Triangle method
 Mid-ordinate rule
 Average-ordinate rule
 Trapezoidal rule
 Simpson’s rule

 Meridian distance method

 Double parallel distance method
 Coordinates method
 Approximate methods
Trapezoidal Rule
In this method, the tract is divided into a number of trapezoids and the area of each
trapezoid is determined separately.
The area is calculated as follows:
A=(o1+o2)/2d+(o2+o3)/2d+(o3+o4)/2d+-------------
or in general,
A=d[(o1+on+1)/2+o2+o3+-----+on]
Where,
d = common distance = L/n
L = length of the base
n = number of segments
Therefore, in trapezoidal rule, the area is equal to the product of the common distance‘d’
with the sum of the intermediate ordinates and the average of two end ordinates.
Alternatively,
2A= d[o1+o n+1 +2(o1+o2+--------+on)]
Thus twice the area is equal to the product of the common distance ‘d’ with the sum of the
end ordinates and twice the intermediate ordinates. While using the trapezoidal rule, the
end ordinates must be considered even if they happen to zero. The trapezoidal rule is more
accurate than mid-ordinate rule and the average-ordinate rule.

Simpson’s Rule
Simpson’s rule may be stated as follows
“To the sum of the first and last ordinates, add four times the sum of even ordinates and
twice the sum of odd the ordinates and multiply the total sum by one-third the common
distance d to get the total area”.
It may be noted that the rule is applicable only when there are odd number of offsets. If
the offsets are even in number, the Simpson rule can be applied to determine the area up to
the last but one segment. The area of the last segment is determined separately and added
to the area obtained by the Simpson’s rule to calculate the total area.
Computation of Volumes
The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in

the field is required in the design and planning of many engineering works. The volume of
earthwork is required for the selection of a suitable alignment for a road, a canal or a
sewer. The volume of earthwork is also required for the preparation of the estimates and
for the payment of materials.
The computation of the volume of water stored in a reservoir is required for its
design, planning and management. It is also required for estimation of the capacity of the
tanks, bins etc.
The direct computation of the volume from the measurements of length, width and
depth is not feasible for large, engineering works. The computation of the volume of
earthwork is generally done after computing the areas of various cross-sections.
Sometimes, spot levels of the ground are taken to estimate the volume of earthwork. For
the estimation of the volume of water in a reservoir, the contour map is generally used.
Computation of Area of Cross-section
For estimation of the volume of earthwork, cross-sections are taken at right angles
to a centreline, which runs longitudinally through the earthwork. The volume of earthwork

between successive sections is determined from the areas of various cross-sections.The

basic problem in the computation of the volume of earthwork is therefore to determine the
cross-section areas. The method of computation of cross-sections will depend upon the
type of cross-sections.
The following five types of cross-sections generally occur in practice.
 Level section
 Two level section
 Side hill two level section

 Three level section
 Multilevel section
Two Level Sections in Filling
Figure shows a two level section in filling. It can be shown that the expressions for
areas developed for two level sections in cutting are also applicable to the two level
sections in filling.
However, in this case,
W1 = (b/2+nh)m/(m + n), w2 = (b/2+nh)m/(m + n)
h1 = h-w1/m and h2 = h+w2/m
2 1.5
1

Prismoidal Formula
The volume V of a prismoid is given by,
V = D/6(A1 + 4Am + A2)
Where,
A1, A2 are the end areas
Am is the area of the section situated mid way
D is the distance between the sections
The above equation can be applied to determine the volume of earthwork. Treating
alternate sections as end sections and taking the length of each prismoid as 2D, the total
volume is given by,
V = V
= 2D/6 (A1+ 4A2 + A3) + 2D/6 (A3 + 4A4 )
V = D/3[(A1 + An) + (A2 +A4 + ---------) + 2 (A3 + A5 + ----)]
This formula is applicable only when the number of sections ‘n’ is an odd number. When
‘n’ is even number, the volume up to (n-1) sections should be determined. The last section
may be determined separately by trapezoidal formula.

2. DESIGN
DESINGOFDISCHARGE&EARHHWORK:
SL CONTOUR AREA MEAN COUNTER VOLUME

NO RL (m2) AREA INTERVAL IN m^3
1 945.960 11448.94 12237.153 1.195 14623.397
2 947.155 13025.366 14021.09 1.195 16755.203
3 948.350 15016.81 16295.62 1.195 19473.27
4 949.545 17574.41 18883.69 1.195 22566.01
5 950.740 20192.95 ∑V= 73417.88m3
Mean Average Demand = 6118.156 m^3/month
PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE DIS-CHARGE:

Assuming 30% field losses and 30% conveyance losses, the amount of water to be
discharged at the reservoir site is given by,
Q = CU/{( 1- field losses) x ( 1- conveyance losses)}.
Q = CU/ {( 1-0.3) x ( 1-0.3)}.
= 2.04  2 x CU .
Therefore,
Q = 2 x CU.
VOLUME = Area x Q.
PATTERN OF CROPS
KHARIF SEASON: SOWING : JUNE – JULY.

HARVESTING : OCT- NOV.

TYPE OF BASE PERIOD CONSUMPTIV DISCHARGE IN

CROP IN DAYS E USE IN cm. cm3.
PADDY 120 72.0 144
GROUNDNUT 130 39.0 78
CALCULATIONS OF AREA:
PADDY: 4 Months
Volume for 4 Months = Area of paddy x Q
Ap = V/Q
= (6118.156x 4) / ( 2 x 0.72)
Ap =16994.88m2.
GROUNDNUT: 4.3 Months

Volume for 4.3 Months = Area of groundnut x Q
AG = V/Q
= (6118.156x 4.3) / ( 2 x 0.39)
AG = 33728.296m2.
RABI SEASON: SOWING : OCT – NOV

HARVESTING : MARCH – APRIL
TYPE OF CROP BASE CONSUMPTI DISCHARGE IN

PERIOD IN VE USE IN cm3.
DAYS cm.
WHEAT 150 29 58
WHEAT: 5 Months.
Aw = V/Q
= (6118.156*5) / ( 2 x 0.29)

Aw = 52742.72m2.
PERRENIAL CROP: SOWING : FEB – MARCH

HARVESTING : DEC – MARCH
TYPE OF BASE PERIOD CONSUMPTIV DISCHARGE

CROP IN DAYS E USE IN cm. IN cm3.
SUGARCANE 300 125 250
SUGARCANE: 10 Months.
As = V/Q.
= (6118.156*10) / ( 2 x 1.250)
`
=24472.624m2
Total Cultivable Area=127938.51 m2

3. EARTH WORK CALCULATION
EARTH WORK CALCULATIONS (Existing Bund)
Total quantity of soil = Existing Bund: 28439.467 m3

= 8151.821 m3
EARTH WORK CALCULATIONS (Restored Bund)
Total quantity of soil=Restored Bund: 36591.288 m3
Total quantity of soil=Restored Bund-Existing Bund
= 36591.288-28439.467
= 8151.821 m3

EARTHWORK CALCULATION OF OTP (EXISTING TANK)
DISTANCE(M) RL OF GROUND RL OF FORMATION TOP WIDTH((a) BOTTOM WIDTH (b) HEIGHT(h) CENTRAL AREA SIDE AREA TOTAL AREA MEAN AREA LENGTH VOLUME (m3) TOTAL VOLUME
0 949.375 950.075 4.8 7.7 0.7 3.36 1.015 4.375
30 949.300 950.100 4.8 6.4 0.8 3.84 0.640 4.480 4.428 30 132.825
60 946.295 950.745 8 18.2 4.5 35.60 22.695 58.295 31.388 30 941.625
90 945.480 950.530 8 22.6 5.0 40.40 36.865 77.265 67.780 30 2033.400
120 945.245 950.295 8 23.2 5.0 40.40 38.380 78.780 78.022 30 2340.675
150 943.765 950.065 8 24.1 6.3 50.40 50.715 101.115 89.948 30 2698.425

180 944.540 950.140 8 22.9 5.6 44.80 41.720 86.520 93.818 30 2814.525 28439.467
210 945.790 950.240 8 20.6 4.5 35.60 28.035 63.635 75.078 30 2252.325

240 945.335 950.235 8 20.6 4.9 39.20 30.870 70.070 66.853 30 2005.575
270 945.100 950.150 8 21.7 5.0 40.40 34.592 74.992 72.531 30 2175.937
300 944.635 950.135 8 21.1 5.5 44.00 36.025 80.025 77.509 30 2325.262
330 945.870 949.920 8 20.6 4.0 32.40 25.515 57.915 68.970 30 2069.100
360 945.305 949.805 8 21.2 4.5 36.00 29.700 65.700 61.807 30 1854.225
380 946.635 949.835 8 20.7 3.2 25.60 20.320 45.920 55.810 20 1116.200
400 946.090 949.790 8 20.2 3.7 29.60 22.570 52.170 49.045 20 980.900
420 946.140 949.440 8 16.2 3.3 26.40 13.530 39.930 46.050 20 921.000
TOTAL 28439.467
Page 12
EARTHWORK CALCULATION OF OTP (RESTORATION TANK)
DISTANCE(M) RL OF GROUND RL OF FORMATION TOP WIDTH((a) BOTTOM WIDTH (b) HEIGHT(h) CENTRAL AREA SIDE AREA TOTAL AREA MEAN AREA LENGTH VOLUME (m3) TOTAL VOLUME
0 949.375 951.094 4.8 11 1.70 8.16 5.27 13.43
30 949.300 951.094 4.8 8.5 1.80 8.64 3.33 11.97 12.700 30 381.000
60 946.295 951.094 8 20.6 5.50 44.00 34.65 78.65 45.310 30 1359.300
90 945.480 951.094 8 26.4 6.30 50.40 57.96 108.36 93.505 30 2805.150
120 945.245 951.094 8 26.5 6.20 49.60 57.35 106.95 107.655 30 3229.650

150 943.765 951.094 8 27 7.50 60.00 71.25 131.25 119.100 30 3573.000
180 944.540 951.094 8 25.4 6.50 52.00 56.55 108.55 119.900 30 3597.000
210 945.790 951.094 8 23.5 5.50 44.00 42.625 86.63 97.588 30 2927.625 36591.288

240 945.335 951.094 8 23.4 6.10 48.80 46.97 95.77 91.198 30 2735.925
270 945.100 951.094 8 24 5.80 46.40 46.4 92.80 94.285 30 2828.550
300 944.635 951.094 8 23.6 6.40 51.20 49.92 101.12 96.960 30 2908.800
330 945.870 951.094 8 23.9 5.20 41.60 41.34 82.94 92.030 30 2760.900
360 945.305 951.094 8 24.3 5.65 45.20 46.0475 91.25 87.094 30 2612.813
380 946.635 951.094 8 27.3 4.90 39.20 47.285 86.49 88.866 20 1777.325
400 946.090 951.094 8 24.4 4.95 39.60 40.59 80.19 83.338 20 1666.750
420 946.140 951.094 8 19.2 4.60 36.80 25.76 62.56 71.375 20 1427.500
TOTAL 36591.288
Page 13
CHAINAGE
DATUM 940.000
REDUCED LEVEL
DEPTH OF FILLING
FORMATION LEVEL
DEPTH OF CUTTING
1.019 951.094 950.075 0
0.994 951.094 950.100 30
0.349 951.094 950.745 60
0.564 951.094 950.530 90
0.799 951.094 950.295 120
1.029 951.094 950.065 150
0.954 951.094 950.140 180
0.854 951.094 950.240 210
0.859 951.094 950.235 240
0.944 951.094 950.150 270
0.959 951.094 950.135 300
1.174 951.094 949.920 330
1.289 951.094 949.805 360
1.259 951.094 949.835 380
1.304
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
951.094 949.790 400
1.654
951.094 949.440 420
SIGN
SCALE
BATCH NO
PROJECT NAME
B9
1:100
OTP

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF
MASTER CONTOUR
948.350
95
94
5.9
0.
60
74
45
0
9.5
94
947
.155
D/S U/S
4,8
1H 1H
0.5V 1V
5,16
4,16
20,28
2018 Public Health
Engineering
MELUKOTE
B-9
PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING 2018
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY PROJECT
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVES
3. CALCULATION OF WATER DEMAND
4. UNITS OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
5. DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
6. DESIGN OF OVERHEAD STORAGE TANK
7. FLOW DIAGRAM OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
8. UNITS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
9. DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
10. FLOW DIAGRAM OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION:
Next to air the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. The use of
water by man, plants and animals is universal. As a matter of fact every being will require
water for its survival. The water plays an important role in the manufacture of essential
commodities, generation of electric power, transportation, recreation, industrial activity etc.
Thus the water can be considered as the most important raw material of the civilization because
of the fact that without water, man cannot live and industries cannot survive. With our growing
population and industrial development the demand of water is also increasing day by day and
every country has to take preventive measure to avoid careless pollution and contamination of
the available water resources. In order to ensure these services for all time to come it becomes
necessary to maintain conserve and use these resources carefully. It is therefore essential to
increase available water resources and their quality by taking remedial measures.
It has been estimated that two thirds of human body constitutes of water. Therefore in
order to ensure sufficient quantity and quality of water it becomes imperative in modern society
to protect the useful supply by launching the appropriate water supply scheme.
Necessity
In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality water, it
becomes almost imperative in a modern society, to plan and build suitable water supply
schemes, which may provide potable water to the various sections of community in accordance
with their demands and requirements. The provision of such a scheme shall ensure constant and
reliable water supply to that section of the people for which it has been designed. Such a
scheme shall not only help in supplying safe wholesome water to the people for drinking,
cooking, bathing, washing etc. So as to keep the diseases away and thereby promoting better
health; but would also help in supplying water for fountains, gardens, etc. and thus helping tin
maintaining better sanitation and beautification of surroundings, thereby reducing
environmental pollution. Besides promoting overall hygiene and public health, it shall ensure
safety against fire by supplying sufficient quantity of water to extinguish it.

The existence of such a water supply scheme shall further help in attracting
industrialization and modernization of the society, consequently reducing unemployment and
ensuring better living standards. Such schemes shall, therefore, help in promoting wealth and
welfare of the entire humanity as a whole.
Points to be considered
In planning water supply scheme, it is essential to first of all, search a source of water in
the vicinity of the town or the city for which the scheme is to be designed. Sometimes, the
water may be available near by, and sometimes it may be far away. Further it may be an
underground well, or it may be a river, stream or a lake. It is therefore, necessary to seek out all
possible sources and evaluate each in terms of quality, quantity and cost and then to take a final
decision regarding the utilization of a particular source or sources depend upon the availability
of water in those sources and the water demand of the town or the city. Suitable systems should
then be designed for the collecting, transporting, and treating this water. The treated water is
finally distributed to the residents and industries depending upon their requirements, through a
network of distribution system. The essential elements of a public water supply scheme may,
therefore, consist of intakes and a water treatment plant having screening, sedimentation,
filtration, disinfection units, etc., elevated tanks and stand pipes which provide storage to meet
peak demands occurring for limited periods; valves which control the flow of water in the pipe
system; hydrants which provide a connection with the water in the mains for fighting fires,
flushing streets, etc., mains, sub-mains and branch lines which carry the water to the streets;
services which carry the water to the individual homes, etc. all these essentials and components
of a water supply scheme are described in details in the subsequent chapters of this volume.
Factors to be considered for a water supply scheme are listed below.
POPULATION:-
Present population data has to be collected from census report from region and population has
to be forecasted foe the design period of 30 years by any of the following method.
 Arithmetic mean method.
 Geometric increase method.
 Decreasing rate of growth method.
 Simple graphical method.
 Comparative graphical method.
 Master plan method or zoning method.
 The ratio method.

 Logistic curve method.
PER CAPITA WATER SUPPLY: Amount of water required per person is dependent on
living standards of people in region.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY: The sources has to be studied to see whether they can
supply the requisite amount of water for future demands. An alternative source has to be found if it
cannot meet future demands.
PURIFICATION WORKS : Depending on quality of water, the purification work has to be

designed.
WATER PUMPS: Pumps are to be provided to lift water from the intake works to treatment
plant to storage reservoir side of the village. Future growth has to be considered in the design of
pumps.
STORAGE RESERVOIR: The position of the reservoir has to be determined by Conducting
all the necessary surveys. Its location in the locality.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:- Master plan of the city has to be studied to design the
layout
of the distribution system. Further growth has to be considered.
MASTER PLAN: A master plan has to be prepared to present entire water supply scheme
in its different stages with regard to source of supply purification & distribution system.
WATER SUPPLY SCHEME;

Before actual construction of water supply work is taken up, it is necessary to prepare plan and
the full schemes and also design the various component of the project. The proper planning will ensure an
economical and efficient functional scheme, which will serve the various objectives in view efficient and
with minimum expenditure and recurring operational troubles.

A water supply scheme consists of the following:

1) Works for collection of water.
2) Works for conveyance of water.
3) Works for treatment and purification of water and,
4) Works for distribution of water to the consumers.
In planning good water supply schemes a compromise between efficiency and economy
is generally decided and the schemes possessing the least defects and professional advice and
guidance is very essential for the schemes.
In the case of rural water supply schemes, Since the commutations are generally small and
poor and hence the various element of the scheme have to be necessarily simple and
comparatively cheaper requiring minimum skilled supervision and maintenance .In the case,
the sources are generally ground water leading to special problems like fluorides, Iron, Sailing
etc., One should take of all these the problems while designing.
Necessity of planned water supply:

Water is a chemical compound and may occur in a liquid form or in a solid form or
in a gaseous form .All these three form of water are extremely useful to man, providing the
luxuries and comforts, in addition to fulfilling his basic necessity of life .No life can exist
without water since water is essential for life as air. It has been estimated that two thirds of
human body is constituted of water.
From the public health point of view, it is necessary that the water required for their
need must be invariably free from all type of impurities whether suspended or dissolved in
water and no risk should occur to the health of the public as a result of any water
contamination.
A public water supply or water works system has to be both from the point of view
of providing an adequate and reliable supply of water catering to all the public need ensuring
that the supply so made are not only portable but also fully protected against every infection
which might otherwise pollute water and cause outbreak of disease.
The planned water supply scheme should not only help in supplying wholesome water
to the people for drinking cooking, bathing etc.., so as to keep disease away and there by
promoting better health but it should also help in supplying water for fountains, garden etc..,

thus helping in maintaining better sanitation and beautification of surrounding thereby reducing
environmental pollution .The schemes should therefore help in promoting wealth and welfare
of the entire humanity as a whole.
OBJECTIVES
WATER QUANTITY MANAGEMENT:

Water quantity management is important when there is an increase in population or a
population explosion. Increase in migration of people to a certain development area due to job
opportunities, quality education, religious/cultural activities, natural disasters in the
neighbouring areas, due to commercial or industrial interest or due to economic policies which
causes increase in demand for water and rapid depletion of the supplies. This increase in
demand forces to use alternate sources of water there by leading to ground water exploitation
altering the quality of the ground water and polluting the surface water also.
In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality of drinking water,
it becomes almost imperative in a modern society, to plan and build suitable water supply
schemes, which may provide potable water to the various sections of the community in
accordance with their demands and requirements. The provision for such a scheme shall ensure
a constant and a reliable water supply to that section of the people for which it has been
designed. Such a scheme shall not only help in promoting hygiene and public health, also
supplying water for fountains, gardens, etc. for beautification of the surroundings, but also shall
ensure safety against fire by supplying sufficient quantity of water to extinguish it. The
existence of such a water supply scheme shall further help in attracting industries and thereby
helping in industrialisation and modernisation of the society, consequently reducing
unemployment and ensuring better living standards.
Water quantity management consists of the following:
i. Identification of the water source.
ii. Suitability of water for drinking purpose.
iii. Reliability.
iv. Volume of water available thought the year.
v. Economics

WATER QUALITY MANAGAEMENT:

Apart from providing sufficient quantity of water to the people, its necessary to ensure that
the water provided is potable i.e., it should be free from turbidity & undesirable tastes, colours
& odours. Also other characteristics of water like pH, temperature, hardness should be within
permissible limits.
Therefore to ensure that the water is safe for consumption, we carry out water quality
management, in addition to, water quantity management.
Water quality management includes:
Carrying out physical analysis of water to determine the physical qualities of water like
turbidity, temperature etc, & ensuring that they are within the permissible limits.
Carrying out chemical analysis of water to determine the chemical qualities of water like pH,
chloride content & ensuring they are within the permissible limits.
To ensure that Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is nil.
To ensure that the water is free from pathogenic bacteria.
In addition to water quantity management & water quality management, the other objectives of
this project are:
To meet additional water demands like fire demand & to provide water for recreation.
THE DRINKING WATER QUALITY AS PER THE INDIAN

STANDARDS.
Type of Type of Permissible Absolute Remarks

characteristics impurity E limits Max.Limits
Physical 1.Turbidity 5 10 On silica
2. Colour 10 20 scale.
3. Taste and 01 On cobalt
odour 03 scale.
Threshold no.

Chemical 1. pH value 6.6 8.0

2. Hardness 75mg/ltr 110mg/lt Expressed as
r CaCo3
3. Total solids 500mg/ltr Equilate w/s.
1500 As per WHO
4. Mg & Na 500mg/ltr mg/lit international
5. Chlorides. 200mg/ltr STDs.
6. Calcium. 75mg/ltr 1000mg/l -do-
7. Iron. 0.3 mg/ltr tr -do-
8. Fluorides. - 400mg/lt -do-
r -do-
200mg/lt -do-
r
1.0mg/ltr
1.5mg/ltr
Biological & Coliform Nil 1Colifor -
micro-organic Bacteria m colony
per
100m/n
of B coli
is ltd.to
1per
100me
Radiological Emitters Nil - -
Results of Water Testing in Tabular form

TYPE OF IMPURITIES TEST RESULT
TOTAL HARDNESS 268mg/l
CALCIUM HARDNESS 80mg/l
MAGNESIUM 188mg/l

CHLORIDE 118mg/l
PH 7.55
ELECTRICAL CUNDUCTIVITY 0.732m.mhos cm-1
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS 475mg/l
WATER TREATMENT:
Water treatment consists of;
1. Intake works using pumping plan.
2. Plain sedimentation.
3. Sedimentation with coagulation.
4. Filtration.
5. Water softening plan.
6. Miscellaneous treatment plant.
7. Disinfection.
8. Clear water reservoir.
9. Pumps for pumping the water in the service reservoir.
10. Elevant or underground service reservoir.
INTAKE WORKS:
Whenever water has to be drawn from a surface it is not always possible to draw the water
directly from it becomes necessary to construct intake structures. Intake structure may be well
infiltration gallery etc. These are the temporary storage reservoir than the source from where is
pumped to the treatment plant.
OBJECTIVES:
To keep safety with drawing water from the sources over the predetermined
range of fly level & the storage water to withdrawal conducts.
The intake structure primarily consists of the following.
a) Screens.
b) Intake conduit.
c) Pumps.

TREATMENT PLANT:
The water which is taken from the source cannot be supplied directly. Before distribution the
water has to be treated properly to meet the domestic water standards.
OBJECTIVES:
 To remove dissolved gases, colour, odour of water.
 To remove unpleasant or objectionable taste from water. To kill pathogenic bacteria &
germs. To make water fit for domestic use.
 To estimate the corrosive properties of water which affect the conduits & pipes.
 The water treatment plant should be located as near as possible to the town.
 The main advantage of doing this is that water will reach every consumer with pressure
& purity. The chance of water getting contaminated will be reduced.
The treatment process directly depends as the impurities present in the water. The different
process used for removing various impurities are given below.
The following treatment water for proposed water supply scheme.
1) Screens.
2) Sedimentation with coagulation.
3) Filtration.
SCREENS:
The large size suspended & floating matters can be removed by passing water through
screens. The process of removing large matters from water by passing through screens is called
as screening.
This is the first operation carried out in the treatment plant. Following are the five types of
screens.
a) Rock or bar screens.
b) Perforated screens or cutting screens.
c) Cutting screens.
d) Head or mechanically cleared screens.
e) Fixed moving or movable head screens.

SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION:

Very fine suspended clay particles cannot be removed by plain sedimentation because they
require more detention time which is impractical. In addition to fine suspended matter, water also
contains eccentricity charged matter which is continuously in motion and never settles down due to
gravitational force .In these layers fine suspended matters are removed by sedimentation with
coagulation instead of plain sedimentation.
COAGULANT ADDING TANK:
In usual uses when a mechanical type of mixing basin in provided coagulant feeding
devices are also provided which directly to the coagulant is the mixing basin.
In the proposed project, instead of coagulant feeding device, it is proposed to provide a
coagulant adding tank. In this tank water will be retained for certain duration of time during which
the calculated amount of coagulants are added after that it will be sent to mixing basin.
FILTRATION:
The process of passing water through the beds of sands or other granular material is known as
filtration for removing bacteria, colour, taste, and odour to produce sparkling waters, filters are
used.
The two types of filters are.
a) Slow sand filters. b) Rapid sand filters.
INTAKE TO TREATMENT PLANT:

 Transmission lines provided 20cm pipe.
 Intake structure including screens provided. A pump provided to lift water from intake
point to pipe point BHP.
 Gravity flow provided from pipe point to treatment point.
TREATMENT PLANT:
Treatment units proposed.
1) Aeration tank
2) Feeding tank
3) Mixing tank

4) Floc
5) Sedimentation
6) Slow sand filter
7) Disinfection unit
8) Distribution system
SANITARY PROJECT
GENERAL: The water after consumption has to be suitably disposed off. Moreover the
other wastes from the communities are also to be carried off and disposed suitably. The sanitary
project requires careful thinking and planning and it is not as simple as water supply project. It
requires many factors to be considered before a particular line of treatment is recommended.
PURPOSE OF SANITATION: The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain an
environment, which will not affect the public in generally. It is a preventive measure for the
preservation of health of community in general and individual in particular. Thus sanitation
aims at creation of such condition of living, which will not result into serious outbreak of
epidemics.
PRINICPLES OF SANITATION:
Following are the ideal principles of sanitation which if observed results in better living
condition.
 Collection and conveyance
 Interior decoration
 Orientation of buildings
 Prevention of dampness
 Supply of water
 Treatment of waste
SANITARY PROJECT:
Following are the important points in any sanitary engineering projects.
 Population

 Financial aspect
 Present method of disposal
 Rainfall
 Quality of sewage
 Rate of sewage
 Source of sewage
 Topography of the area
 Treatment methods
IDEAL SITE FOR SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS:

The site for treatment unit of sewage of any town should be carefully selected and the
following aspects are to be considered at its time of final selection.
 Good foundation soil should be available for various sewage treatment units
 The general slope of sit should be neither too steep nor to flat so that the arrangement of
units are in such a way that the flow from one unit to other take place under gravity.
 The general level of the site should be the lowest level area of the town or city so that
the sewage from the entire city can be collected and conveyed by gravity only.
 The location of the site should be such that enough area is available nearby when in
becomes necessary in future to expand the existing project.
 The site should be safe from floods for all the time.
 The site should be situated on levered side of the winds that the undesirable odours
would be prevented from entering the city or town.
DESIGN AND PLANNING OF A SEWERAGE SYSTEM:

The following points should be taken into consideration while designing the sewerage system1.
 The sewerage system should be carefully planned and designed and so as to remove the
entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to the point of disposal.
 The sewer should be of adequate size so as to avoid their overflow and subsequent
damages to properties and health hazards.

 The sewer pipes should be designed on a slope that will permit reasonable velocity of
flow. This flow velocity should neither be too large as to scour the sewer pipe material
nor should be too small to cause deposition of solids in the sewer bottoms.
 In order to provide adequate and economical treatment it is necessary to study the
constituents of sewage produced thoroughly in the particular project and quality of
water that will receive the sewage.
 The sewers are generally designed to carry water from basement and should be
therefore be 2-3 meters deep. As far as possible there should be design to flow ½ or ¾
full.
METHODS OF CARRYING REFUSE:

The following are the two methods, which are employed for the collection of and disposal of
Refuse of a locality.
 Conservancy system
The dry or the conveyance system is the earlier method and even now practiced in
unsewered area. This consists in the accumulation of night soil or human excreta in latrines
or prives, cesspools, etc., and its subsequent removal manually and transportation in
vehicles to points of ultimate disposal. The wastewater from kitchen, baths, etc., called
sullage and the strong water are collected separately in gutters and lead of into neighboring
drainage channels, rivers etc., for disposal.
 Water carriage system:
In this system, the night soil gets mixed up with sufficient quantity of wastewater
forming sewage and is collected in a system of pipes and transported for subsequent
treatment and disposal in a harmless manner without any nuisance. As the dilution of
the solid matter in water to form sewage is normally very great (sewage is known to
consist as much as 99.9% by weight of water and only 0.1% of solid matter), sewage
easily flows in accordance with the loss of hydraulics as applied to the flow of water.
This system is very advantageous and universally employed in practice.
SEWERAGE SYSTEM:
The sewerage system are classified according to the purpose for which they are put in uses as,

 The combined system: In this system, the same sewer is intended to carry the domestic
sewage, industrial waste as well as the surface and the storm water flow.
 The separate system: In this system, the domestic sewage and industrial waste are carried
in one set of sewers whereas the storm and surface waters are carried in another set of
sewers.
 The partially separate system: A partially system is a modification of the separate system
in which the separate sewer discharging domestic sewage and industrial wastes also
contains a portion of the surface water drained from back paved yards and roofs of houses.
SEWAGE TREATMENT:
3 Sewage has to be treated before the disposal and as to make it safe. The degree of treatment
depends upon the quality of sewage and the characteristics of the source of disposal.
Treatment is usually classified as:
 Preliminary treatment
 Primary treatment
 Secondary or biological treatment
 Final treatment
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT: It consists solely in separating the floating material

and also the heavy settle able in organic solids. This treatment reduces the BOD of the waste by
about 15-30%; preliminary treatment includes screening, grit chamber or detritus tank and
skimming tanks.
PRIMARY TREATMENT: It consists of removing large suspended organic solids. This
is usually accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins.
SECONDARY OR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT: It involves further treatment of
the effluent from the primary treatment units. This is generally accomplished through
biological process using filtration or activated sludge process.
FINAL TREATMENT (TERTIARY TREATMENT): This is adopted particularly
to kill pathogenic bacteria. This is usually carried out while disposing sewage into the river,
which is again used by a nearby town.

WATER SUPPLY SCHEME FOR VILLAGE:- MELUKOTE

Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one
of the sacred places in Karnataka. The place is also known as Thirunarayanapuram. It is built
on rocky hills, known as Yadugiri, Yaadavagiri and Yadushailadweepa, overlooking the
Cauvery valley. Melukote is about 51 km (32 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (83 mi)
from Bangalore.
Melukote is the location of the Cheluvanarayana Swamy Temple, with a collection of crowns
and jewels which are brought to the temple for the annual celebration. On the top of the hill is
the temple of Yoganarasimha. Many more shrines and ponds are located in the town. Melukote
is home to the Academy of Sanskrit Research, which has collected thousands of manuscripts.
Early in the 12th century, the famous Srivaishnava saint Sri Ramanujacharya, who hailed
from Tamil Nadu, stayed at Melukote for about 12 years. It has thus become a prominent centre
of the Srivaishnava sect.
Melukote is a municipal town and holy center of the same name, situated at a distance of 36 km
(22 miles) north-west of Mandya, and 51 km (32 miles) north of Mysore.
According to mythological account, this place was known as Narayanadri, Vedadri, Yadavadri,
Yathishaila and Tirunarayanapura.
The name of the place is derived from the temple of Narayanaswamy which is built on the
hillock, surrounded by a fort. It is built on a granite rocky hill-range named Yadugiri, which is
3,589 feet (1,094 m) high above sea level.
View of Lord Narasimha Swamy Temple

Early in 12th century, the great Srivaishnava saint Sri Ramanuja took up his residence and lived
in this location for about 14 years. It thus became a prominent centre of the Srivaishnava sect of
Brahmins, who obtained from the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana, who had become a follower
of the Acharya, an assignment of the fertile tracts of land in the neighbourhood, especially of
the Ashta Gramas, on either bank of the Cauvery
In the 14th century, the place suffered at the hands of Muslim invaders, and it was at Tondanur
(Tonnur) at the southern foot of the hills, where the Hoysala king retired. It was subsequently
restored, in about 1460, by Thimmanna Dannayaka, a chief of Nagamangala, who was an army
commander of the Vijayanagar king Mallikarjuna or Immadi Prudhadeva Raya.
DETAILS OF SURVEY UNDERTAKEN:

RECONNAISSANCE:-
The site is selected from the treatment plant & details are collected at the site. Surveying is then
conducted along the proposed pipeline.
The following surveys are conducted
a) Village traversing.
b) Longitudinal section from source to the treatment plant and from treatment plant to the over
head tank(OHT) or reservoir
c) Longitudinal section along the left and right side of the roads in the entire village
d) Block level at water treatment plant and waste water treatment plant.
VILLAGE TRAVERSING:- To obtain information layout of village, population, no-of

houses and existing water supply schemes.
EQUIPMENTS:-
a) Plane table & accessories.
b) Level with stand & staff.
c) Measuring tape.
d) Ranging rods.

PROCEDURE:- A map of the village is to be obtained using plane table methods and
various details regarding existing distribution system , layouts of loads, houses , temples, etc are
measured on plane table sheet.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION ALONG PROPOSED PIPELINE:

Levelling is carried out along the proposed pipeline from Reservoir to treatment plant
and from treatment plant to the distribution reservoir site. Levelling is started from an established
bench marks. Levels are taken at every 30m intervals along the proposed pipe line.
BLOCK LEVELS AT TREATMENT SITE FOR TREATMENT PLANT:

Selection of site for treatment plant unit for optimum & economical utilization of resources is
important. Hence block levels are carried out to be known elevation & depressions in the area.
Block levels are taken in 50x100mand 45x45m grids at 5m intervals. Contours are drawn at an
interval of 0.5m in the grid by interpolation.
ESTIMATION OF POPULATION
The future population of the town is to be estimated using the population forecasting methods:-
1. Arithmethitic increase method
2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental Increase Method
YEAR POPULATION INCREASE

PER DECADE
1991 2100
2001 2700 600
2011 3500 800
X= (600+800)/2 =700
ARITHMATIC INCREASE METHOD:

ESTIMATED POPULATION IN 2021 = 4200
ESTIMATED POPULATION IN 2031 = 4900

Hence the population is assumed to be 5220
CALCULATION OF WATER DEMAND:

PER CAPTIA DEMAND:
It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the
domestic use, Industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts etc.., It may be therefore
expressed as Litres per capita per day (LPCD).
 Domestic demand=135 lt/day/person
 Total domestic demand= 135*5220 = 704700 lt/day.
 Parks = 3.5 lt/m2/day
Assuming the total park area in Melukote to be 200 m2.
Total water demand for parks = 200*3.5 = 700 lt/day.
 Schools and colleges = 45 lpcd

Number of schools and colleges = 5 ,
Having 200 students
each(assumed).
Total water demand for schools and colleges = 45*5*200 = 45000 lt/day
 Hospitals ( <100 beds) = 340 lpcd
Number of hospitals in Melkote = 1
Total water demand for hospital = 30000lt/day(approx.)
 Restaurants = 70 lpcd
Number of restaurants = 15 (assumed)
Total water demand for restaurants = 30000 lt/day (approx.)
 Livestock:-
Cows = 68.25 lpcd
Goats = 13.6 lpcd
Total livestock demand = 2000 lt/day (approx).
 Commercial establishments = 45 lpcd

Number of commercial establishments = 30

Total water demand for commercial estd. = 40000 lt/day (approx)
 Mattas = 80 lpcd
Number of mattas = 20 with capacity of 30 persons
Total water demand for mattas = 20*30*80
=48000 lt/day
Therefore the TOTAL WATER DEMAND = 900400 lt/day = 0.9MLD
COMPONENTS OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

INTAKE WELL AND SCREEN:
The intake well is a circular or rectangular well with circular ends located in a river
bed, so that it always remains surrounded with water, even during low flood stage. The well is
built in masonry or concrete, and is raised above the river HFL and covered at the top by
wooden sleepers etc; as to make it approachable from the river bank through a foot bridge
arrangement.
Screens are generally provided in front of the intake works, so as to exclude the large
sized particles. Screens are normally inclined at about 45° - 60° to the horizontal, so as to
increase the opening area to reduce the flow velocity.
PRE-SEDIMENTATION TANK:
In order to remove the large sized and rapidly settable solids to reduce turbidity, it is
proposed to construct a pre-sedimentation tank and raw water storage.
COMBINED COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK (SST):

It shall be constructed to allow formation of flocs and settlement of particles. The fine
colloidal particles present in water, gets attracted and absorbed in these flocs, forming the
bigger sized flocculated particles.
RAPID GRAVITY FILTER:

Filter units shall be constructed to filter the regimented water, as usual, with provision
of wash water tank. Rapid Gravity Filter are the best and most economical and, therefore
invariably used for treating public supplies, especially for large towns and city. The treated
water is not so much safe as obtained from slow sand filter and need further treatment before
they can be supplied to the public.
CHLORINATOR:
Considering the remote area and difficulty in transporting and storing the chlorine gas
cylinders, it has been decided to use bleaching powder for disinfection by providing gravity
type of chlorinator. Bleaching powder mixed clear water will be fed by gravity into clear water
tank where contact period shall be more than half hour, which is the acceptable limit.
CASCADE TYPE AERATOR:
Since the raw water does not contain too much colour and odour, only nominal aeration
is proposed. This unit will help in maintaining the wanted oxygen levels in water , remove
dissolved iron , manganese, CO2 and H2S gases as well as colour and taste caused by volatile
oils etc.
DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT:

CALCULATIONS:
Lowest R.L of the water at intake structure = 949.170m
Avg. G.L at intake structure = 951.170m
Pump is mounted 1m above ground level.
Avg. water demand = 0.9 MLD
Pumping is done for 8 hours a day.
Design of raising main:
Q = (0.9*1010)/(1000*8*60*60)
= 0.312m3/sec

Using Lea’s formula for most economical diameter

D = 0.97 Q1/2 to 1.22 Q1/2
Peak discharge = 1.5*Q = 1.5*0.312 = 0.468 m3/sec
D = 1.22*0.4681/2
= 0.834 m
Assume dia of pipe (raising main) = d =30cm
.’. Area of pipe = 0.07069 m2
.’. Velocity = Q/A = 0.312/0.07069 = 4.41 m/sec
Design of the pump to pump water from the intake structure to the raw water storage tank,
H = Hs + H D + H f
Hf = 4flv2/2gd
= (4*0.0075*50*4.412)/(2*9.81*0.25) = 5.947m
.’. Hf= 5.947m
BRAKE HORSE POWER (BHP),

BHP = √w*Q*H/η*0.735
= 9.81*0.312*(5.947*1.05)/(0.67*0.735) = 38.81HP
DESIGN OF INLET WELL:
Providing an oblong shaped inlet well, with openings provided at 3 levels.
The openings shall be fitted with bar screens made of 20mm dia steel bars of 50mm openings.
Let the velocity through the bar screens be limited to 0.16m/s.
The area of openings required at each level = Q/v
= 0.312/0.16
= 1.95 m2
Let us provide 3m height of screen openings; then the clear length of the openings required =
1.95/3=0.65m
No. of openings required = 1.95/0.05 = 39 nos.
No. of bars=39
Length occupied by 20mm dia bars = 27*0.02= 0.54m
Total length of screen =0.442*0.54 =0.24≈ 0.25m
Design of intake pipe to jack well.
Therefore, Q=0.312cumec

V=0.16m/sec
Area of pipe = Q/V=0.312/0.16=1.95 m2
Therefore, d = sqrt(4*1.95/π)=1.575m
DESIGN OF RAW WATER STORAGE TANK:

The tank is designed to have a holding capacity of one day.
Volume of water to be treated per day = 900 m3/day
.’. Capacity of tank = Vol. of water to be retained for one day = 900*1 = 900m3/day
Assuming water depth to be 7.5m, we have,
Area A = 900/7.5 = 120 m2
.’.Dia of tank = sqrt(4*A/π) = 12.36m ≈ 13m
Assuming dia of outflow pipe = 50cms = 0.5m
Discharge per day = 900/(24*60*60) = 0.0104 m3/sec
.’. Velocity of flow in pipe = Q/A = 0.0104/(π*0.5*0.5/4)
= 0.053 m/sec
Now, V = sqrt(2gH) where, V = Velocity of flow in pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
H = Height of water in tank
.’. H = V2/(2*g) = 0.0532/(2*9.81) = 1.43*10-4 = 0.143mm, which is the minimum height
required in the tank to produce a velocity of 0.053m/sec in the pipe.
A regulator is provided in the pipe along with a pressure gauge in order to maintain the same
velocity in case of variations in the height of water in the tank.
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:

Q = 900400 liters/day
= 900400/(1000*24*60*60) = 0.0104 m3/sec
Detention period is assumed to be 3hrs.
Quantity of water treated per day = 900 m3
Assume height of tank as 4.5m
.’. volume of tank = D2((0.011D)+(0.785H))
900*3/24 = D2((0.011D)+(0.785*4.5))
D = 5.59 ≈ 5.6m
.’. Surface area (As) of tank = 165m2

Surface loading = 0.0140/As = 0.0104/165 = 6.3x10-5 m/sec
Vo = 6.3x10-5 m/sec = Vh
Settling velocity is given by,
Vs = Depth/detention time = 4.5/(3*60*60) = 4.1667x10-4 m/sec.
Weir loading rate = 900/(π*D)
= 900/(π*14.5) = 19.75 m3/m.day
Width of inlet zone = 20% of diameter
Width of settling zone = (5.6-2.9)/2 = 1.35m
COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION PLANT:

Coagulant added is Alum.
Given pH=8
The coagulant added: ALUM
Alkalinity of water is 4.5mg/lit of CaCO3 (nat)
# Quantity of water treated =0.9 MLD
# Quantity of filter ALUM required at 20 mg/lit= 20 x0. 9 x 106 mg/day
=20 x 0.9 =18 kg/day
Thus the following chemical reaction will take place:
Al2 (SO4)3.18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)22AL (OH) 3+3CaSO4+18H20+6CO2
 CaCO3+H2O+CO2Ca(HCO3)2
 CaCO3CaO+CO2
The molecular weight shall be:

AL2(SO4)3.18H20={(2x27)+3x(32+(16x4))+18x((1x2)+16)}=666gm
Ca(HCO3)2=40+(1+12+48)x2=162gm
CaO=40+16=56gm
It is clear that from the above equations 3x100parts of CaO3 will produce the same alkalinity as
that off 660mg of ALUM

Quantity of CaCO3 required producing the same alkalinity which is equal to 20mg/litre
=> (3x100x20)/666=9.01mg/lit
The natural alkalinity available in CaCO3 =4.5mg/lit
Additional alkaline required to be added to form the lime=40.5mg/lit of CaCO3
Thus the above equation clearly states that 40 parts of CaCO3 produce by 56 parts of CaO.
Therefore CaO required = (4.5 x 56)/100 = 2.52 mg/lit
But Quick lime required =(2.52 x 100)/80 = 3.156 mg/lit
The quantity of lime required for treatment = 0.9 x 106 x 3.156 mg/day
= 2.84 kg/day
And, from above result,
The quantity of alum = kg/day
Or, alum = 18/(24 x 3600) = 0.0002 kg/sec.
This coagulant is dispensed using a dry feeding device. These are in the form of a tank with a
hopper bottom. Agitating plates are placed inside the tank so as to prevent the arching the
coagulant. The coagulant is in the powdered form and is allowed to fall in the mixing basin. Its
dose is regulated by the speed of a toothed wheel or a helical screw. The speed of the toothed
wheel or the helical screw is controlled by connecting it to a venturi device installed in the raw
water pipes bringing the water to the mixing basin.
Mixing the coagulant in a mixing basin with baffle walls.

Design:
Assume Velocity of flow = 0.3 m/sec
Detention time = 30min.
Volume of water to be treated per day = 900 m3/day
.’. Volume of water required to be treated in 30min = Capacity of tank = 900*30/(24*60)
= 18.75 m3
Length of flow = velocity*Detention period
= 0.3*30*60 = 540m
The required c/s between each baffle is assumed to be 0.5m.
.’. Depth of water in the basin = 0.24/0.5 = 0.48 ≈ 0.5m
The clear opening between end of each baffle is kept equal to 1.5 times the distance between
baffles = 1.5*0.5 = 0.75m

Assume clear with of clear compartment as 9m.

Effective length of each channel = clear width of each compartment – (2*0.5 of clear opening)
= 9 – (0.5*2*0.75)
= 8.25m
.’. No. of channels = Total flow length/eff. Flow length of each channel
= 540/8.25 = 65.45 ≈ 66
.’. The total no. of channels =66 ; and 66/2 = 33 in each half.
Clear length of tank excluding baffle walls and side walls = No. of channels x distance b/w
baffles
= 33*0.5 =16.5m
Assume thickness of baffle = 7.5cm
.’. Overall inside length of tank = 16.5 + ( (7.5/100) x no. of baffles)
= 16.5 + ( (7.5/100) x (33-1))
= 18.9m ≈ 19m.
SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION TANK:

Average daily consumption = Volume of water treated per day =900 m3
Assume detention period of 4hrs.
Quantity of water to be treated = 900*4/24 = 150m3
.’. Capacity of tank = 150 m3
Assuming depth of water in tank = 4m , we have,
Plan area = Breadth* length= capacity/depth
= 150/4 = 37.5m3
Take Breadth = 9m
.’. Length = 37.5/9 = 4.16m ≈ 5m
Settling tank dimension = 5x9x4=180m3
Providing an extra depth of 0.5m at the starting tank, I.e.; a depth of 4.5 at the start and
providing a slope of 1in30 along the length.
We get 4.5 + 5/5 = 5.5m, at the end.

DESIGN OF FLOCCULATION CHAMBER:

The flocculation chamber 4.5 is provided at the entry and its depth is assumed to be half the
depth of the tank at the start ,i.e, near flocculation chamber.
i.e, 4.5/2 = 2.25m = depth of flocculation tank.
The period of flocculation chamber = (900/24)*(5/10) = 18.75m3 ≈ 19m3
Area or plan of flocculation tank = capacity of tank/ tank depth
= 19/2.25 = 8.44≈ 8.5m2
.’. Breadth is same as that of settling tank =9m
Length*Breadth = 8.5
.’. Length = 8.5/9 = 0.94 ≈ 1m
.
FILTRATION BY RAPID GRAVITY FILTERS:
Water required per day = 0.9 MLD
Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter, every day, we have,
Total filtered water required per day = 1.04*0.9
= 0.936 ML/day
Now, assuming that 0.5hrs is lost every day in washing the filter, we have,
Filtered water required per hour = 0.27 ML/hr.
Assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000litres/hr/sq. m, we have,
The area of filter required = 0.27*106/5000
= 54 m2
Now, assuming the length of the filter bed(L) as 1.5 times the width of the filter bed(B), and
two beds, the total area provided is,
2*(L * B) = 54
2*(1.5B)*(B) = 54
.’. B = 4.24 m ≈ 4.3m
L = 1.5B = 1.5*4.24 = 6.36 m ≈ 6.4m
Hence, adopt 2 filter units, each of dimensions = 6.4 x 4.3
Now, let a manifold and lateral system be provided below the filter bed, for receiving the
filtered water and to allow back washing for cleaning the filter. This consists of central
manifold pipe with laterals having perforations at the bottom.

.’. Total area of perforations = 0.2% * filter area

= (0.2/100)*(6.4*4.3) m2 = 0.055 m2
Assuming the area of each lateral = 2 times the area of perforations
Total area of laterals = 2*Total area of perforations
= 2*0.055 m2 = 0.11 m2
Assuming the area of manifold to be about twice the area of laterals,
The area of manifold = 2*0.11 = 0.22 m2
.’. Dia of manifold (d) is given by,
π/4*d2 = 0.22
.’. d = 0.53m
Hence, use a 53 cm dia manifold pipe laid lengthwise along the centre of the filter bottom.
Laterals running perpendicular to manifold (width wise) emanating from the manifold may be
laid at a spacing of say 15cm. The number of laterals is then given as,
= 6.4/0.15 = 42.67 say 43
On the either side of manifold. Hence use 86 laterals in all, in each unit.
Now, length of each lateral = (width of filter/2) – (Dia of manifold/2)
= (4.3/2) – (0.53/2)
= 1.885 m
Now, adopting 13mm dia perforations in the laterals, we have,
Total area of perforations = 0.055
= 550 cm2 = x*(π/4)*(1.3)2
Where x = Total no. of perforations in all 86 laterals.
.’. x = 550*(π/4)*(1/1.3) = 332.28 say 333
.’. No. of perforations in each lateral = 333/86 = 3.9; say 4.
.’. area of perforations per lateral = 4*((π/4)*(1.3)2) cm2 = 5.30 cm2 .
Now, area of each lateral = 2*Area of perforations per lateral
= 2*5.30 = 10.6cm2
.’. Dia of each lateral = sqrt(10.6*(π/4))
= 3.67cm ; say 3.7cm
Hence, use 86 laterals each of 3.7cm dia, @ 15cm c/c, each having 4 perforations of 13mm
size, with 53cm dia manifold.

DISINFECTION PROCESS:
CHLORINATION:
Chlorine in its various forms is invariably and most universally used for disinfecting public
water supplies. It is cheap, reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable, and above all, it is
capable of providing residual disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording complete
protection against future recontamination of water in the distribution system.
Since, Bleaching powder is a cheap disinfectant and contains 30% of available chlorine; it can
be used in the disinfection process.
Amount of annual requirement of bleaching powder is,
Avg. annual water demand = 0.9 MLD
Assume 0.3ppm of chlorine dose is required for disinfection.
.’. Amount of chlorine required daily = 1mg/ l x 0.9 x 106 lt.
= 0.9x 106 mg = 0.9Kg
Since the chlorine content in bleaching powder is 30%, it means that 30Kg of chlorine is
contained in 100Kg of bleaching powder.
.’. Amount of bleaching powder required daily = (0.9*100)/30 = 3 kg
.’. Annual consumption of bleaching powder = 3*365 = 1095 Kg
= 1.095tonnes.
DESIGN OF CASCADE AERATOR:

Water requirement = 0.9 MLD
Q= 0.9*106/ (24*60*60*1000)
=0.0104 cumecs
Width of weir proposed= 3.0m
For broad crested weir, Q=1.65*B*H1.5
 H = (Q/1.65*B)2/3
= (0.0679/1.65*3)2/3
=0.057m ≈ 6cm
Provide 3 steps of 0.3m.
Design of tank to store clean water:
Quantity of water to be stored per day = 0.9 MLD

Quantity of water to be stored for 1.5 days as a safety factor

= 0.9*1.5 = 1.35 MLD
.’. The capacity of the tank = 1350 m3
Assume depth of tank H = 3m
The capacity of a circular tank of depth H and dia d is given by,
Volume = d2 (0.011d + 0.785H)
1350 = d2 (0.011*d + 0.785*3)
.’. d = 22.76m
DESIGN OF PUMP TO PUMP WATER FROM STORAGE TANK TO

OVERHEAD TANK:
Average daily demand = 0.9 MLD
Maximum daily demand = 0.9*1.5 = 1.35 MLD
Let the height of the storage tank from the G.L be 8m.
Total length of pipe =899m
Assume the working duration of the pump as 8hrs per day.
.’. the capacity of the pump should be = 1.35*24/8
= 4.05 MLD
Discharge required per second Q = (4.05*106) /(1000*24*60*60)
= 0.0468 m3/sec
Using Lea’s formula for most economical diameter
D = 0.97 Q1/2 to 1.22 Q1/2
D = 1.22*0.04681/2
= 0.263 m
Assume dia of pipe(raising main) = d =30cm
.’. area of pipe = 0.07069 m2
.’. velocity = Q/A = 0.312/0.07069 = 4.41 m/sec
Design of the pump to pump water from the intake structure to the raw water storage tank,
H = Hs + H D + H f
Hs + HD = 73.51m
Hf = 4flv2/2gd
= (4*0.0075*899*4.412)/(2*9.81*0.69)
Hf = 38.74m
Total lift against which the pump has to work = 73.51+38.74
= 112.25m
Assume efficiency of pump as 0.67
Brake horse power of the pump (BHP)
= √wQH/η*0.735
= (9.81*0.318*112.25)/(0.67*0.735)
BHP =711 H.P
DESIGN OF OVERHEAD TANK:

Assuming following pattern of % draw off from daily supply
7.00am-8.00am 30% = 0.27MLD
8.00am-5.00pm 35% = 0.315MLD
5.00pm-6.30pm 30% =0.27MLD
6.30pm-7.00am 5% = 0.045MLD
TOTAL=0.9MLD
For 3 days capacity
Assume depth of water=10m
Let the height of the top surface of the tank be 8m from the ground surface.
Volume of water=0.9*1000*3
Capacity=2700m3/3days
Providing two tanks-
Surface area=1350/10 =135 sq.m
Dia of tank = sqrt (135/π)= 6.55m ≈ 6.6m
Therefore, provide two overhead tanks of 6.6m dia and depth of 10.0m

FLOW DIAGRAM OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

UNITS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:

The Clarification of sewage by the process of ‘sedimentation’ can be affected by providing
conditions under which the suspended material present in sewage can settle out. This is brought
about in specially designed tanks called Primary Sedimentation Tanks.
TRICKLING FILTERS:
Trickling filters are now almost universally adopted for giving secondary treatment to
sewage. These filters, also called as percolating filters or sprinkling filters, consist of tanks of
coarser filtering media, over which the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down, by means
of spray nozzles or rotary distributors. The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the
tank through a well designed under-drainage system. The purification of the sewage is brought
about manly by the aerobic bacteria, which form a bacterial film around the particles of the
filtering media. The action due to the mechanical straining of the filter bed is much less. In
order to ensure the large scale growth of the aerobic bacteria, sufficient quantity of oxygen is
supplied by providing suitable ventilation facilities in the body of the filter; and also to some
extent by the intermittent functioning of the filter.
SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANK:

A filter does remove only a very small percentage of the finely divided suspended
organic matter present in sewage, while the majority of this organic matter undergoes a change
of character, only due to the biological oxidation and nitrification taking place in the filter. Due
to this aerobic oxidation and nitrification that takes place in the filter, the organic solids are
converted into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and would thus settle
down by gravity, if allowed to dos so in sedimentation tanks. The effluent of the filter is,
therefore, passed through a sedimentation tank, called Secondary settling tank or Humus Tank.
SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK:

The sludge withdrawn from the sedimentation basins contains a lot of putrescible organic
matter, and if disposed of without any treatment, the organic matter may decompose, producing
foul gases and a lot of nuisance, pollution, and health hazards. In order to avoid such
pollutions, the sludge is, first of all, stabilised by decomposing the organic matter under
controlled anaerobic conditions, and then disposed off suitably after drying on drying beds, etc.
The process of stabilisation is called the sludge digestion; and the tank where the process is
carried out is called the sludge digestion tank.
Three distinct stages have been found to occur in the biological action involved in the
natural process of sludge digestion tank. These stages are:
(i) Acid fermentation;

(ii) Acid regression; and
(iii) Alkaline fermentation.
SLUDGE DRYING BED:

Sludge drying beds are open beds of land, 45 to 60 cm deep, and consisting of about 30 to
45 cm thick graded layers of gravel or crushed stone varying in size from 15 cm at bottom to
1.25 cm at top, and overlain by 10 to 15 cm thick coarse sand layer. Open jointed under-drain
pipes (15cm dia) @ 5 to 7 cm c/c spacing are laid below the gravel layer in valleys, at a
longitudinal slope of about 1 in 100. The beds are around 15 X 30 m and are surrounded by
brick walls rising about 1 meter above the sand surface.
DESIGN OF SEWAGE TREATMENT UNITS:

Quantity of water supplied = 0.9MLD
Assuming 80% of supplied water becomes sewage
=0.80.9
=0.72MLD
Assuming detention period = 3hr
Quantity of sewage to be treated in 3hr i.e. capacity of tank =Q =0.723/24
= 0.09 MLD
= 900 m3
Now, assuming flow velocity = 0.3m/min
The length of tank req. = vel. Of flow  detention period
= 0.3360

= 54m
c/s area of the tank req.= capacity of tank/length of tank
= 900/54
= 16.66m2
Assume effective depth = 3m
The width of tank = area of c/s /depth
= 16.66/3
= 5.55m ≈ 5.6m
Assume free board = 0.5m
Overall depth =5.6+0.5 = 6.1m
Therefore dimensions of primary sedimentation tank are 54 m  5.6m  3 m.
DESIGN OF TRICKLING FILTER:

Assume BOD =150 ppm
Total BOD present in sewage to be treated per day = 0.72150
= 108kg
Assume organic loading = 1500kg/ha-m/day
Volume of filtering media req. = 10810000/1500
= 720 m3
Assuming effective depth = 2m.
We have,
The surface area of filter req. = 720/2
= 360 m2
Using 15 m dia circular trickling filter units
Area of each unit = 176.71 sq m
No of units req = 360/176.71
= 2 nos
Provide 2 units + 1 standby

CHECK FOR HYDRAULIC LOADING:

Assume Hydraulic loading = 25ML/ha/day
Surface area required = total sewage to be treated per day/hydraulic loading per day
= 0.7210000/25
= 288 sq m
Surface area chosen 360 sq m >288 sq m, therefore safe.
DESIGN OF SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION TANK

Assume detention period = 1.5hr
We have capacity of tank = 0.72(1.5/24)
= 0.045
= 45 m3
Volume of each conical tank=V= (1/3) (d2/4) depth
Let number of tanks = 2,
Assuming the depth of tank to be 5m,
we have, area of the tanks = 45/5
= 9 m2
Therefore dia d = 2.25 m ≈ 2.3m
Hence use 2 tanks with Dia of 2.3 m and height of 5.0m and 1 standby.
DESIGN OF SLUDGE DIGESTION TANK:

Assuming suspended solids in raw sewage = 300 ppm.
Moisture content = 85%
Therefore suspended solids in 4.887 MLD of sewage flowing per day
= 3000.72106/106
= 216kg
Assuming that 65% solids are removed in primary settling tank, we have
Wt of solids removed in primary settling tank = 0.65216
= 140.4 kg/day
Assuming that the fresh sludge has OMC of 95%, we have 5 kg of dry solids make 100 kg of
wet sludge

And 952.97 kg of dry solid will make = (100/5)140.4

= 2808 kg of wet sludge/day
Assuming the specific gravity of wet sludge =1.02
i.e unit wt = 1020 kg/m3
The volume of raw sludge produced per day = V1 = 2808/1020
= 2.75 m3/day
Now, the volume of digested sludge V2 at 85% m c is given by
V2= V1 [100-p1/100-p1]
= 2.75[100-95/100-85] = 0.916 m3/day
Now, assuming the digestion period as 30 days, we have the capacity of required Digestion
tank = [(V1-2(V1-V2))/3]t
= [(2.75-2(2.75-0.916))/3]30
= 13.75 m3
Provide 5m depth cylindrical tank
C/s area of tank = 13.75/5
= 2.75 m2
 Dia of tank= d =1.9 m
DISPOSAL OF DIGESTED SLUDGE:

Volume of wet sludge from sewage = 2.75 m3
And let it spread in 20 cm layer on under drained bed then,
Area of bed required = 2.75/0.2
= 13.75 m2/day
Under Indian tropical condition , the bed get dried about 10 days and hence taking 2 weeks as
Avg drying time = 52/2
= 26 times in an year
Therefore area of bed required per year = 13.75365/26
= 193.02 sq m
Making 100% allowance for space for storage, repair, and resting of beds etc, we have
The total required area of beds = 2193.02
= 386.05 m2

Using 1025 m beds we have no of beds required = 386.05/(10*25)

= 1.54
2 beds
Provide 2 beds with size as
Area = 386.05/2
= 193.03 m2
Using width = 10m
 Length = 193.03/10
=19.3 m  19.5m
Provide 2 no of (10 x 19.5 ) m beds.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

REFERENCE
Environmental Engineering vol.1 and vol. 2 S K GARG
Environmental Engineering vol. 1 &2 B C PUNMIA & ASHOK JAIN

LEGEND
MAIN SEWER
BRANCH SEWER
N
TRUNK SEWER
SEWER LATERAL
OVER HEAD WATER
STORAGE
TANK
INFILTRATION WELL
SEDIMENTATION TANK
TREATMENT PLANT
TREE
KALYANI
TEMPLE
HOUSE
COLLEGE
ops
ial Sh
merc
Com
hops
ercial S
Comm
210.7
hops
ercial S
Comm
School
Oxidation pond cial Shops

100 X 50 X 2.2 m Commer
BUs
KSRTC
STAND
SANITARY LAYOUT
BATCH B9
SCALE 1:30000
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN 'M'

SIGNATURE
STATION NO.
CHAINAGE (M)
REDUCED LEVEL (M)

DATUM LINE 1000 (M)
DEPTH OF FILLING (M)

FORMATION LEVEL (M)
DEPTH OF CUTTING (M)

0
0
0.800 1046.755 1047.550
1
1.606 1046.549 1048.155
15
2.200 1044.620 1046.820
2
45
3
1043.165 1045.335
60
2.170
4
1041.763 1043.940
75
2.177
5
2.117 1040.263 1042.380
90
6
1.687 1038.208 1039.895
105
7
1.249 1036.148 1037.397
120
8
0.947 1034.278 1035.225
135
9
0.800 1032.645 1033.445
150
10
0.563 1031.392 1031.955
165
11
0.346 1028.434 1028.780
180
1026.606 1026.895
12
0.289
195
0.206 1024.724 1024.930
13
210
14
0.431 1023.304 1023.735
225
0.800 1022.100 1022.900
15
240
0.770 1021.520 1022.290
16
255
1.086 1020.919 1022.005
17
285
1.080 1020.375 1021.455
18
300
1.305 1020.175 1021.480
19
315
20
1.494 1019.921 1021.415
330
1.480 1019.365 1020.845
21
345
22
1.289 1018.541 1019.830
360
1017.270 1018.070
23
0.800
375
0.335 1015.855 1016.190
24
405
25
0.464 1015.331 1015.795
435
26
0.905 1015.270 1016.175
465
27
1.373 1015.257 1016.630
495
28
1.904 1015.336 1017.240
525
29
0.800 1012.930 1013.730
555
0.555 1014.062 1014.327
30
585
1014.275
31
0.265 1014.010
615
32
0.077 1015.403 1015.480
645
1016.915
33
0.180 1016.735
675
0.316 1018.114 1018.430
34
705
35
0.800 1020.015 1020.815
735
1.183 1020.137 1021.320

36
765
780
37
1.418 1020.262 1021.680
1021.815
38
1.575 1020.24
795
1019.812 1021.385
39
1.573
825
840
1021.360
40
1.654 1019.731
41
1.777 1019.633 1021.440

855
1.977 1019.508 1021.485

42
885
2.086 1019.219 1021.305

43
915
NIL
44
2.106 1018.734 1020.840

945
1.844 1017.946 1019.790

45
975
1018.445
1005
1016.957
46
1.488
1017.385
1035
1016.139
47
1.246
48
1065
0.800 1015.015 1015.815

1095
0.494 1015.206 1015.700

49
1125
1012.425
50
0.525 1011.900
51
0.661 1010.754 1011.415

1155
1009.592 1010.375
52
0.783
1185
53
0.733 1008.157 1008.890

1215
54
0.800 1006.910 1007.710

1245
55
1260
0.415 1006.865 1007.280

1275
56
0.320 1007.255 1007.575

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WATER SUPPLY LINE
57
1008.155 1008.365
1305
0.210
1010.600
58
0.678 1009.922
1335
59
1011.135
1350
0.800 1010.335
60
0.960 1009.930 1010.890

1380
61
0.986 1009.024 1010.010

1410
62
0.978 1008.067 1009.045

1440
63
1.030 1007.205 1008.235

1470
64
0.800 1005.91 1006.710

1500
65
0.715 1006.655 1007.370

1515
66
0.508 1008.087 1008.595

1545
67
0.435 1009.720 1010.155

1575
68
0.240 1011.170 1011.410

1605
69
1013.155
1635
0.241 1012.914
70
0.397 1014.018 1014.415

1650
71
0.570 1015.150 1015.720

1665
72
0.800 1016.365 1017.165

1680
73
0.830 1016.620 1017.450

1695
74
0.842 1017.023 1017.865

1725
BATCH: B9
75
0.800 1017.640 1018.440

1755
SCALE

SIGN:
DATE:
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WATER SUPPLY LINE
LEGEND
EXISTING GROUND
SH
LEVEL
OP
S RISING MAIN
GRAVITY MAIN
L29 INFILTRATION WELL

OVER
HEAD
TANK
STORAGE
SEDIMENTATION TANK
TANK
L28 TREATMENT PLANT

TREE
L27 GRASS
POND
L23 L26
KALYANI
L25
WELL
L21
L20
L19
L18
L17
ST215
L16
SHOPS L15
SHOPS
L14
SHOPS SHOPS
L13
L3 L11
PLAN OFWATER SUPPLY

964.972 L10
L4 BATCH B9
SCALE: 1:30000
L5
L9
L7 L8 NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN 'M'
SIGNATURE
STATION NO.
CHAINAGE (M)
REDUCED LEVEL (M)

DATUM LINE 1000 (M)
DEPTH OF FILLING (M)

FORMATION LEVEL (M)
DEPTH OF CUTTING (M)

0
0
0.800 1046.755 1047.550
1
1.606 1046.549 1048.155
15
2.200 1044.620 1046.820
2
45
3
2.170 1043.165 1045.335
60
4
1041.763 1043.940
75
2.177
5
2.117 1040.263 1042.380
90
6
1.687 1038.208 1039.895
105
7
1.249 1036.148 1037.397
120
8
0.947 1034.278 1035.225
135
9
0.800 1032.645 1033.445
150
10
0.563 1031.392 1031.955
165
11
0.346 1028.434 1028.780
180
1026.606 1026.895
12
0.289
195
0.206 1024.724 1024.930
13
210
14
0.431 1023.304 1023.735
225
0.800 1022.100 1022.900
15
240
0.770 1021.520 1022.290
16
255
1.086 1020.919 1022.005
17
285
1.080 1020.375 1021.455
18
300
1.305 1020.175 1021.480
19
315
20
1.494 1019.921 1021.415
330
1.480 1019.365 1020.845
21
345
22
1.289 1018.541 1019.830
360
1017.270 1018.070
23
0.800
375
0.335 1015.855 1016.190
24
405
25
0.464 1015.331 1015.795
435
26
0.905 1015.270 1016.175
465
27
1.373 1015.257 1016.630
495
28
1.904 1015.336 1017.240
525
29
0.800 1012.930 1013.730
555
0.555 1014.062 1014.327
30
585
1014.275
31
0.265 1014.010
615
32
0.077 1015.403 1015.480
645
1016.735 1016.915
33
0.180
675
0.316 1018.114 1018.430
34
705
35
0.800 1020.015 1020.815 735
1.183 1020.137 1021.320

36
765
780
37
1.418 1020.262 1021.680
1021.815
38
1.575 1020.24
795
1019.812 1021.385
39
1.573
825
840
1021.360
40
1.654 1019.731
41
1.777 1019.633 1021.440

855
1.977 1019.508 1021.485

42
885
2.086 1019.219 1021.305

43
915
NIL
44
2.106 1018.734 1020.840

945
1.844 1017.946 1019.790

45
975
1018.445
1005
1016.957
46
1.488
1017.385
1035
1016.139
47
1.246
48
1065
0.800 1015.015 1015.815

1095
0.494 1015.206 1015.700

49
1125
1012.425
50
0.525 1011.900
51
0.661 1010.754 1011.415

1155
1009.592 1010.375
52
0.783
1185
53
0.733 1008.157 1008.890

1215
54
0.800 1006.910 1007.710

1245
55
1260
0.415 1006.865 1007.280

1275
56
0.320 1007.255 1007.575

57
1008.155 1008.365
1305
0.210
1010.600
58
0.678 1009.922
1335
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SANITARY SUPPLY LINE
59
1011.135
1350
0.800 1010.335
60
0.960 1009.930 1010.890

1380
61
0.986 1009.024 1010.010

1410
62
0.978 1008.067 1009.045

1440
63
1.030 1007.205 1008.235

1470
64
0.800 1005.91 1006.710

1500
65
0.715 1006.655 1007.370

1515
66
0.508 1008.087 1008.595

1545
67
0.435 1009.720 1010.155

1575
68
0.240 1011.170 1011.410

1605
69
1013.155
1635
0.241 1012.914
70
0.397 1014.018 1014.415

1650
71
0.570 1015.150 1015.720

1665
72
0.800 1016.365 1017.165

1680
73
0.830 1016.620 1017.450

1695
BATCH: 9
74
0.842 1017.023 1017.865

1725
75
0.800 1017.640 1018.440

1755
1:100
SCALE

SIGN:
DATE:
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SANITARY SUPPLY LINE
CONCLUSION
In this way, I would like to conclude that getting such exposure to the field work is highly
beneficial for the students. Once we move out of the classrooms, we get many obstacles to face. These
obstacles only transform us because we move out of the ideal situation and learn how to tackle it.
New Tank Project was successfully completed as per the requirements. According to the water
required for irrigation purpose, domestic uses, etc. the new tank was designed, keeping in mind the
amount of rainfall. The New Tank should be designed in such a way that it is capable of supplying water
throughout the year fulfilling the requirements.
Whenever an existing tank is not able to meet the requirement of water for that area, Restoration
of that Old Tank is required. We did the same work in the Old Tank Project by increasing the bund
height of the existing tank. The required amount of water was calculated and the height was raised
according to that. Thus it can store more water during rainfall.
Highway Alignment Survey was done to establish a centre line upon which the road would pass
fulfilling the IRC codes. The Road design was kept simple and straight for most of the occasions. But
the curves were provided whenever required. The curve was designed in such a way that it’s not very
sharp. The OSD and SSD were carefully designed.
Every village, town or city needs a water and sanitary supply system and that’s what we did in
Public Health Engineering Survey. The Pumping house was established near a lake whose water was
tested and found suitable. From this place the water is carried to an over-head tank near the Yoga
Narsimha Swamy Temple. Then the water is supplied to a distribution system which distributes the
water to every places in taluk wherever required. A sanitary system was also established to take away
the waste water from different places.

Extensive Survey Project Geological Report

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Extensive Survey Project Geological Report

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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT

SUBMITTED BY: BATCH 09

NANDAN RAMAPPA TADAGALALE SAHANA J

Under the guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SHAVIGE MALLESHWARA HILLS, KUMARASWAMY LAYOUT, BANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Dr. H.K. RAMARAJU

Mr. B.T. SHIVENDRA INTERNAL EXAMINER

Dr. M.R.RAJASHEKAR EXTERNAL EXAMINER

The purpose of this survey project is to gain the knowledge of practical

The location “Melukote”is nearly at 154km from Dayananda Sagar College of

Melukote in Pandavapura taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, in southern India, is one

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 1

Fig 1.1 : Study Area map

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 2

Fig 1.2 : Highway allignment, NTP and OTP sites map

STRIKE AND DIP :

Fig 1.3 : Geological structure Map

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 3

Fig 1.4 : Toposheet

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 4

ROAD AND RAIL MAP OF PANDAVAPURA TQ

Fig 1.5 : Transportation network map

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 5

NEW TANK PROJECT

Fig 1.6 : Study Area of NTP site

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 6

Fig 1.7 : Drainage Map of the Proposed NT catchment

MINI WATERSHED MAP

Fig 1.8 : Mini Watershed Map

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 7

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA (sq.km) % OF AREA

3. Melukote 13.2604 31.141

4. Horalahalli 11.9659 28.08

Fig 1.9 : Geomorphology map of the proposed NT catchment Map

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

Shallow weathered/shallow 6.972651272 2.202487

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 8

Fig 1.10 : Lithology Map

SI.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 9

Exfoliation is a form of mechanical weathering in which curved plates of rock are

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 10

Fig 1.11 : Physical Disintegrated rock pieces

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 11

Fig 1.12 : Briefing about Geological condition of Proposed NT area

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 12

Fig 1.14 : SlopMap of the proposed NT catchment

SI.NO % OF SLOPE AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 13

SOIL TEXTURE MAP:

Fig 1.15 : Soil texture map of NTP

SI.NO SOIL TEXTURE AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 14

LAND USE/LAND COVER MAP:

Fig 1.16 : Land use / Land cover map

SL.NO DESCRIPTION AREA(sq.km) % OF AREA

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 15

Fig 1.17 : Profile of NTP bund using GPS data

Fig 1.18 : Length of bund using GPS data

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Page 16