Survey 20191civ9001 DINAKAR NAIK A T

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT 2022
Presidency University
June 2022
Itgalpur, Rajanukunte, Bangalore - 560064
EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (CIV 255)

A PROJECT REPORT
BATCH-04
20191CIV9001 - DINAKAR NAIK A T 20191CIV90014 - LAKSHMAN P
20191CIV9003 - ABHISHEK A 20201LCV0004 - ABHISHEK M S
20191CIV9004 - HARISH R N 20201LCV0006 - SATHTYA NARAYANA Y N
20191CIV9008 - MOHAMMED MUHIBULLA S 20201LCV0008 - SYED SUFIAN AHMED
20191CIV9010 - M V UDAY RAJ 20201LCV0010 - VISHWAMBHAR V S L
20191CIV9012 -SURAJ R 20201LCV0012 - AKILESH K V
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of
Mr. Bhavan Kumar Assistant Professor,

Mr. Ramachandra Gollar Assistant Professor,
Ms. Darshini Research Scholar
CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Presidency University
Department of Civil Engineering
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this report “Extensive Survey Project (CIV 255)” is bonafide work
of student 20191CIV9001 – DINAKAR NAIK A T who is carried out the project
work under my supervision
Mr. Bhavan Kumar Mr. Ramachandra Gollar

Extensive Survey In- Charge Extensive Survey In- Charge
Presidency University Presidency University
Dr. Nakul R Dr. S B Anadinni Dr. Abdul Sharief D

HOD Civil Engineering Associate Dean Professor and Dean, SOE
Presidency University Presidency University Presidency University

Name of the Examiners
1)
2)
DECLARATION
We the students of Third year B. Tech, Civil Engineering, Presidency University, Bengaluru,
named 20201LCV0004 – ABHISHEK M S hereby declare that the project work entitled
“Extensive Survey Project” has been independently carried out and submitted in the partial
fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering during
the academic year of 2021-22. Further the matter embodied in the project has not been
submitted previously by anybody for the award of any Degree or Diploma to any other
institution.
Place: Bengaluru
Date: 17-JUNE-2022

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
For completing this project work, I have received support and guidance from many people
which I like to mention deep in gratitude and great pleasure. Firstly, I cordially thank
Presidency University in platforming such intellectual works and supporting me in all means
for our successful completion of the project. I extend my gratitude to our beloved
Chancellor, Pro-chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Registrar, Dean-School of Law and Dean-
School of Management for their support and encouragement in completion of the project.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to our Survey Project
Coordinator, Mr. Bhavan Kumar Assistant professor and Mr. Ramachandra Gollar Assistant
Professor, Ms. Darshini, Department of Civil Engineering, Presidency University for their
valuable guidance and keen interest throughout the project work.
I am thankful to Mr. Bhavan Kumar, Mr. Ramachandra Gollar, Ms. Darshini S, Ms. Sowmya
Shree T, Mr. Jagadish Biradar, Mr. Santhosh M B, Mr. Dayalan, Mr. Ajay H A, Ms. Shwetha
A, Ms. Divya Nair, Mr. Gowtham, Ms. Sangeetha, Department of Civil Engineering who have
facilitated me in providing all resources and guided me throughout the work.
I am thankful to Dr. Nakul R, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, Presidency

University for his moral support and motivation, timely guidance, advice and encouragement
provided to me during the period of our project work.
I express my cordial thanks to Dr. Abdul Sharief, Dean School of Engineering, Dr. S.B
Anadini, Associate Dean, Presidency University, who always gave time in corrections and
rectifications in my errors both intellectual and discipline for my representation out in the
society for positive survival.
I am grateful to Teaching and Non-Teaching staff of Department of Civil Engineering and

also staff from other Departments who have extended their valuable help and cooperation.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL.NO TITLE
1. INTRODUCTION
2. NEW TANK PROJECT
3. Introduction
4. Design
5. Conclusion
6. WATER SUPPLY and SANITATION
7. Introduction
8. Design
9. Conclusion
10. HIGHWAY PROJECT
11. Introduction
12. Design
13. Conclusion

ITGALPURA, RAJANKUNTE BANGALORE

Itgalpur is one of the most popular towns amongst the hundreds that are scattered in and
around Bangalore. People flock in thousands to this temple and the presiding deity, Sri
Subramanya, is particularly popular population in Karnataka. It is located near Doddaballapur
in Bangalore Rural district, about 60 km away from Bangalore city.
ITGALPURA Village RAJANAKUNTE Panchayat BANGALORE NORTH is situated in
Bangalore Urban District. People of this village are living in very peaceful manner. This
village having very proud history. Agriculture is the main profession of this village. Still this
village is waiting for Industrial development. Education, Drinking water, Road and Electricity
are the main concern of this village. Young generation is more attracted towards mobile,
Laptop and computer technology these days. If banks and finance institutions proved loan and
other financial support to the villagers, this village will see the real development. Medical and
health services has to be improved.
The temperature fluctuates between 18 and 23 degrees Celsius. The climate is salubrious at
itgalpura. It rains here mainly during September - October. The rain is usually a heavy
downpour.
As there is reasonable amount of rainfall, the construction of a dam will improve the
cultivation in the area. With highway in the near vicinity, and with the available marketing of
cultivable products will be easy. This motivated us to look for construction of canals in the
village so that cultivation can be considerably improved. We surveyed the land and found that
construction of canal is feasible in that area.
population has increased to higher levels along with the floating population, which needs
good and portable water as well as a hygienic sewage system, which is most important,
failing, in which health hazards may break up making unhygienic atmosphere. And the
restoration of the earthen bund is required to store water for domestic, irrigation and other
purposes.
Thus, as a fundamental duty of the government and being a social obligation, it was proposed
to carry out water supply and sanitary work and Old tank Project. With this the present and
existing detail such as source of water, quality of water, type of water supply scheme fulfilling
present need and future demand would be designed with these details available. And we also

carried a highway project for this pilgrim centre for safe and economic transport for the
people to travel.
MAP OF ITGALPURA


NEW TANK
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT
General:
Surveying is an art of plotting the natural terrain on a plane. There is no civil
engineering without surveying. Though the individual use of various surveying equipment’s
are taught to us in the lower semester, it is, in this extensive survey project, we get to learn the
inter-dependability and collective usage of all the equipment’s at a given location. This
enhances our understanding of the design, execution or implementation and maintenance of a
given project.
Need For Irrigation:

Irrigation may be defined as the process of artificially supplying water to soil for
rising crops. India is basically an agricultural country and its economy depends to a great
extent on the agricultural output. Water is evidently the most vital element in the plant life.
Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through rains. However, the total rainfall in
a particular area may be either insufficient or ill timed. In order to get the maximum yield, it
is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain correct timing of
watering. This is possible only through a systematic irrigation system- that is:
Collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crop as and when
needed is only thing human can do with uncertain climatic nature of the earth.
The need for irrigation can be summarized in the following four points.
Less rainfall:
When the total rainfall is less than that needed for the crop, artificial supply of water is
necessary. In such a case, irrigation system should be developed at the place where more
water is available, and then, the means to convey this water to the area where there is
deficiency.
Non-uniform rainfall:
The rain in a particular area may not be uniform throughout the crop period. During
the early periods of the crops rains may be there, but water may not be available at the end,
with the result, that either, the yield may be less or the crop may wither. But the accumulated
or stored water during the excess rainfall period, may be supplied to the crop during the
period when there may not be rainfall, but there is a need for watering.
Commercial crop with additional water:

The rainfall in a particular area may be just enough to raise the usual crops, but more
water may be necessary for raising commercial or cash crops in addition to increasing the
annual output by adopting multiple cropping pattern distributed throughout the year.
Controlled water supply

By constructing a proper distribution system, the yield of crop may be increased.
Application of water to the soil by modern methods of irrigation serves the following
purpose: -
 It adds water to the soil to supply moisture essential for the plant growth.
 It washes out all diluted salts in the soil
 It reduces the hazards of soil piping.
Hydrology
Hydrology is a study of the water cycle. It is the science that deals with the
occurrence, circulation and distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. As a
branch of earth science, it is concerned with the water in the streams and lakes, rainfall and
snowfall, snow and ice on the land and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores
of the soil and rocks.
Hydrology finds its greatest application in the design of water resources engineering
projects such as
 Irrigation
 Water Supply
 Flood Control
 Water Power
 Navigation
In all the projects, hydrological investigations for the proper assessment of the
following factors are necessary.
 The capacity of the storage structures such as reservoirs.
 The magnitude of the flood flow to enable safe disposal of the excess flow.
 The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various seasons.

 The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulic structures such as reservoirs, barrages
and bridges.
Definitions of some of the terms associated with Hydrology
Precipitation:
The term precipitation denotes all forms of water that reaches the earth from the
atmosphere. The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail, glaze and sleet.
For the precipitation to form and occur-
 The atmosphere must have moisture

 There must be sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation.
 The products of condensation must reach the earth surface.
Evaporation:
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state at the free
surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy. It is a cooling process in
which the latent heat of vaporization (at about 585cal/gm. of evaporated water) must be
provided by the water body.
The rate of evaporation is dependent on:-

 The vapour pressure at the water surface and air above.
 Air and water temperature.
 Wind speed.
 Atmospheric pressure
 Quality of water and size of the water body.

Transpiration:
It is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the
atmosphere as water vapour. The important factors affecting the transpiration are atmospheric
pressure, vapour pressure, temperature, wind, light intensity, and characteristics of the plant
such as roots and leaves.
Evapo-transpiration:
While transpiration takes place, the land areas in which the plants stand also lose
moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies. Thus, evaporation and
transpiration processes can be considered advantageously under one heading as evapo-
transpiration.
Initial losses:
i) Interception Losses:
When it rains, not all precipitation falls into the ground. A part of it may be intercepted by
the vegetation and subsequently evaporate. The volume of water so intercepted is called
interception. The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible routes:-
 It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the atmosphere
by evaporation. This quantity of water returned back is known as interception loss.
 It can drip off from the plants to reach the ground surface and flow.
 It may run along the branches to reach the stem.
ii) Depression storage:

When the precipitation reaches the ground, it must first fill up the depressions before it
flows over the surface. The volume of water trapped in these depressions is termed as
depression storage.
Infiltration:

Infiltration is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface. The maximum
rate at a given time during which the ground can absorb water is defined as infiltration
capacity.
i)Runoff:
Runoff means draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel. Based on the time delay between the precipitation and runoff, the runoff can
be classified into following categories:
ii) Direct runoff

It is that part of runoff which enters the stream immediately after the precipitation. It
includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and precipitation on the channel surface.
Base flow:
The delayed flow that reaches the stream essentially as down-water flow is called as
base flow.
Hydrograph:
A plot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time chronologically is called a
hydrograph. We have different types of hydrographs such as annual, monthly, seasonal and
flood hydrographs.
Yield:
The total quantity of water that can be expected from a stream in a given period is
known as yield of that stream. Yield of a year represents annual runoff volume.
Hydrological cycle:
Water occurs on the earth in all its three forms, i.e., solid, liquid and gas and in various
degrees of motion. These aspects of water related to earth can be explained in terms of a cycle
known as the hydrological cycle.

A convenient point to describe the cycle is oceans. Water in the oceans evaporates due
to the heat energy provided by the solar radiation. The water vapour moves upwards and form
clouds. These clouds are driven over the land areas by winds and there they condense and
precipitate onto the landmass as rain, snow, etc.
A part of the precipitation may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while raining. Another
part may be intercepted by vegetation, structures and other surface modifications fromwhich it
may be either evaporated back to the atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.
A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through infiltration,
enhancing the moisture content of the soil and reaches the ground water body. Vegetation
sends a portion of the water from the ground surface back to the atmosphere through the
process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground surface after meeting the needs
of infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slopes over the surface and through a
network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The ground water may come to the
surface through springs and other outlets after spending a considerably longer time than the
surface flow. The portion of the precipitation, which by variety of paths above and below the

surface of the earth reaches the stream channel, is called runoff. Once it enters stream
channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION

Duty:
Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit volume of water. It is the relation
between the area of a crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation water required during the
entire period of growth of hat crop.
For example, if 3 cumecs of water supply is required for a crop sown in an area of
5100 hectares, the duty of irrigation water will be 5100/3=1700hectares/cumec, and the
discharge of 3 cumecs will be required throughout the base period.
Delta:
Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period from the
day of sowing of seeds to the harvesting. It is denoted by D.
For example, if a crop requires about 12 watering at an interval of 10 days, and a water
depth of 10 cm in every watering then the delta for that crop will be12 * 10 = 120 cm = 1.2
metres. If the area under that crop is ‘A’ hectares, the total quantity of water required will be
1.2 * A = 1.2 A hectare-metres in a period of 120 days.
Crop period:
Crop period is the time, in days, that a crop takes from the instant of sowing to that of
its harvesting.
Base period:
Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time of first
watering for preparation of soil for sowing the seeds to the last watering before harvesting.
The duty of water is reckoned in the following ways: -

 By the number of hectares that 1 cumec of water can irrigate during base period i.e.,
1700 hectares per cumec.
 By the total depth of water i.e., 1.20 metres
 By number of hectares that can be irrigated by million cubic metre of stored water.
This system is used for tank irrigation.
 By the number of hectare metres expended per hectare irrigated. This is also used in
tank irrigation.
Relation between duty (D), delta (D) and base period (B) in metric system
Let there be a crop of base period b days. Let one cumec of water be applied to this
crop on the field for B days.
Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days (V)
V = (1x60x60x24) m3
= 86400(cubic metre)
By definition of duty (D), one cubic metre supplied for B days matures D hectares of
land.
Therefore, this quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 10 4 D square
meters of area.
Total depth of water applied on this land
= Volume / Area
= 86,400 B/104 D metres

= 8.64 B/D metres
By definition, this total depth of water is called delta (D).
Therefore,
D = 8.64 B/D metres
Or
D = 864 B/D cm.
Where, D is in cm or m, B in days, and
D is duty in hectares / cumec.

Gross commanded area

An area is usually divided into a number of watersheds and drainage valleys. The
canal usually runs on the watershed and water can flow from it, on both sides, due to
gravitational action only up to drainage boundaries. Thus, in a particular area lying under the
canal system, the irrigation can be done only up to the drainage boundaries. The gross
commanded area is thus the total area lying between drainage boundaries, which can be
commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
Cultivable Commanded Area

The gross commanded area also contains unfertile barren land, alkaline soil, local
ponds villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are known as uncultivable areas.
The remaining area on which crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as cultivable
commanded area. The cultivable commanded area can be further classified as cultivable
cultivated area and cultivable uncultivated area.
Factors Affecting Duty:

The duty of water canal system depends upon a variety of the factors. The principal
factors are:
 Methods and System of Irrigation:

In the perennial irrigation system, soil is continuously kept moist, and hence water
required for initial saturation is less. Also, due to shallow depth of the water table,
deep percolation losses are less. In the inundation irrigation, there is wastage of water. Hence,
the perennial irrigation system has more duty than the inundation
irrigation. The flow irrigation system has a lower duty due to the conveyance losses in the
network of canals, while the lift irrigation system has higher duty because the commanded
area of each well is very near to it. Tank irrigation gives high duty to rigid control.

 Mode of Applying Water:

The flood irrigation system has lesser duty than the furrow system. Sub-irrigation system
gives still higher duty. The basin irrigation and uncontrolled flooding give less duty.
 Method of Cultivation:
If the land is properly ploughed and made quite loose before irrigating, the soil will have
high water retention capacity in its unsaturated zone. Thus, the number of watering can be
reduced, increasing the duty. The old and conventional methods of cultivation give less duty
in comparison to the modern methods.
 Time and Frequency of Tilling:

Frequency of cultivation reduces the loss of moisture through weeds. Soil structure affects
the plant growth to a very great extent. A good structure of soil particles is called good tilth of
soils. When the soil is in good tilth, evaporation losses from the surface of soil is less, soil
becomes properly aerated, and hence the yield of crop is also better.
 Types of Crop:
The duty varies from crop to crop.
The various types of crops may be classified as follows:
Wet Crop:
A wet crop is that which requires water for irrigation.
Dry Crop:
A dry crop is that which does not require water for irrigation.

Garden Crop:
Garden crop requires irrigation throughout the year.
Kharif Crop:
Kharif crops are sown by the beginning of the southwest monsoon and are harvested
in autumn i.e., from 1st of October to 31st of March.
Rabi Crop:
Rabi crop are sown in autumn and are harvested in spring i.e., from 1 st of April to 30th
September.
 Base Period of the Crop:

If the base period of the crop is more, the amount of water required will be high; hence
duty will be low and vice-versa.
 Climatic Conditions of the Area:

The climatic conditions, which affect the duty, are temperature, wind, humidity and
rainfall. Due to high temperature and wind, evaporation losses will be more, and duty will be
less. A humid atmosphere reduces the losses. Rainfall during the crop period will reduce the
irrigation water requirement, and the duty will thus be higher.
 Quality of Water:
If the harmful salt-content and alkali content of the water is more, water will have to be
applied liberally so that the salts are leached off. This will, in turn, reduce the duty. More
fertilizing matter in water will cause less consumption of water, and increase duty.

 Method of Assessment:
Volumetric method of assessment always leads to a higher duty. This is because the
farmer will use water economically. If, however, the method of assessment is based on the
area under cultivation, the farmer will have a tendency to use more water, and the duty will be
low.
Consumptive use of water:

Consumptive use of water or evapotranspiration is defined as the total quantity of water
used by the vegetative growth of a given area in transpiration and building of plant tissue, and
that evaporated from the adjacent soil in the area in any specified time. It therefore includes
the water removed from the soil by transpiration and evaporation. Consumptive use is
expressed in hectare-meters per hectare or depth of water in meters for specific periods such
as days, months or crop growing season. Consumptive use of water for each crop can be
determined which gives the water requirement of the crop.
Minor Irrigation
Irrigation Projects can be classified as:
 Major and Multipurpose, for irrigating vast tracts of land.
 Medium irrigation Projects, for development of irrigation and for drinking water
supply.
 Minor irrigation Projects.
Minor irrigation consists of irrigation from:

 Tanks
 Lift irrigation
 Diversion schemes on small streams

Irrigation Tanks
Irrigation tanks are a small storage reservoir formed across a stream in a valley. These
tanks depend upon the rainfall in their catchments. Some tanks may also have a supply
channel from a neighbouring stream, which has a dependable flow.
An irrigation tank essentially consists of the following:
 An earthen bund across the valley creating a storage area.

 A surplus weir to dispose off flood discharge.
 Sluices to feed the channel.
 Channels from the sluices
BASIS FOR FORMATION OF TANK
 Area of the catchment basin:

The catchment area for the proposed tank should be determined accurately. If the
catchment is large, it could be traced from the Survey of India contour map. However, if the
area is small, the watershed has to be traced by a compass and the area is to be determined by
running a closed traverse.
 Nature of the catchment:

The nature of the catchment has to be examined to check whether it is good, average or
bad for purposes of computing runoff. Generally, catchment with vegetation gives good yield.
Those with porous soils give poor yield.
If there are already some tanks with their ayacuts in the catchment of the proposed tanks, the
details of storage capacities and the ayacuts they irrigate have to be gathered and noted.
Hydrology

The rainfall details have to be collected from the rain gauge station in the catchment
area or the nearest rain gauge station. From these rainfall data the mean rainfall of the
catchment area is computed.
Once the gross yield is obtained, deductions are made for the upper abstractions, i.e., yield
used by the upper tanks and the yield to be let down for the lower tanks already functioning.
After all these deductions, we get the net available yield at the site where the new tank is
proposed.
Storage capacity of the tanks:

If the tank has more than one irrigation sluice, then the useful storage capacity, i.e., the
live capacity of the tank, is the volume of water it can hold between the full tank level and the
lowest sluice level.
If the tank has more capacity below the lowest sill of the sluice, the water stored below that
level (dead capacity) is useful in trapping silt during the years of operation. Once this dead
capacity of the tank is completely filled up with silt, further silting of tank will encroach on
the useful storage of the tank. So, it is always better to leave a sufficient dead storage while
proposing new tanks. Thus, the capacity of the tank fixes the F.T.L (Full Tank Level), which
is also the top of the surplus weir of the tank. After fixing the alignment of the tank bund,
contours at ½ meter intervals are to be plotted. Then the areas between the successive
contours are determined. From these areas and contour intervals, the capacity of the tank at
various contours is determined.
EARTHEN DAM
Earth dams are built of locally available soils and gravels with less skilled labours, and
hence they are cheap. They can be constructed on earthen foundation but they are more
susceptible to failure as compared to rigid dams. If the properties of soil used in the dam are
properly controlled then this dam can be designed with a fair degree of accuracy. Continuous
filed observations regarding the pore water pressures and deformations are to be made during
construction and design should be modified according to them. Therefore, earthen dams are

the most common type dams used up to moderate height. Their construction involves
utilization of materials in the natural state, requiring a minimum processing. With the
advancing knowledge of soil mechanics and with the advent of more sophisticated earth
moving equipment, earthen dams are now becoming more common, even for higher heights.
The foundation requirements of earth dams are less stringent than for other types.
Earthen dams are of three types as follows:
Homogeneous Embankment Earthen Dam:
It is made of single material throughout. They are preferred for low dams. They have
the problem of seepage and hence require huge sections for protection against stability piping
hence drainage filters are provided to keep the phreatic line (top flow line) well within the
dam body. This internal system provided helps in reducing the section of the dam and
providing steeper slopes.
Zone Embankment Earthen Dam

The central core checks the seepage. The transition zone prevents piping through
cracks, which may develop in the core. The other pervious zones give stability to the central
core and also distribute the loads over larger area of the foundation. Clay with fine sand or
gravel is used for the central core. Coarse sand or gravel is used for outer shell. The transition
filters are provided when there is an abrupt change in the permeability from zone to another.
Diaphragm Embankment Dams

The diaphragm is an impervious core made up of impervious soil, concrete, steel,
timber, etc. It acts as a water barrage to prevent seepage through dams. It is normally
connected to bed rocks.
Gravity Dams:
A gravity dam is the one in which the external forces such as water pressure, silt
pressure, uplift pressure etc. are resisted by the weight of the dam itself. Thus the forces
disturbing the stability of the dam are resisted by the gravity forces of the dams. A gravity
dam may be either of masonry or of concrete. Masonry gravity dams are nowadays is
constructed of small height. All major and important dams are now constructed by concrete
only. It may be straight or curved in plan.
Advantages of gravity dams

 As compared to earthen and rock filled dams, gravity dams have the following
advantages: -
 Gravity dams are essentially stronger and stable than earthen dams. They are
particularly suited across gorges having very steep side slope where earth dams, if
constructed, might slip.
 Gravity dams are well adapted for the use as an overflow spillway rest. Earth dams
cannot be used as overflow dams. Due to this, a gravity overflow dam is often used for
spillway feature of earth and rock fill dams.
 Gravity dams can be constructed of any height provided suitable foundations are
available to bear the stresses. The height of an earth dam is usually limited by the

stability of its slope requiring a very wide base. Highest dams in the world are gravity
dams only.
 Gravity dams are especially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of
downpour. The slopes of earth dams might get washed away in such a situation.
 A gravity dam requires least maintenance.
 The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning time
before the area to downstream side is flooded due to the damage of gravity dam.
Disadvantages of gravity dams:

 Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundation. They are unsuitable
on weak foundations or on permeable foundations on which earth dams can be
constructed with suitable foundation treatment.
 The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than an earthen dam. Hence where
funds are limited and where suitable materials are available for construction on an
earth dam, earthen dams may be preferred.
 Gravity dams require skilled labours or mechanized plants for its construction.
 It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam unless
specific provisions have been made in the initial design.
Selection of Sites of Dams

 Cost of Dam is controlling factor if the site is suitable for the dam, i.e., types of dam
(earthen dam, masonry dam, gravity dam) governs.
 Geological formation for reservoir banks walls etc. should be such that there is
minimum leakage.
 Geology of catchment area or basin should be in such a way so as to assume minimum
absorption and percolation losses.
 The site should be such that a deep reservoir can be formed since it has a merits of
lower land cost per unit capacity, less evaporation loss, less weed growth, etc.
 The site should have adequate capacity to store water so usually a valley profile is
chosen.

 Too much silt-laden tributaries must be avoided.

 Reservoir basin should have deep narrow opening in the valley so that the length of
dam is minimum.
RESERVOIRS
When a barrier or dam is constructed across, water gets stored on the upstream side of the
barrier is called dam or reservoir. Water is stored in the reservoir during rainy season can be
utilised throughout the year for many purposes like irrigation, water supply, navigation,
hydroelectric power, etc.
STORAGE ZONE OF RESERVOIR
Dead Storage:
It is the volume of water stored below minimum pool level. It is not used in reservoir
operation.
Valley Storage:
It is the amount stored in the stream channel before the construction of the dam.
Useful Storage:
It is the volume of water between minimum and normal pool level. It may be divided
into conservation and mitigation storage in multipurpose reservoir.

Surcharged Storage:
This is uncontrolled storage which is given by the volume of water stored between
Normal and Maximum pool level.
Bank Storage:
It is the volume of water collected only in the permeable reservoir bank. This can be
used when reservoir is depleted. The amount of water depends on type of geological
formation.
Minimum Pool Level:

It is the lowest water surface for irrigation that has to be kept under normal operation.
It is kept equal to elevation of lowest outlet sluice of dam or at minimum head of turbine.
Normal Pool Level:

It is the maximum elevation to which water surface will rise during normal water
operations. It is kept at elevation of spillway crest.

Maximum Pool Level or Full Reservoir Level:

It is maximum level to which water rises during the worst design flood.
Catchments Yield:
The total yearly runoff expressed as volume of water entering the outlet point of
catchment. It is expressed in hectare-metres or Mm3.
Reservoir Yield:
It is the amount of water that can be drawn from the reservoir in a specified time
interval. It depends on catchment yield and reservoir losses like evaporation, leakage, etc.
Mass-curve of Inflow:
It is a plot of annual inflow to reservoir with respect to time.
Mass-curve of Outflow:
It is a plot of annual outflow from reservoir with respect to time.
Dependable Yield or Design Yield

Normally 50% or 75% dependable flow is design for a reservoir since both the critical
values (100% or 1%) of inflow cannot be taken for design. If we consider the least value, the
surplus water will be more and if we consider the highest value, the reservoir will be empty
for most of the year. Hence, the optimum value of yield called Design Yield is designed. The
value depends on the type of project. It is computed based on past record of inflow for about
30 to 50 years.
Safe or Firm Yield:

The yield which corresponds to the worst or most critical yield of the year.

Secondary Yield:
Water available in excess of firm yield during years of higher inflow.
Average Yield:
It is the arithmetic average of firm and secondary yield.
Optimum Storage of a Reservoir:

It depends upon the type of project, initial cost of construction for storage capacity,
probability of exceeding its storage capacity in any year. It is the storage for which the benefit
is maximum for minimum cost of construction.
EARTHEN BUNDS
Earthen bund is the main barrier across the valley and streambed, to store water in the
tank. For small tanks the height of the bund may be around 3 to 5 metres. For bigger tanks
(reservoirs) heights may be around 10 metres and may go up to 15 metres also.
Selection of the earthen bund

There is generally no problem in forming earthen bund up to 5metres. It is always
advisable and economical to use the available earth from the tank foreshore.
Generally, soils are of three types: -
 Sandy soils
 Gritty, gravelly and loamy soils
 Plastic and heavy clays
It is advisable not to use sandy soils, as they are pervious. The foundation of the earthen
bunds should be stripped and all lose and sandy layers must be removed.

Causes of failure of earthen bunds:

The general causes for the failure of the earthen bunds are:
Percolation (both through the bund and under the foundations)
 Slipping of side slopes
 Overflow or toppling of the bund
 Erosion by waves
Percolation:
When the tank is full, water will seep through the bank forming a saturation gradient.
If the bank section is not enough to keep the saturation gradient within the bank with
sufficient overburden of soil, then the water that seeps through the bank up to the saturation
gradient will cut the outer slope of the bank and slowly start eroding the bank in the rear by
removing the soil. This will slowly work upstream causing failure of the bank. The other
failure is doe to seepage under the bank due to porous nature of the foundation materials. The
percolating water through these porous tunnels under the bank will appear at the slope and
slowly start removing soil particles coming in its path, thus forming ‘pipes’.
Partial cut-off:
A partial cut-off is one, which extends down from the impervious section of the dam
to the underlying strata, but does not reach the impervious stratum. In many cases, it would be
impractical land extremely expensive to continue the cut-off to the impervious stratum and so,
the use of a partial cut-off is considered necessary.
Owing to the fact that the horizontal permeability may be of order of 10 to 15 times
the vertical, the effect of a partial cut-off in reducing seepage may be much greater.
Therefore, in small earthen dams, a cut-off trench is excavated to half the depth of the storage
and is back filled and consolidated with imperious soil, i.e., same soils used for the hearting
zone.

Upstream blanket:
Instead of using a cut-off under a dam, on pervious layer an impervious upstream
blanket may sometimes be advisedly used. The purpose of such a blanket is to increase the
length of path of percolation from seepage under the dam and thus decrease the velocity and
quantity of seepage.
SALIENT DETAILS OF EARTH DAM
Top Width:
This must be wide enough to carry a roadway with enough carriageways to
accommodate earth-moving machinery to go over it in case of emergency.
Upstream Slope:
This slope depends upon the height of the dam and decided by the stability analysis of
soils obtained at the site. Generally, it will be flatter than 2.5 horizontal to 1 vertical.
Bank Section:
The main bank section may be a homogeneous section or a zonal section with casing
and hearting zones, depending upon the soils available at the site. The section of the earth
dam will be large in case it has o be in a homogeneous section. The top of the hearting zone
will be taken up to maximum water level.
Cut-off:
In order to ensure the dam does not fail due to percolation under the dam an
impervious cut-off, completely preventing seepage from upstream of the dam reaching the toe
of the damalong the foundations, is an absolute necessity. The latest technique is to form
reinforced cement concrete diaphragm wall, with its bottom well keyed into the bedrock and
top well keyed to the hearting zone.

Sand Chimney, Longitudinal and Cross Drains

The sand chimney formed hugging the hearting zone in rear helps in trapping any
seepage through the hearting and the phreatic line drops down into this layer. Any seepage
thus collected will be led into the longitudinal sand drain at the bottom of the chimney and
this is lead away by the cross drains across the bank section formed at suitable intervals along
the entire length of the dam.
Consolidation of Banks:
While forming the earthen dams, enough care has to be taken in consolidating the
layers of the earth, so that the bank does not shrink in rainy season and allow water to
percolate through. A weak zone in a tank is enough to endanger the entire bund, even if it
formed well enough.
It is desirable that banks are consolidated at optimum moisture content with power
rollers to get at least 98% Proctor’s density. Moisture content more than the optimum will
mean low shear value and less than optimum will increase pore-pressure.
Top Width and Free Board of the Banks:

The height of the bank between MWL (Maximum water Level) and the top of the
bank is called the free board. Free board will increase with the increase in size of the bank, as
the height of waves will be more in bigger tanks than in smaller ones.
Col. Ellis recommends the following dimensions for board and top width of the bank
depending upon the maximum height of the bank.

Depth of Deep Bed Free Board Above Top Width of

Below F.T.L M.W. L Bank
2 to 3 metres 0.25 metre 1.25 metres
3 to 5 metres 0.35 metres 1.75 metres
5 to 7 metres 0.45 metres 2.00 metres
Over 7 metres 0.5 metres 3.00 metres
There is no harm in having an extra height of the free board and extra top width on the
bank. In order to have at least a good cycling path, a top width of not less than 2 m is
desirable.
Failure by Slipping or Sliding:

If the soil with which the bank is formed does not possess the necessary shear strength
to withstand the super imposed height of the earth, then the earth will fail by sliding.
This failure may occur at the foundation level if the foundations are of poor nature and
at the slopes, if the bank is formed with slopes than at which they can be retained by the
combined friction and cohesion between particles composing it.
While forming banks higher than 10 m, it is necessary to test the soils for their various
parameters and test the foundation pressure also for bearing capacity, etc.

Failure by Over-topping:
This generally happens if insufficient free board is provided. In high gales, the wave
will be generally high and if enough free board is not provided, the waves, while riding the
slopes may clear the top. The height the wave depends upon the water spread before the bund
9also called the fetch) and the velocity of the wind. The wave as it approaches the bank, has a
tendency to smoothly ride up along the slope. If the slope is a flat one the height to which the
wave can ride along the slope will be greater than if the slope is steep. It will destroy itself by
striking against the slope. Free board should be at least 1.5 times the wave height.
If the free board is not enough, a breach may occur. To prevent this from happening,
while providing sufficient free boards, wave breakers, which are generally vertical stones
fixed in the riprap on the upstream slope in a zigzag pattern, are also provided. This will help
in breaking the waves as they come riding along the slope.
Also, when there is a large inflow into the tank, the water level rises quickly and if the
surplus capacity is not enough, the water level may rise above M.W.L. and may even top over
the bank. Once this happens then bank will be harmed and it will breach.
NECESSITY OF THE NEW TANK:

Primarily all the irrigation structures are developed and built to cater to the needs of: -
 Irrigation
 Water supply
 Recharging of ground water resources
 Flood mitigation
 Drought relief measures or any other such relevant needs of the community
A bund is usually constructed in a valley keeping in mind he greatest possible ratio of

height to length for a given capacity. In deep gorge, the length of bund will be usually less
capacity of water stored will be more, which is directly proportional to the height of the bund.

In all such cases due to storage of water environmental mismanagement invariably

occurs. As per basic human instinct, to develop civilisation near water-form habitations
begins to develop leading to deforestation and environmental changes. Deforestation will lead
to soil erosion and erosion of the green cover.
Soil erosion will lead to situation in tank due to removal of the topsoil by surface
runoff. This results in a gradual reduction of storage capacity of tank and the rate of siltation
is directly proportional to rate of denigration of green cover.
The erosion of green cover invariably has a disastrous effect on environment. With the
present much talked about phenomenon of global warming and its resulting effect, it has
generally lead to either untimely or scanty rainfall in many areas. This necessitates the
development of proper storage system to optimise the solution for our needs.
The development of civilisation invariably exerts pressure on scantily available natural
resources. In the greed for economic prosperity, we humans sacrifice nature thereby depleting
the available natural resources at an exponential rate while caring nothing about
replenishment of the same.
These acts of ours from the past few hundreds of years have now resulted in we being
deprived of basic minimum decent standard of living.
Since there is a wide area of land left barren especially on side of a gradual slope
being on the left side of the stream the proposal of a new tank is appropriate. More over the
earth and rock necessary for construction is available at the site. The labour would be easily
available from the local area for people seem to be relatively in need of such jobs as there is
lesser part of their area is not cultivated and quite a lot sell coconut along the road though
there isn’t much scope of earning from the moderately dense population.
DETAILED EXPLANATION OF SURVEY WORK CARRIED OUT IN

THE FIELD
Fly Levelling:
Flying levelling is a process adopted in the field to transfer the reduced level from a
given permanent benchmark as near to the starting point of the project as possible.

Procedure:
The dumpy level is set up near permanent bench mark and perfectly levelled
A reconnaissance survey is done to align the route for the fly levelling, from the existing
permanent benchmark to the proposed temporary benchmark keeping in mind the inter-
visibility and the terrain on either side of proposed route for positioning dumpy level.
Back sight is taken on the permanent benchmark from the first position of dumpy
level. The level staffs are then shifted to the first location on proposed fly levelling route
determined earlier. Care is taken to ensure that linear distance between position of dumpy
level and the two-level staff positions are approximately same if not the exact measurement.
The level staff should be held vertically plumb.
With level staff still in place in new position P1, the dumpy level is shifted and set up
in a new location P2 on the other side of proposed fly levelling route. Back sight is taken on
the level staff. Level staff is shifted to a new position on proposed route, ensuring conformity
with the standards enlisted above. The process is continued till temporary benchmark is
reached. The above procedure has been adopted to have zero tolerance level or to minimise all
the error usually prevalent in levelling, like manual, instrumental error, due to curvature etc.
On reaching the temporary benchmark, which is necessarily, be a permanent object on
the site of work. Its reduced level is marked on its surface.
All the readings are entered in the columns of the level book.
DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRE LINE OF THE BUND

The appropriate and usual width of the top of the bund is four metres and the
imaginary line passing along the middle of the top of the bund length. It separates the
upstream side and downstream side. Determining the centreline of the bund is to fix the two
points of the same reduced levels on the either side of the valley.

Procedures:
From the temporary benchmark the fly levelling is done towards one side of the valley
to get the RL of the given top-level bund. On getting the point with required RL of the top
bund the point is marked prominently. Then theodolite is set up and the temporary
adjustments are done. The readings on the vertical circular plate is made zero. The upper
clamp crews and lower clamp screw are clamped. The H.I of the theodolite is determined.
Then another point on the other of the valley is
located at the same R.L as that of the point near the theodolite, by making a person a hold
levelling staff and move back and forth till reading on the staff is same as H.I.
Longitudinal and Cross Section of The Bund:

Longitudinal section of the bund is necessary to set the profile along the bund. It is by
the use of longitudinal section and cross section that we can calculate the volume of earth and
all other materials require for the construction of the bund.
Objectives:
To get construction details and to estimate the cost of the bund.
Specifications:
 The length of the proposed bund should be minimum.
 There should be good foundation available.
 A natural subsidiary is desirable at the bund side for locating waste weir. To meet the
above specification the central line of the bund is fixed by the means of at least two
flag ports (p & q) on the either side at an elevation of 2 m above the top level of the
bund. The position of the central line is also marked on the top sheet.

Equipment’s Required:
 Level with stand
 Levelling staff

 30 m chain and tape

 Arrows
 Ranging rods
 Theodolite
 Cross-staff
 Wooden pegs
Procedures:
With the theodolite fixed on the position mentioned earlier or right after the centreline
was fixed the chain was stretched along the centreline i.e., such that it lied
along the line of sight of the theodolite. The dumpy level was also set up somewhere near.
Points at every 15 metres were marked as the points for longitudinal section and the R.L was
found out. At those points perpendiculars were set out by 3-4-5 triangle method with help of
measuring tape on both the sides of the chain lying along the centreline. Then perpendiculars
were extended up to 8 metres on both the sides and R.L of points at every 2 metres as points
of cross section were found out.
The above procedures were repeated all along the centreline till the other end point of the
centreline.
CAPACITY CONTOURING
A contour is the line of level surface or it is an imaginary line joining points of equal
reduced levels or elevations. It is the method of taking measurements in the field so that
contour lines can be drawn on a map to give a complete picture of earth’s surface. The
vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called contour interval. The contour
interval depends on the nature of ground, scale of map, purpose and extent of survey etc.
Characteristics of Contours:
 A contour line is always uniformly spaced, while a plane is indicted when they are
straight and equally spaced.
 Contour lines cross ridgelines or valley lines at right angle. A ridgeline is shown when
the higher values are inside the loop and or bend in the contour, while in the case of a

valley line the lower values are inside the loop. The same contour appears on either
side of a ridge or valley. Valley contours are convex toward the stream.
 Contours lines cannot merge or cross one another on the map, except in the case of
overhanging cliff. Contour lines cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either
within or without the limits of the map.
 A series of closed contours on the map indicates a depression or a summit, according
as the lower or higher values are inside them.
 An irregular contour indicates rough, rugged terrain, where as smooth contours denote
gradual slopes.
Uses of Contours:
 By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the character of the tract of the
country is obtained; whether it is flat, undulating or mountains, etc.
 The most economical or suitable site for engineering works such as a reservoir, canal,
sewer, road, or railway may be approximately selected.
 Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the contour maps.
 Contours may be used to determine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity of
the reservoir.
 The sections may be easily drawn in any direction from the contours.
 Intervisibility of two given points can be ascertained from the map.
 A route of the given grade line can be traced on the map.
Methods for Locating Contours
Direct Method:
In this method the contours to be plotted are actually located on the ground with the
level by marking various points on each contour. These points are then surveyed, and plotted
on the plan. Though this method is very slow and tedious it is the most accurate, and is used
for contouring small areas.

To begin with, fly levels are taken from the nearest permanent benchmark near the site
of survey. The level is then set up in a commanding position and accuracy levelled. The
height of the instrument (H.I) is determined by taking a back sight on the benchmark. From
the known elevations of the contours and the H.I., the required staff readings to fix points on
the various contour lines are obtained to the first place of a decimal by subtracting the
elevation of each of the contours from the H.I.
Indirect Method:
By squares:
This method is suitable if the area is not very extensive. In this method, area is divided
into a series of squares, and the corners of the squares are marked with the pegs. The squares
need not be of same size throughout. Each separate square is pegged out and the elevations of
the ground of the corners of the squares are determined with a level. Intermediate points
within the squares may be taken when required and may be located on the diagonals of the
squares, or by the measurement from the corners. The system of squares is plotted and in each
corners its elevation is written. The contour lines are then interpolated in the usual way.
Tacheometric method:
This method is suitable when the contour map of a hill is required. A number of lines are set
out radiating at a given angular interval from each of the transverse stations, and the
representative points on these lines are located in the field by observing the vertical angles
and the staff readings of the bottom, middle and the top wire, with a tachometer. The
elevations and the distances of these points are calculated. The survey is plotted and the
contour lines are then interpolated.
Objectives:
 To fix the capacity of the tank bund
 To fix full tank level
 To fix the maximum water of the tank
 To fix sill level of the sluice

Equipment’s Required:
 Dumpy level with stand
 Levelling staff
 Plane table with stand and its accessories
Procedures
The plane table and the theodolite were set up as close together as possible at a
suitable position from where all the points of the given contour could be seen. Both the plane
table and the theodolite were levelled and temporary adjustments were made like levelling
using spirit level, and making theodolite’s vertical plate reading zero so as to function as a
level etc. The station point ‘P’ was located on the sheet by sighting the two-bund end points
using alidade. The height of instrument was found out by back-sighting the temporary
benchmark. The theodolite readings were set to zero on the horizontal scale. From the height
of instrument, the particular reading to be made on the levelling staff to get the points on the
ground having the given R.L was marked. With clamp screws tightened one person was
directed to move along the line of sight back or forth to bisect the marked reading. When the
bisection is done the intercept is noted to compute the distance of that point from the
instrument station. Simultaneously the staff is bisected through the alidade and plotted on the
sheet to the scale in use. Next in the theodolite is rotated through an angle 20 o and staff man
was made to move along the new line of the theodolite till the mark on the staff was bisected
and also by alidade and plotted on the sheet to the scale. Above procedures were repeated for
every angular interval of 20o till all the points of same R.L on the upstream side were plotted.
Note:
Before closing the day’s works the position of the plane table station in properly
established by bisecting three well-defined permanent objects. The next day the work is
continued by solving three-point problem. In order to get a good contour, the plane table and
the instruments must be shifted a number of times depending on topography of the region and

is time the required new staff reading for particular height of instrument is calculated to get
the R.L. needed. Each time the plane table is shifted, it has to be back oriented with reference
to the previous station. The top width of the dam is fixed by taking into consideration the
minimum with of road.
CALCULATION OF CAPACITY BETWEEN CONTOURS:

Capacity between contours = Average area of the successive contours ´ contour interval.
Total storage capacity of the reservoir = [å capacity between successive contours up to
F.T.L.]– [Dead storage].
BLOCK LEVELLING FOR WASTE WEIR DESIGN
Weir:
Weir is a structure constructed to raise the water level on the upstream side of the
obstruction, and thus, to feed the main canals taking off from its upstream side at one or both
of its flanks. It also discharges excess water. If the major part or the entire pounding of water
is achieved by a raised crest, then this barrier is known as a weir.
Classification of Weir:
Weirs are classified into two types, depending upon the criterion of the design of their
floods.
 Non-Gravity Weir.
 Gravity weir
Non-Gravity Weir:
In Non-Gravity weir, the floor thickness is kept relatively less, and the uplift pressure
is largely resisted by the bending action of the reinforced concrete floor.

Gravity Weir:
A Gravity weir is the one in which the uplift pressure due to the seepage of water below the
floor is restricted entirely by the weight of the floor.
Gravity dams are further classified as:
 Vertical drop weir.
 Sloping weir
i) Masonry or concrete slope weir

ii) Dry stone slope weir
 Parabolic weir
The Vertical Drop weir:

The vertical drop weir consists of a vertical drop wall or crest wall with or without
crest gates. At the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor, cut off piles are
provided. To safe guard against scouring action, launching aprons are provided both at
upstream and downstream end of the floor. A graded inverted filter is provided immediately at
the downstream end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure. These types are
suitable for any types of the foundations.
Weirs of these types are of recent origin. They are suitable for soft sandy foundations
and all generally used where the difference in weir crest and downstream riverbed is limited
to 3 m. when water passes over such a weir hydraulic jump is formed on the sloping glacis.
Dry Stone Slope Weir:

A dry-stone slope weir or a rock-fill weir consists of a body wall and upstream and
downstream rock-fills that are laid in the form of glacis with few intervening core walls.
Parabolic weir:
A parabolic weir is similar to the spillway action of a dam. The body wall for such a
weir is designed at the low dam. A cistern is provided at the downstream side to dissipate the

energy. The upstream and downstream protection works are similar to that of a vertical drop
or sloping glacis weir.
Objectives:
To dispose off the surplus water.
Specifications:
 There should be a natural diversion to carry the surplus water.
 There should be good soil at the weir site for foundation.
 The length and height of the body wall must be minimum.
 The cost of protective works must be minimum.
Formula for Estimation of Flood Discharge:
Ryve's formula:
Qf = C A2/3
Where Qf = flood discharge
C = constant = 9 to 10
A = area of catchment in km2
The area of the catchment is calculated from the toposheet using planimeter.
Formula for Length of Waste Weir:
Qf= 2/3 cdÖ(2g) LH2/3, where Qf = Flood discharge
Cd = Coefficient of discharge =0.6
H = Head over weir (MWL-FTL)
L = Length of the weir in m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2
Hence, knowing cd, Qf, g & H, ‘L’ length of the waste weir is calculated.
Qf= 2/3 cdÖ(2g) LH2/3

CANAL ALIGNMENT
 CANAL
A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground to
carry water to the fields either from the river or from a tank or reservoir. Canals can be
classified in following ways:
a) Classification based on the nature of source of supply

1) Permanent canal.
2) Inundation canal.
A canal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source of supply. The canal is
a well-made up regular graded channel. It has also permanent masonry works of regulation
and distribution of supplies. A permanent canal is also sometimes known as perennial canal
when the sources from which canal takes is an ice fed Perennial River.
Inundation canals usually draw their supplies from rivers whenever there is a high stage in
the river. They are not provided with any headwork’s for diversion of river water to the canal.
They are, however, provided with a canal head regulator. The head of the canal has to be
changed sometimes to suit the changing pattern of river course.
b) Classification based on financial output

1) Productive canal.
2) Protective canal.
Productive canals are those which yield a net revenue to the nation after full development of
irrigation in the area.
Protective canal is a sort of relief work constructed with the idea of protecting a particular
area from famine.
c) Classification based on the function of the canal

1) Irrigation canal.
2) Carrier canal.
3) Feeder canal.
4) Navigation canal.
5) Power canal.
An Irrigation canal carries water to the agricultural fields.
A Carrier canal besides doing irrigation carries water for another canal. Upper Chenab canal
in West Punjab (Pakistan) is the example of one such canal.

A feeder canal is constructed with the idea of feeding two or more canals. Examples of
such canals are: Rajasthan feeder canal and Sir hind feeder.
d) Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a given

network of canals.
1) Main canal.
2) Branch canal.
3) Major distributary
4) Minor distributary
5) Water course
1) Main canal generally carries water directly from the river. Such a canal carries heavy
supplies and is not used for direct irrigation except in exceptional circumstances.
Main canals act as water carriers to feed supplies to branch canals and major
distributaries.
2) Branch canals are the branches of the main canal in either direction taking off at
regular intervals. In general, branch canals also do not carry out any direct irrigation,
but at times direct outlets may be provided. Branch canals are usually feeder channels
for major and minor distributaries. They usually carry a discharge of over 5 cumecs.
3) Major distributaries usually called Rajbha, take off from a branch canal. They may
also sometimes take off from the main canal, but their discharge is generally lesser
than branch canals. They are real irrigation channels in the sense that they supply
water for irrigation to the field through outlets provided along them. Their discharge
varies from ¼ to 5 cumecs.
4) Minor distributaries called minors take off from branch canals or from distributaries.
Their discharge is usually less than ¼ cumecs. They supply water to the water courses
through outlets provided along them.
5) A water course is a small channel which ultimately feeds the water to irrigation fields.
Depending upon the size and extent of the irrigation scheme, a field channel may take
off from a distributary or minor. Sometimes, it may even take off from the branch
canal for the field situated very near to the branch canal.
e) Classification based on canal alignment

According to the alignment, a canal may be classified as under:
1) Contour canal.
2) Watershed canal.
3) Side slope canal.
The characteristic features of these canals are discussed in the next article.

 ALIGNMENT
A Canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be irrigated,
with shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including the cost of cross drainage
works is a minimum. A shorter length of canal ensures less loss of head due to friction and
smaller loss of discharge due to seepage and evaporation, so that additional areas can be
brought under cultivation.
According to alignment, the channels may be
1) Ridge canal.
2) Contour canal.
3) Side slope canal.
1. Ridge canal
A ridge canal or a watershed canal is aligned along a watershed and runs for most of its
length on a watershed. When a channel is on the watershed, it can command areas on both
banks and so a large area can be brought, under cultivation. Also, no drainage can intersect a
watershed and, hence, the necessity of constructing cross drainage works are obviated.
When the watershed takes a very sharp loop, the canal should be aligned straight to save
considerable idle length, as shown in Fig.13.2. The area of the loop between the watershed
and the canal cannot be irrigated by this canal as there will be higher ground on this side and
some other arrangement has to be made if the irrigation is important in that area. The canal
checks the drainage of this part and a cross-drainage work has, therefore, to be provided. A
cost analysis should, therefore, be made before aligning the canal straight to reduce its length.
The canal has also to leave watershed to by-pass towns and villages situated at the watershed.
2. Contour canal
A channel aligned nearly parallel to the contours of the country is called a contour canal.
When the canal takes off from a river in a hilly area, it is not possible to align the canal on the
watershed as the watershed on the top of the hill may be very high and the areas which need
irrigation are concentrated in the valley. The canal is then aligned roughly parallel to the
contours of the country. The contour chosen for the alignment should be so placed as to
include all cultivable area of the valley on one side of the canal.
The contour channel can irrigate only on one side. As the ground level on the other
side is quite high, there is no necessity of a bank on this side. Hence, a contour canal is
sometimes constructed with one bank only, and is known as a single bank canal. However,
when both the banks are provided, it is known as a double bank canal.

The contour canal does not follow the same contour all along. To enable the water to flow by
gravity, some surface slope is given. The rate at which the canal alignment leaves one
contour and takes up another depends upon its surface slope. It is usual, in highly undulated
tracks to carry the channel in deep cutting across the ridges or spurs and in high embankments
across the valleys in order to reduce the unnecessary length of the channel in long detours and
sharp curves in the alignment.
3. Side Slope Canal
It is a channel aligned roughly at right angles to the contours of the country and is neither on
the watershed nor in the valley. Such a channel would be roughly parallel to the natural
drainage of the country and, hence, it does not intercept any cross-drainage. However, it has
very steep bed slope, since the direction of the steepest slope of the ground is at right angles to
the contours of the country.
General considerations for alignment
1) The alignment of the canal should be such as to ensure

(i) the most economical way of distributing the water to the land,
(ii) as high a command as possible, and
(iii) minimum number of cross drainage works.
2) The alignment of a canal on a watershed, being the most economical, is preferred. As
a general rule, all the watershed lying in a command should be occupied by
distributaries.
3) The length of the main canal from the point where is takes off from a river to a point
where it mounts on a watershed should be minimum.
4) The contour alignment should be changed this way or that way in order to reduce the
number of cross-drainage works to a minimum.
5) The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places, places of
worship and other valuable properties.
6) The alignment should pass through the balance’s depth of cutting. It not, it should
involve minimum depth of cutting or minimum height of filling.
7) The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
8) Idle length of canal should be minimum and branches etc. should be economically
planned.
9) The alignment should not be made in rocky, brackish or cracked strata.
Alignment of a field channel
Though the maintenance of a field channel is the responsibility of the farmers, its alignment
should have the following features:
1. They should be laid along field boundaries.

2. They should be capable of supplying sufficient water to the tail end.

3. Separate field channels should be provided for high and low lands.
4. The field channels should not pass through rocky, brackish, or cracked strata.
CURVES
Curves should not be provided except where necessary. Introduction of a curve in a channel
disturbs the regime of channel. The concave side is always under erosion and the convex side
has a tendency to slit.
If the provision of curve is a must, minimum radius should be provided as shown in Table
below:
TABLE
Capacity of channel (cumecs) Minimum radius of the

curve(meters)
Less than 0.3 100
0.3 to 3 159
3 to 15 300
15 to 30 600
30 to 85 900
Over 85 1500

DESIGN

DESIGN OF THE BUND

The preliminary design of earthen dam is done on the basis of performance of the dams built
in the past.
The preliminary section of the earthen dam is fixed based on the necessity of the locality of
the items:
 Top width
 Free board
 Casing or outer shells
 Cutoff trench
 D/S drainage system
 Central impervious core
DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED BUND

Length of bund =140.0 m
Top bund width = 3.0 m
Full tank level = 824.000 m
Max water level = 825.000 m
Top bund level = 826.000 m
1. CALCULATION OF YIELD AT SITE
 The catchment area of the proposed new tank determined from toposheet is 14 Km².
 The rainfall of a bad year is always taken as ⅔ of mean amount of rainfall.
 Average annual rainfall for Doddaballapur area from meteorological department data
is 80cm.
 Bad year rainfall = ⅔ x 80 = 53.33 cm.
 Runoff coefficient is usually assumed as 15% to 20%.
 Assuming 20%

20
Annual yield= 100 x 53.33= 10.67cm
10.67
 Yield from catchment= 14x10⁶x 100 = 1.493x10⁶cumec/year.
TOP WIDTH: It is the crust width of the earthen dam. Top width depends on the
following considerations:
 Nature of the embankment materials and minimum allowable percolations distance
through the embankment at the normal reservoir level
 Importance of the structure.
 Height of the structure.
 Width of the highway on the top of the dam.
 Practicability of the construction.
 Protection against earthquake forces.
Following are the some of the empirical expression for the top width of the dam in terms of
the height of the dam.
1. b=(Z/5) + 3
2. b=0.55z1/2 + 0.2z
3. b=1.65 [z + 1.5]1/3
Equation 1 is applicable for only very low dams.
Equation 2 is for dams lower than 30m.
Equation 3 is given by U.S.B.R, for the dams higher than 30m
In general, according to Indian standards, no dam should have crest width of less than 6m.
The empirical expression for the top width is
b=0.55z1/2 + 0.2z(when z<10m)
Where, b= top width
z= height of the dam.
Using the empirical formula for the top width of the earthen dam in terms of height of earthen
dam:
1
\ Top bund width= 0.55×12.46 2 +0.2×12.46

= 4.43m
Providing a minimum width of 3m.
FREE BOARD:
 It is the height provided above maximum water level up to top bund level which is called as net free
board and above full tank level up to maximum water level.
 The total free board provided between full tank level and top bund level is called as gross free board.
 Free board must be sufficient to prevent overtopping of water due to wave action.
 Provide minimum of 2m free board above full tank level up to top bund level.
 Free board between full tank level and maximum water level = 1m
 Free board between maximum water level and top bund level= 1m
\ Gross free board= 2m
Free board is the difference in level b/w the crest (top of the embankment) and normal
reservoir level.
 Provide min of 0.4m free board.
The U.S.B.R, suggests the following free boards

Nature of spill way Height of column Free board
Free Any height Minimum 2m and max 3m
Over the max flood level
Controlled <60m 2.5m above the top width
Controlled >60m 3m above the top of the
gates
CASING OR OUTER SHELL: The function of the casing is to impart the stability
and to protect the core. The relatively pervious materials which are not subjected to cracking
on direct exposure to atmosphere are suitable for casing.

Suitability of soil for construction of earthen dam IS 8826-1978:
RELATIVE HOMOGENEOUS ZONED EARTHEN DAM

SUITABILITY SECTIONS PERVIOUS
IMPERVIOUS
VERY SUITABLE GC SW GW
SUITABLE CL, GM CL, CI
FAIRLY SP, SM, CH SP, GP SM, GH, SC
SUITABLE
POOR QUALITY - - ML, MI, MH
NOT SUITABLE - - OL, NI, OH, PT
SLOPE
For dam height more than 7m.
Upstream side slope as per standards is 3:1.
Downstream side slope as per standards is 2:1.
Preliminary dimension of earthen dam according to storage:

Height of dam Height of the Top width U/S D/S
Above GL in dam in m slope slope
m Above HFL in
m
Up to 4.5m 1.2 to 1.5m 1.8 1:1 1.5:1
4.5 to 7.5m 1.5 to 1.8m 1.85 2.5:1 1.5:1
7.5 to 15m 1.85 2.5 3:1 2:1
15 to 25m 2.1 3 3:1 2:1

CUT OFF TRENCH: Is required to reduce the loss of store water through the foundation
& abutments & to prevent surface erosion by piping.
Design of cut off trench:

Provide min width of cut off trench 4m at top and 10% of hydraulic head at bottom.
D/S DRAINAGE SYSTEM: The d/s drainage reduces the pore water pressure of the d/s
portion of the dam &hence increases the stability. Generally, 3 types of drains are provided in
the earthen dams:
 Toe drains
 Horizontal drains
 Chimney drains
CENTRAL IMPERVIOUS CORE: A thick core has more resistance to piping which
may develop in differential settlements and cracks.
Sloping of the core in general is 1:1
Top width of core = 2.00 m
Providing slope of 1:1.5.
2. DESIGN OF ESCAPE WEIR OR SURPLUS WEIR
1. Catchment area, A =14 Km²

2. Assuming Ryve’s coefficient, ¢= 9
3. Discharge, Q = 9x14 2/ 3
= 52.28 m3/sec
4. Ground level of bund = 818.00m
5. Level of top foundation = 816.00m

3. LENGTH OF WIER
It can be determined by following formula
3 Q
L= [ 2 x Cd √ 2 g h ]
3 /2
Where,
Cd= coefficient of discharge=0.6
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 m/s²
h = head over weir, MWL-FTL= 1m
ð L = 29.51m »30m
It is required to make provision for storing flood water up to maximum water level
and this can be achieved by fixing dam stones each of 0.2x0.2 m at 1m c/c spacing
and with their tops at maximum water level.
\ No. of dam stones= 30-1=29

Length occupied by dam stones = 29x0.2
= 5.8m
\total length of weir = 30+5.8
= 35.8» 36m

826m
J
825m
824m
821m
820m
 TOP WIDTH OF WEIR
It is calculated by
a= 0.55(√ H + √ h ¿
where,
H= height of weir
= (FTL- level at top of foundation)
= 824.00-820.00
=4m
a= 0.55(√ 4 + √ 1¿
=1.65 » 1.7 m
 BOTTOM WIDTH OF WEIR
It is calculated by
H +h
b=
√r −1
where,
r= specific gravity for masonry or concrete which is in between 2.2 and 2.4.

4+1
B=
√2.4−1
= 4.22 » 4.5 m
Length of CC bed = 4.5+0.3+0.3

= 5.1m
Thickness of CC bed = 0.8m
825m
824m
1.7
821m
4.5
820m
812m
5.1m

CANAL DESIGN
DESIGN OF SLUICE AND CHANNEL SECTION
Determination of irrigable area
 The yield of catchment has found to be 1.4938×10⁶cumec/year.

 Assuming 10% for evaporation loss and 15% of conveyance loss i.e. 25%
as total loss in reservoir storage capacity.
 Volume of water available for irrigation = 0.75×1.4938×10⁶ =
1.12035×10⁶ cmᶟ.
 Assuming average duty of 200 hectares million cubic meters for mixed
crop pattern.
1.12035× 10 ⁶× 200
 Area that can be irrigated = 6
10
= 224.07 Hectares.
SLUICE
1. Discharge (q)
Command area of canal = 224.07 hectares
Duty at field = 200 hectares
area
\ Discharge, q = duty
224.07
= 200 = 1.12 mᶟ/s
2. Sluice vent way
Sill level of the sluice = 816.00 m
Average low water level = 818.00 m
\ Head over the sill of sluice = 818.00-816.00
h= 2.00 m

q=C d .a.√ 2 g h
1.12=0.8a√ (2 ×9.81 ×2)
a= 0.223 m²
p.d ²
a= 4
d= 0.532m » 0.5m = 50cm
CANAL
Longitudinal slope of channel

5
f3
s¿ 1
3340 q 6
where,
f= silt factor i.e. 1.3.
5
1.3 3
s= 1
3340× 1.12 6
= 1 in 2198 » 1 in 2000
Hence assumed slope of 1 in 2000 is correct.

For using 1: 1.5 slope,
1
Area of trapezoidal section, A = D (B+ 2 D)
Assuming
B=3D
V= 0.55 D 0.64
Area = D (3D + 0.5 D)

= 3D² +0.5D²
= 3.5D²
As we know,
q= a.v
1.12= 3.5D²×0.55 D0.64
D= 0.81» 1m

ð B= 3D= 3m
\overall depth= 1+0.5(free board)
= 1.5 m
VOLUME OF WATER THAT CAN BE STORED AT DIFFERENT

ELEVATIONS:
Different levels Reduced Area(m2) Contour Volume( Cumulative

levels Interval (m) m3) volume(m3)
Sluice Level 817.000 - - - -
1st RL 821.000 1196.8 4 4787.2 4787.2
2nd RL 822.000 774.4 1 774.4 5561.6
3rd RL 823.000 3008 1 3008 8569.6
Full Tank Level 824.000 1670.4 1 1670.4 10240
Maximum Water 825.000 6585.6 1 6585.6 16825

Level
Top Bund Level 826.000 3846.4 1 3846.4 20672

NEW TANK PROJECT SITE REDUCED LEVELS
FLY LEVELLING, L/S AND C/S
BACKSIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT LOS RL CHAINAGE TOTAL DISTANCE

2.515 828.66 826.145 C0
1.905 826.755 L10
1.075 1.060 828.675 827.600 L20
0.450 828.225 L30
0.490 828.185 L40
3.800 824.875 R10
4.770 823.905 R20
5.900 822.775 R30
5.955 822.725 R40
4.240 824.435 C10
3.480 825.195 L10
2.845 825.830 L20
2.355 826.320 L30
1.900 826.775 L40
2.410 5.150 825.935 823.525 R10
3.110 822.845 R20
4.150 821.785 R30
4.930 821.005 R40
3.560 822.375 C20
3.080 822.855 L10
2.810 2.810 825.935 823.125 L20
2.430 825.505 L30
1.740 824.950 L40
4.035 821.900 R10
4.050 821.885 R20
4.565 821.370 R30
1.540 5.385 820.550 R40
1.090 821.00 C30
0.510 821.50 L10
0.350 821.660 L20
0.365 821.725 L30
2.100 819.990 L40
1.970 820.120 R10
3.075 819.015 R20
3.360 818.730 R30
3.585 818.505 C40

2.195 3.980 820.305 818.110 L10

1.505 818.800 L20
0.410 819.895 L30
0.210 820.095 L40
2.760 2.760 820.305 817.545 R10
3.460 816.845 R20
1.570 3.210 818.665 817.095 C45
2.775 815.890 C50
2.785 815.880 L10
2.700 815.965 L20
2.890 815.775 L30
3.150 815.515 L40
2.780 815.885 R10
2.835 815.830 R20
2.905 815.760 R30
3.510 815.155 R40
4.155 814.510 C55
2.895 5.090 816.470 813.575 C60
2.275 814.195 L10
1.665 814.805 L20
0.325 816.145 L30
1.015 815.455 L40
2.100 814.370 R10
2.690 2.690 813.780 R20
3.510 813.780 R20
3.925 812.96 R30
2.900 812.545 R40
1.550 813.570 C65
0.40 814.920 C70
0.330 816.07 L10
0.195 816.140 L20
0.105 816.275 L30
1.070 816.365 L40
2.970 815.400 R10
3.730 812.740 R20
3.515 812.955 R30
2.960 0.610 818.820 815.860 C80
2.545 813.925 L10
1.940 814.520 L20
1.640 814.830 L30
0.460 816.010 L40
3.100 813.370 R10
2.910 813.560 R20

2.680 2.680 818.82 816.140 R30

3.060 816.510 R40
3.445 2.330 816.490 C85
2.385 817.300 C90
2.170 817.515 L5
2.170 817.515 L10
2.420 817.265 L15
1.670 818.015 L20
0.200 819.485 L25
0.315 819.370 L30
2.715 816.970 R5
2.260 817.425 R10
2.275 817.410 R15
2.670 817.015 R20
3.220 816.465 R25
5.510 3.815 816.120 R30
1.645 819.739 C100
2.035 819.345 L5
3.385 817.995 L10
3.100 818.280 L15
2.450 2.450 819.180 L20
1.205 820.175 L25
0.140 821.240 L30
3.005 818.375 R5
3.780 817.602 R10
3.870 817.510 R15
3.890 817.490 R20
3.885 817.495 R25
5.810 4.050 817.580 R30
1.470 821.670 C110
1.480 821.660 L5
2.505 820.635 L10
2.095 821.045 L15
2.760 820.384 L20
2.750 820.390 L25
1.985 821.155 L30
1.860 821.280 R5
2.770 821.250 R10
4.045 819.095 R15
4.625 4.625 818.765 R20
4.710 818.430 R25
1.200 821.940 R30
1.575 1.870 821.52 C120

1.055 821.79 L5
0.855 821.99 L10
0.780 822.065 L15
0.385 822.460 L20
0.400 822.445 L25
0.190 822.655 L30
1.640 821.205 R5
1.040 821.805 R10
1.365 821.450 R15
2.350 820.495 R20
3.045 819.800 R25
1.275 821.570 R30
4.640 0.905 822.190 C130
4.485 822.095 L5
4.175 822.415 L10
3.585 822.995 L15
3.795 3.795 823.035 L20
4.200 822.380 L25
4.915 821.665 L30
2.690 823.890 R5
1.145 825.435 R10

3.935 825.645 R15
4.605 821.975 R20
5.100 921.480 R25
5.450 821.130 R30
1.140 825.440 C140
0.750 825.830 L5
0.070 826.510 L10
1.150 825.430 L15
0.740 825.840 L20
0.310 826.270 L25
0.225 826.355 L30
0.910 825.670 R5
2.495 824.085 R10
1.880 824.700 R15
3.450 823.120 R20
4.210 4.210 822.620 R25
823
3.150 .680 R30

BLOCK LEVELLING FOR SLUICE
BACKSIGH LINE OF REDUCED

INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT CHAINAGE REMARKS
T SIGHT LEVEL
0.375 817.375 817.000 BM
1.910 815.465 A0
2.275 815.100 A3
2.645 814.730 A6
2.815 814.560 A9

2.875 814.5 A12

2.975 814.4 A15
3.115 814.26 A18
3.280 814.095 A21
3.555 813.82 A24
4.015 813.360 A27
4.050 813.325 A30
1.790 815.585 B0
2.200 815.170 B3
2.555 814.820 B6
2.690 814.765 B9
2.685 814.690 B12
2.480 814.895 B15
2.350 815.025 B18
2.800 814.475 B21
3.035 3.035 817.375 814.340 B24
3.185 814.190 B27
3.345 814.00 B30
2.985 1.760 818.610 815.625 C0
3.365 815.245 C3
3.470 815.140 C6
3.400 815.210 C9
2.935 815.675 C12
2.895 815.713 C15
2.940 815.670 C18
3.265 815.345 C21
3.705 814.905 C24
3.930 814.680 C27
4.145 814.465 C30
2.795 815.815 D0
3.130 815.480 D3
2.880 815.730 D6
2.585 816.025 D9
2.220 816.390 D12
2.100 816.510 D15
2.200 2.600 818.640 816.410 D18
2.195 816.450 D21
2.855 815.785 D24
3.275 815.365 D27
3.585 815.055 D30
2.475 816.165 E0

1.995 816.645 E3
1.190 816.450 E6
1.760 816.880 E9
1.515 817.125 E12
1.475 87.165 E15
1.610 817.03 E18
1.870 816.77 E21
2.150 816.49 E24
2.470 816.17 E27
2.725 815.915 E30
1.640 817.00 F0
1.410 817.230 F3
2.075 816.565 F6
1.260 817.380 F9
0.990 0.990 818.640 817.650 F12
1.125 817.515 F15
1.360 817.280 F18
1.670 816.970 F21
1.745 816.895 F24
2.650 815.990 F27
2.610 816.030 F30
0.495 818.145 G0
0.385 818.255 G3
0.635 818.005 G6
0.450 818.19 G9
1.055 817.585 G12
1.010 817.630 G15
0.585 818.055 G18
1.100 817.540 G21
1.395 817.265 G24
1.080 817.560 G27
2.640 1.155 820.125 817.485 G30
1.185 818.940 H0
1.205 818.920 H3
2.150 2.150 817.975 H6
2.786 817.340 H9
2.730 817.395 H12
2.770 817.355 H15
1.625 818.5 H18
2.340 817.785 H21
2.845 817.280 H24

1.810 818.315 H27

3.690 2.325 817.800 H30
1.550 819.940 I0
2.300 819.19 I3
3.210 818.28 I6
3.800 817.69 I9
3.940 817.55 I12
4.050 817.44 I15
3.310 817.18 I18
2.670 818.82 I21
3.870 817.62 I24
2.750 818.74 I27
2.700 818.79 I30
1.350 1.350 820.14 J0
1.350 820.14 J3
3.340 818.15 J6
3.710 817.78 J9
3.690 817.600 J12
3.890 820.14 J15
1.350 819.13 J18
2.360 818.15 J21
3.250 818.24 J24
3.320 818.17 J27
3.000 818.690 J30
BLOCLLEVELLING FOR WASTE WEIR
BACK INTERMEDIAT LINE OF REDUCED

FORESIGHT REMARKS
SIGHT E COLLIMATION LEVEL
1.125 825.27 824.145 BM
1.27 824.000 A0
1.61 823.66 A5
2.065 823.205 A10
2.515 822.755 A15
0.845 824.425 A’5
0.525 824.745 A’10
0.245 825.025 A’15
2.220 823.05 B0
2.685 822.585 B5
3.125 822.145 B10
3.455 821.815 B15

1.845 823.425 B’5

1.560 823.71 B’10
1.300 823.97 B’15
3.420 821.85 C0
3.655 821.615 C5
3.935 821.335 C10
4.025 821.245 C15
3.105 822.165 C’5
2.980 822.285 C’10
2.810 822.455 C’15
3.795 821.47 D0
4.125 821.14 D5
4.465 820.8 D10
4.360 820.905 D15
3.470 821.795 D’5
3.385 821.88 D’10
2.985 822.28 D’15
1.925 5.02 822.17 820.245 E0
2.290 819.88 E5
2.400 819.77 E10
2.400 819.77 E15
2.565 819.605 E’5
1.495 820.675 E’10
1.215 820.355 E’15
2.920 819.25 F0
3.155 819.015 F5
3.250 818.875 F10
2.435 818.670 F15
2.720 819.735 F’5
2.700 819.45 F’10
3.925 819.47 F’15
4.035 818.245 G0
4.150 818.135 G5
4.600 818.02 G10
3.525 818.645 G15
4.120 818.05 G’5
4.275 817.895 G’10

CANAL ALIGNMENT
LINE OF REDUCE
BACKSIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT CHAINAGE REMARKS
COLLIMATION D LEVEL
1.745 818.745 817.000 BM
1.760 816.985 C30 C30
2.105 816.640 R2
2.645 816.100 R4
2.890 815.855 R6
1.310 817.435 L2
1.115 817.630 L4
1.000 1.095 815.970 817.650 L6
1.745 816.970 C60 C60
1.760 816.550 L2
2.105 815.485 L4
2.645 814.560 L6
2.890 815.490 R2
1.310 814.990 R4
1.350 1.570 818.750 814.400 R6
1.205 816.955 C90 C90

1.920 816.920 L2
1.750 815.870 L4
2.020 815.030 L6
2.350 815.960 R2
2.450 815.200 R4
2.650 1.650 817.400 814.120 R6
3.450 816.940 C120 C120
1.680 816.32 L2
3.490 815.450 L4
2.470 815.425 L6
1.670 816.150 R2
2.780 815.760 R4
2.900 815.200 R6
2.740 816.925 C150 C150
3.470 816.650 L2
3.100 815.990 L4
4.050 815.270 L6
1.050 816.540 R2
3.450 816.110 R4
4.780 815.750 R6
2.060 816.910 C180 C180
2.190 813.95 L2
2.085 814.055 L4
3.030 813.110 L6
1.880 814.760 R2
0.330 815.810 R4
0.410 0.095 816.485 816.045 R6
2.420 816.895 C210 C210
1.210 815.275 L2
1.510 814.975 L4
1.640 814.845 L6
3.920 812.565 R2
4.250 812.235 R4
4.200 812.285 R6

ALTERNATE METHOD OF CARRYING OUT THE

NEW TANK PROJECT: TOTAL STATION
PROFILE LEVELLING OF EARTHEN BUND

SL.NO X-COORDINATE Y-COORDINATE REDUCED LEVEL REMARK

1 3000 2000 826.65 S1
2 3000.299 1995.134 826.001 C0
3 3010.093 1994.154 824.564 R10
4 3019.776 1995.53 823.991 R20
5 3030.781 1996.078 822.833 R30
6 2990.206 1994.549 826.454 L10
7 2980.482 1994.946 827.117 L20
8 2970.429 1995.805 827.863 L30

19 3027.686 1971.348 820.252 R30
9 2999.293 1985.284 823.968 C10
20 2988.61 1976.847 822.556 L10
10 3009.087 1984.401 823.125 R10
21 2978.137 1977.754 822.965 L20
11 3020.514 1984.23 822.179 R20
22 2968.05 1979.041 823.429 L30
12 3038.288 1982.17 820.881 R30
23 2996.765 1965.011 820.016 C30
13 2989.164 1986.605 824.862 L10
24 3006.789 1963.314 819.411 R10
14 2979.447 1987.805 825.572 L20
25 3016.351 1962.692 819.673 R20
15 2979.447 1987.805 825.572 L30
26 3026.512 1962.034 818.548 R30
16 2998.076 1975.525 821.869 C20
27 2987.3 1966.528 820.384 L10
17 3007.985 1974.133 821.174 R10
28 2977.524 1968.372 821.166 L20
18 3018.545 1973.602 820.926 R20
29 2967.593 1969.695 821.747 L30
30 2995.653 1955.78 818.091 C30
31 3005.03 1952.312 817.233 R10
32 3013.186 1950.42 816.669 R20
33 3023.057 1946.922 815.492 R30
34 2986.329 1958.275 817.93 L10
35 2976.715
1960.532 818.434 L20
36 2967.144 1963.359 820.225 L30

37 2994.386 1946.071 815.361 C50
38 2983.754 1953.43 816.678 L10
39 2976.048 1956.13 817.474 L20
40 2966.703 1959 818.918 L30
41 3003.303 1943.542 815.604 R10
42 3012.262 1942.388 815.26 R20
43 3021.813 1938.478 814.098 R30
44 2993.263 1936.004 813.127 C60
45 2992.084 1926.027 814.83 C70
46 3001.895 1925.37 814.272 R10
47 3030.192 1924.084 811.631 R20
48 3048.713 1920.414 811.591 R30
49 2982.284 1927.04 815.248 L10
50 2972.461 1927.717 815.917 L20
51 2956.613 1928.192 816.24 L30
52 2991.044 1916.256 815.635 C80
53 3001.212
1914.705 815.172 R10
54 3010.935 1915.382 814.797 R20

55 3025.13 1911.024 814.339 R30
56 2980.963 1918.396 815.986 L10
57 2971.382 1919.14 816.56 L20
58 2961.605 1920.805 816.816 L30

73 2987.586 1885.783 821.666 C110
59 2990.145 1906.097 817.153 C90
74 2978.003 1886.703 821.209 L10
60 2999.995 1906.44 817.144 R10
75 2967.756 1888.562 821.052 L20
61 3010.215 1906.02 817.057 R20
76 2958.183 1890.702 821.144 L30
62 3019.949 1901.834 816.57 R30
77 3000.532 1881.739 820.345 R10
63 2980.222 1906.374 817.485 L10
78 3010.264 1882.141 818.5 R20
64 2970.774 1909.497 817.86 L20
79 3019.098 1885.656 817.489 R30
65 2961.267 1912.53 818.417 L30
91
80 2973.233
2986.875 1865.524
1876.031 822.944
821.224 L10
C120
66 2989.02 1896.212 819.557 C100
92
81 2965.142
2996.702 1867.953
1874.126 822.843
820.793 L20
R10
67 2979.401 1898.604 817.809 L10
93
82 2957.101
3011.695 1873.765
1873.01 822.818
818.675 L30
R20
68 2969.37 1899.769 819.895 L20
94
83 2984.846
3027.805 1856.418
1878.994 825.337
818.863 C141
R30
69 2960.228 1903.671 821.633 L30
95
84 2997.642
2976.984 1859.153
1875.832 823.617
822.012 R10
L10
70 2998.868 1895.832 817.56 R10
96
85 3015.642
2966.612 1862.85
1875.678 819.639
822.378 R20
L20
71 3008.87 1894.937 817.028 R20
97
86 3031.631
2957.064 1862.474
1879.921 819.936
822.568 R30
L30
72 3018.577 1890.542 817.199 R30
87
98 2986.309
2971.864 1866.95
1852.074 821.786
826.412 C130
L10
88
99 2995.116
2960.738 1865.237
1849.794 822.44
827.555 R10
L20
89
100 3013.746
2946.7
1862.892
1845.246 819.798
829.561 R20
L30
90
101 3029.57
2984.277 1864.056
1855.435 819.954
826.063 R30
C143
BLOCK LEVELLING FOR SLUICE


1 3000 2000 821.667 S1
2 2985.924 2009.192 818.749 A0
3 2990.691 2008.235 818.513 A5
4 2995.57 2007.203 819.876 A10
5 3000.575 2006.534 820.521 A15
6 3000.575 2006.534 820.521 A20
7 3010.166 2004.573 817.776 A25
8 3014.636 2003.881 817.699 A30
9 2987.36 2015.167 818.718 B0
10 2992.247 2013.896 817.913 B5
11 2997.224 2012.668 819.042 B10
12 3001.645 2011.06 819.507 B15
13 3006.118 2009.445 818.974 B20
14 3010.729 2007.442 817.621 B25
15 3015.561 2005.934 817.511 B30
16 2989.75 2021.398 817.188 C0
17 2994.221 2019.075 817.217 C10
18 2998.954 2017.002 818.045 C15

19 3003.526 2015.482 818.54 C15
20 3008.153 2013.805 818.436 C20
21 3012.434 2011.385 817.413 C25
22 3016.755 2008.588 817.398 C30
23 2988.427 2026.481 817.096 D0
24 2993.714 2024.255 817.13 D5
25 2999.11 2022.695 816.566 D10
26 3003.701 2020.687 817.005 D15
27 3008.546 2018.355 818.646 D20
28 3013.33 2017.456 817.658 D25

33 3004.198 2025.444 815.857 E15
29 3019.455 2015.583 818.19 D30
34 3011.09 2021.345 817.756 E20
30 2990.073 2033.615 816.228 E0
35 3014.785 2019.535 817.526 E25
31 2994.515 2031.096 816.073 E5
36 3020.695 2017.306 817.496 E30
32 2999.714 2028.333 816.618 E10
37 2989.902 2037.402 815.904 F0
15 2979.447 1987.805 825.572 L30
38 2994.222 2034.867 815.88 F5
16 2998.076 1975.525 821.869 C20
39 2999.013 2033.152 815.925 F10
17 3007.985 1974.133 821.174 R10
40 3005.018 2030.706 815.608 F15
18 3018.545 1973.602 820.926 R20
41 3010.733 2028.473 815.017 F20
42 3015.03 2025.955 815.866 F25
43 3020.037 2024.786 817.464 F30
44 2990.184 2040.7 815.689 G0
45 2995.365 2038.934 816.17 G5
46 3000.843 2037.329 815.534 G10
47 3005.641 2035.412 815.426 G15
48 3009.483
2034.759 815.475 G20
49 3015.841 2033.049 815.921 G25

BLOCK LEVELLING FOR WASTE WEIR


1 3000 2000 826.625 S1
2 2999.955 1985.588 824.003 A0
3 3005.081 1985.273 823.571 A5
4 3009.993 1985.096 823.123 A10
5 3015.004 1984.93 822.644 A15
6 3021.542 1984.658 822.122 A20
7 3024.62 1984.433 821.803 A25
8 3029.834 1984.2 821.504 A30

19 3014.114 1975.206 821.234 C15
9 2999.709 1980.673 823.058 B0
20 3019.143 1974.849 820.964 C20
10 3004.62 1980.429 822.625 B5
21 3024.086 1974.718 820.783 C25
11 3009.634 1980.164 822.143 B10
22 3028.816 1974.584 820.577 C30
12 3014.637 1979.974 821.795 B15
23 2999.167 1970.924 821.149 D0
13 3019.686 1979.552 821.673 B20
24 3004.086 1970.67 820.853 D5
14 3024.567 1979.517 821.343 B25
25 3009.09 1970.443 820.699 D10
15 3029.544 1979.348 821.106 B30
26 3014.073 1970.2 820.993 D15
16 2999.255 1975.931 821.934 C0
27 3019.064 1969.89 820.618 D20
17 3004.038 1975.719 821.658 C5
28 3023.959 1969.568 820.274 D25
18 3009.212 1975.583 821.342 C10
29 3029.055 1969.025 819.603 D30
30 2998.235 1966.129 820.211 E0
31 3003.055 1965.609 819.834 E5
32 3008.094 1965.071 819.679 E10
33 3013.009 1965.015 819.674 E15
34 3017.958 1964.533 819.669 E20
35 3022.906
1964.217 819.215 E25
36 3027.829 1963.96 818.681 E30

37 2997.99 1961.254 819.235 F0
38 3002.946 1960.619 818.971 F5
39 3007.814 1960.521 818.865 F10
40 3012.894 1960.053 818.418 F15
41 3017.99 1959.77 818.611 F20
42 3022.692 1958.625 818.137 F25
43 3027.83 1958.376 817.587 F30
44 2997.525 1956.263 818.247 G0
45 3002.451 1956.318 818.13 G5
46 3007.502 1956.067 818.036 G10
47 3012.558 1956.186 817.662 G15
48 3017.462 1956.343 818.127 G20
49 3022.32 1956.159 817.741 G25
50 3027.489 1955.905 817.103 G30

PROFILE LEVELLING FOR CANAL ALIGNMENT

1 3000 2000 821.667 S1
2 3002.578 2020.813 817.004 C0
3 3002.574 2018.994 817.701 L2
4 3002.48 2017.026 818.302 L4
5
19 3002.377
3062.906 2015.051
2012.33 818.952
814.308 L6
6
20 3002.626
3062.771 2022.899
2020.242 816.12
812.728 R2
7
21 3002.77
3062.629 2024.863
2024.321 815.796
811.702 R4
8
22 3002.992
3062.659 2026.827
2024.256 815.75
811.703 R6
9
23 3032.599
3092.62 2019.453
2015.229 816.104
811.711 C30
C90
10
24 3032.535
3092.536 2017.728
2013.088 816.422
812.077 L2
11
25 3032.234
3092.273 2015.643
2011.247 816.701
812.489 L4
12
26 3032.003
3091.979 2013.726
2009.375 817.111
812.837 L6
13
27 3032.714
3092.945 2021.612
2017.334 815.619
811.4 R2
14
28 3032.871
3093.204 2023.121
2019.24 815.087
810.834 R4
15
29 3033.062
3121.232 2025.519
2006.613 814.658
811.158 R6
C120
16
30 3063.046
3121.11 2018.235
2004.373 813.113
811.45 C60
L2
17
31 3062.976
3120.714 2016.298
2002.703 813.541
811.767 L2
L4
18
32 3063.019
3121.386 2014.265
2008.508 814.061
810.871 L4
R2
33 3121.75 2010.4 810.652 R4
34 3121.933 2012.876 810.42 R6
35 3150.566 2000.563 810.043 C150
36 3150.334 1998.59 810.134 L2

37 3150.181 1996.612 810.298 L4
38 3149.667 1994.889 810.607 L6
39 3150.945 2002.433 809.967 R2
40 3151.087 2004.37 809.96 R4
41 3151.713 2006.128 809.92 R6
42 3166.433 1977.809 807.136 C180
43 3164.208 1976.971 807.371 L2
44 3162.826 1976.466 807.424 L4
45 3160.729 1975.868 807.543 L6
46 3168.799 1978.401 807.076 R2
47 3170.378 1979.074 806.866 R4
48 3172.384 1979.623 806.382 R6
49 3174.583 1948.339 807.207 C210
50 3174.287 1947.994 807.173 L2
51 3172.626 1947.051 807.49 L4
52 3171.204 1946.661 807.788 L6
53 3177.813 1950.144 807.166 L8
54 3179.578 1951.532 807.179 R4
55 3181.075 1952.593 806.797 R6
56 3188.438 1921.639 807.902 C240
57 3187.329 1920.533 808.332 L2
58 3185.594 1919.432 808.392 L4
59 3184.131 1918.311 808.487 L6
60 3190.158 1922.834 807.552 R2

61 3191.354 1924.335 807.101 R4
WATER
SUPPLY
AND
SANITATION
PROJECT
Introduction
The five essential requirements for human existence are Air, Water, Food, Heat and Light.
Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazards not only to man but also to
animal and plant life. The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal. Without it
there is no life exists.

The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population. Already there
are acute shortages of both surface and subsurface water in many parts of the country.
Pollution results because of improper disposal of waste water (both domestic as well as
industrial). Organized community requires the services of water supply and sewage disposal.
Good sanitation is not possible without adequate water supply system.
Man, and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their food.
Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends upon
bacterial action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. Thus, an ecological chain is
maintained. Water maintains an ecological balance (balance is the relationship between living
things and environment in which they live).
The planning, designing, financing and operation of water and waste water systems are
complex undertakings and they require a high degree of skill and judgment. The work of
construction and maintenance of water supply of waste water disposal systems is generally
undertaken by government agencies – mostly through Public Health Engineering or
Environmental Engineering Department consisting of Civil engineers.
Necessity
In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of portable water, it becomes
almost imperative in a modern society to plan and built suitable water supply schemes, which
may provide portable water to the various sections of community in accordance with their
demands and requirements. The provision of such a scheme shall ensure constant and reliable
water supply to that section of the people for which it has been designed. Such a scheme shall
not only help in supplying safe wholesome water to people for drinking, cooking, bathing and
washing. So as to keep the diseases away and thereby promoting better health; but would also
help in supplying the water for fountains, gardens and thus helping in maintaining better
sanitation and beautification of surroundings, thereby reducing environmental pollution.
Besides promoting overall hygiene and public health, it shall ensure safety against fire by
supplying sufficient quantity of water to extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply
scheme shall further help in attracting industrialization and modernization of the society,
consequently reducing unemployment and ensuring better living standards.

Reconnaissance survey
In planning water supply scheme, it is essential to first of all search the sources for the
water in the vicinity of the area for which the scheme is to be designed. Sometimes, the water
may be available nearby, and sometimes far away. Further it may be underground well, or it
may be river, stream or lake. It is therefore necessary to seek out all possible sources and
evaluate each in term of quality, quantity and cost and then to take final decision regarding the
utilization of the sources depend upon the availability of water in those sources and water
demand of the town or city. Suitable systems should then be designed for the collection,
transportation and testing of water. The treated water is finally distributed to residents and
industries depending upon their requirements, through a safe network
of distribution system. The essential elements of a public water supply scheme may, therefore
consists of intakes and reservoirs.
A water treatment plant having screening, filtration, disinfections units, elevated tanks and
stand pipes which provide storage to meet peak demands occurring for limited periods, valves
which control the flow of water in the pipe system, hydrants which provide a connection with
the water in the mains for fighting fires, flushing, mains, sub-mains and branch lines which
carry the water to the streets, services which carry the water to the individual homes.
Data to be collected from field
In general these following data must be collected for the water supply scheme
 The geological data and the data on the available ground water in the vicinity of the
area.
 Hydrostatical data of available sources of water existing in the vicinity of the area.

 Data of water requirement of the area including the data of the population and their
water needs.
 Data on sanitary conditions of the area and the sources of water pollution.
 Data on the topography of the area, which helps in properly positioning of the intakes,
treatment works, and above all, distribution reservoirs.
 Data on the various legal laws on the water rights, land zoning, land ownership,
administration pattern may also be collected.
Analysis of the data collected
These are the general aspects which should be done while planning and designing the
municipal water supply scheme.
 Estimate the future population of the community and study the local conditions, this
helps in designing the quantity of the water.
 Locate the reliable sources of relatively pure quality of the water, so as to fulfill the
requirements of the community.
 Make provision for the storage of the water and designing the system to deliver the
water to the consumers.
 Determining the quality of the water.
 Design the water treatment facilities required for bringing the quality of water to the
required portable standards.
 Designing of the distribution system, pumping system, layout of the pipe networks.
Water supply systems

The primary objective of water treatment for public supply is to take water from the best
available source and to subject it to processing which will ensure water of good physical
quality free from unpleasant taste, bacteria (E-coil, B-coil), odour and not containing anything
which might be detrimental to health.

Municipal water system consists of the following units:

 Collection works
 Transmission works
 Purification works
 Distribution works
Collection works
These are meant for the development of surface water or ground water resources. For
major cities, or where water requirements are large, water is collection from a surface source
– mostly a river or a stream. If the river is perennial, a direct intake structure can be built on
the riverbank.
Transmission works
In many cases, the collection works may be far away from the city where water is to
be supplied. In that case, water is conveyed to the city through the transmission works.
Depending on the topography of the area between the two sites, the transmission works may
be in the form of conduits, canals or aqueducts.
Purification Work
The water collected directly from the source may not be safe for drinking because of
physical, chemical and biological impurities. Hence the purification works are needed in
order to supply clean and bacteria free water.
Distribution Works
The treated and purified water is finally sent to the consumers through suitable
distribution system. In order that water may flow in the water supply pipes under pressure,
the purified water is normally stored in an elevated reservoir.
The water to be supplied for domestic use should ensure the following:
 It should be colorless and sparkling clear.

 It should be of good taste, free from odour.

 It should be reasonably soft.
 It should be plentiful and cheap.
 It should be free from disease producing bacteria or organisms.
 It should be free from objectionable taster, dissolving gases.
 It should be free from radioactive substance such as radium, etc.
 It should not lead to scale formation and should not be corrosive.
Water demand
An average person is consuming 150 liters of water per day in liquid or solid foods, including
in the form of water, milk and other beverages.
Total water requirements may be divided into the following five categories:
 Residential or domestic use.
 Institutional use
 Public use
 Industrial use
 Water system losses
 Transportation use
 Theft of water
Residential or domestic use

Includes water requirements for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of clothes, utensils and
house, and flushing of water closets. IS 1172 – 1957 recommends a per capita water
consumption of 135 lpcd.
Institutional use

The manual or water supply and treatment recommends the values of water requirement for
institutional needs as – For communities with population up to 20,000, amount of water
required is 40 lpcd, for communities with population 20,000 to 100,000, the water required is
70 to 100 lpcd and for communities with population above 100,000, it is 150 to 200 lpcd.
(liters per capita per day)
Public or Civic use

Water required for public or civic use may be for the following purposes.
 Road washing.
 Sanitation.
 Public parks.
 Firefighting.
For road washing in the municipality area, a provision of 5 liters/day/head is made. Similarly,
for sanitary purposes, a provision of 3 to 5 liters/day/head may be made. Water for
maintaining public parks etc. may be 2 to 3 liters/day/sq. meters.
Fire Demand
Water required for fire-fighting is usually known as fire demand. It is treated as a function of
population and may be computed from
 Kuchling’s formula – Q = 3182 P1/2
 Boston’s formula – Q = 5663 P1/2
 Freeman’s formula – Q = 1136 ((P/5) +10) and F = 2.8 P1/2
 National Board of Fire underwriter’s formula – Q = 4637 P^ (1/2) (1-0.01 P1/2)
Industrial use
The presence of industries in or near the city has great impact on the water demand. The
quantity of water required depends upon the type of industry. For a city with moderate
factories, a provision of 20 to 25% of per capita consumption may be made for this purpose.
Water system losses

Losses from a water distribution system consists of

 Leakage and overflow from service reservoirs.

 Leakage from main and service pipe connections
 Leakage and loss on consumer’s premises when they get un-metered household
supplies.
 Under registration of supply meters.
 Large leakage or wastage from public taps.
Loss in the supply lines is mainly due to defective joints, cracked pipes, and loose valves and
fittings. In case of well-maintained and fully metered water distribution system, the loss may
hardly exceed 20% of total consumption, whereas in partly metered or un-metered, the loss
may be up to 50% of the total supply.
Impurities in water
Impurities in water may range from floating debris such as sticks, branches, leaves etc. to find
particles such as sand, silt and some gases, etc.
Impurities in water are classified into three heads
 Suspended impurities
 Dissolved impurities
 Colloidal impurities
Distribution of water
A good distribution system should satisfy the following requirements
 The system should be capable of supplying water at consumer’s tap at reasonable
head.
 It should be capable of meeting the fire demand simultaneously.
 It should maintain the degree of purity. The system should be completely watertight.
 It should be easy to operate and maintain.

 Water should be available even during breakdown period.

 It should be so laid that during repairs, it does not cause obstruction to traffic.
 The initial cost of the system should be as low as possible.
Methods of distribution
The method of distribution depends upon the topography of the area. The different methods
are:
 Gravity system
 Combined gravity and pumping system
 Pumping system
Gravity system
In gravity system, the source of water supply is so located with respect to the area of
distribution that water is available with sufficient pressure at various points of the area. No
pumping is normally required. This is the most reliable and economical distribution system.
Combined gravity and pumping system

In combined gravity and pumping system, the water purification works are located almost at
the same level as the area of distribution, especially when source of raw water supply is a
river or a reservoir formed behind a dam. To obtain sufficient distribution pressure, filtered
water is pumped into clear water reservoir located either on a higher ground or elevated on a
tower.
Pumping system
In this system, water is pumped directly into the distribution system to achieve required
pressure. Generally double pumping is required first to pump raw water from the source to
the treatment works and then to pump purified water direct into the distribution mains. Hence
this system is not desirable.

Systems of water supply

Water may be supplied to the consumers by the following two systems-
o Continuous system
o Intermittent system
Continuous System
In the continuous system, water is available to the consumers for all the 24 hours of the day.
This is the best system since water is available as and when it is needed, but leads to wasteful
use of water. The small leakages if present, great volume of water is wasted because of long
duration of flow. In this, the water is not stagnant in the pipe at any instant and hence fresh
water is always available.
Intermittent System
In the intermittent system, water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed hours of
the day. This is the most common method adopted in India. This method is adopted when
either sufficient pressure is not available or when sufficient quantity is not available. The
normal supply timings may be between 6 AM to 10 AM and 4 PM to 8 PM, which may
change to suit climatic conditions.
Water purification and demand

Water found in the nature is seldom ever pure and free from danger for human
consumption. So, water requires treatment for the removal of germs, solid impurities, taste,
odor, color, iron and mineral salt. Particular attention is paid in

planning and layout of water examined works in such a way that its capacity may be enlarged
without any difficulty in future for any growth of population.
The treatment work should be located as near as possible to the source of supply of
water in purification. The following are the process involved in the treatment of water.
Storage
It tends to improve the quality of the water through sedimentation of the silt and other
suspended impurities and oxidation of dissolved impurities. Color and turbidity are reduced to
a considerable extent and bacteria also disappear.
Screening
Screens are used in the case of river intake for removing the floating materials.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation consists of passing water through basins in the velocity of water is so
reduced to permit the heavy suspended matter to settle at bottom by gravitational force,
coagulants are used to promote sedimentation.
Filtration
The process of passing the water through coarse sand and lime granular particles is
termed as filtration. It will help in removing color and odor.
Disinfections
The process of removing pathogenic bacteria with the help of disinfectant is called
disinfections.
Sanitary project
The main purpose of sanitation is to maintain an environment, which will not affect
the public in general. It is also the preservation of the health of the community in general and

individual in particular. The sanitation aims at creation of such condition of living, which will
not result into serious outbreak of the epidermis.
Principles of sanitation
Following are the principles of the sanitation which if observed in better living
conditions
 Collection and conveyance
 Orientation of buildings
 Prevention of dampness
 Supply of water
 Treatment of water products
Site location for the sewage treatment plant
 The general level of the site should be at the lowest level area so that the sewage from
the entire area can be collected and conveyed by gravity only.
 The site should be located such that enough area is available nearby when it becomes
necessary in future to expand the existing site.
 Good foundation soil should be available for the various sewage treatment units.
 The site should be safe from the floods at every time.
 The site should be located on levered side of the winds the undesirable odors would be
prevented from entering the nearby area.
Planning and designing of sewerage system

The following points should be taken into consideration while designing the sewerage system
 The sewer should be of adequate size to avoid their overflow and subsequent damages
to properties and health hazards.

 In order to provide adequate and economical treatment it is necessary to study the

constituents of sewage produced thoroughly in the particular project and quantity of
water that will receive sewage.
 The sewer pipes should be designed on the slope that will permit reasonable velocity
of flow.
 The sewerage system should be carefully planned and designed so as to remove the
entire sewage effectively and efficiently from the houses and up to point of disposal.
Methods of carriage and conveyance

Conveyance system.
Water carriage system.
Conveyance system
This is the system, which allows the flow of sewage in a planned way. This consists in
the accumulation of night soil or human excreta in water closets, cesspools and its subsequent
removal manually and transportation in vehicles to points of ultimate disposal. The waste
water from the kitchens, baths called sullage and strong water are collected separately in
gutters and lead of into neighboring drainage channels for disposal.
Water carriage system

In this system the night soil gets mixed up with sufficient quantity of the waste water
forming sewage and is collected in a system of pipes and transported for subsequent treatment
and disposal in a planned manner. As the dilution of the solid matter in water to form sewage
is normally very great, sewage easily flows in accordance with the laws of the hydraulics as
applied to the flow of water. This system is very advantageous and universally employed
procedure.
Types of sewerage systems

The sewerage systems are classified according to the purpose for which these are put
in use

Combined system
In this system the same sewer is intended to carry the domestic sewage, industrial
waste as well as the storm and surface water flow.
Separate system
In this system the domestic sewage and industrial waste are carried in one set of
sewers while the storm water and surface water and storm water are carried in another set of
sewers.
Partially separate system

The partially separate system is a modification of the separate system in which the
separate sewer discharging domestic sewage and industrial wastes also contains a portion of
the surface water drained from back paved yards and roofs of the houses.
Sewage treatment
Sewage has to be treated before the disposal and as to make it safe. The degree of
treatment depends upon the quality of the sewage and the characteristics of the source of
disposal. The different types of the treatment are
o Preliminary treatment
o Primary treatment
o Biological treatment
o Final treatment
Preliminary treatment

It consists of separating the floating material and also the heavy settable organic
solids. This treatment reduces the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the wastewater.
This includes screening, grit chamber and skimming tanks.
Primary treatment
This is consisting of removing large suspended organic solids. This is usually
accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins.
Biological treatment
It involves the treatment of effluent from the primary treatment units. This is generally
accomplished through biological process using filtration or activated sludge process.
Final treatment
This is adopted particularly to kill the pathogenic bacteria. This is usually carried out
while disposing sewage into river, which is again used by nearby town.
Details of the survey work conducted

The following surveys were conducted for the project
 Plane table work was done to prepare the layout for the system
 Leveling work done at every 10m interval.
 The longitudinal section taken for both water supply and the sewerage system
 Block leveling work for the location of water treatment plant and sewage treatment
plant.
Drawings prepared
 Layout plan showing water supply lines and sewer lines drawn to scale.
 Longitudinal section of the road showing the profile of the road along with the water
or sewer lines, scale adopted suitably for horizontal and vertical.
Design period

Generally, water supply projects are designed for a design period of 20 to 40 years,
after their completion. The time lay between the design and completion should not be more
than 2 years. In some specific components of the projects, the design period may be modified.
Different segments of water treatment and distribution systems may be approximately
designed for differing periods of time using differing capacity criteria so that expenditure far
ahead of utility is avoided.
Factors affecting the design period

 The anticipated rate of population growth, including possible shifts in communities,
industries and commercial establishments.
 Amount and availability of additional resources likely to be incurred for the additional
provision. Rate of interest on borrowing should be minimum.
 Useful life of the component structure and the chances of their becoming old and
obsolete and the extension of this should be possible.
Design period for different water supply scheme
Design Period (Yrs)

Component
1. Storage by dams 50
2. Infiltration works 30
3. Pump sets 45
4. Water treatment units 15
5. Pipe connections 30
6. Raw & clear water conveying mains 30
7. Clear water reservoirs 15
8. Distribution system 30
Population data

The data about the present population of a city can be obtained (from the records of the
municipality for the Uttanahalli region) by conducting an official enumeration called census.
Following are some of the important methods of population forecasts
 Arithmetical increase method
 Geometric increase method
 Incremental increase method
 Decreased rate of growth method
 Graphic extension method
 Graphical comparison method

DESIGN
POPULATION FORECAST:
Year Population Increase per

decade

1999 2000 -
2009 2600 600
2019 3200 600
Arithmetic Increase Method

Pn = P0+nI
Current population in 2019 =3200
Expected population on 2025=753+(600×1) =3800
DETERMINATION OF THE REQUIREMENT OF WATER

Total population of town=5000
Assuming the rate of water supply as 135 lpcd (100 lpcd-300lpcd)
Qmax factor = 1.8
Efficiency = 75%
Quantity of water required= Qmax factor × population× water demand
Qmax = 1.8 ×5000 ×135
= 1215000 Ltrs/day
Qmax = 1215.00 m3/day
DESIGN OF THE PUMPING UNIT

ASSUMING THE VELOCITY OF WATER IN PIPELINE = 0.85 M/SEC
Assuming the pump is working 8 hours a day,
Quantity of water to be pumped = Qmax/ 8

1215
= (8 × 60× 60)
=0.04218m3 /sec
Using discharge equation, Q = A × V,
A = Q / V= 0.04218/0.85 = 0.04962 m2
Diameter, d =√(4 A/ π )
=√(4 × 0.04962/π )
=0.25 m
Economical diameter of rising main is given by Lea’s formula: d = 1.22 √ Q
d=1.22√ 0.04218 =0.25 m
Using diameter of the rising main = 0.25 m
CAPACITY OF THE PUMP
BHP = w × Q × H / (75× η)
Where w=density of the water = 1000 kg/m3
Q= maximum discharge = 0.04218 m3/sec
L=length of pipe through which water have to be supplied
Assuming the co-efficient of friction =0.01
Head loss due to friction in the pipe

4 flv 2
Hf= 2 gd
4 × 0.01× 1200 ×0.85 2
Hf= 2 ×9.81 ×0.25
Hf =7.07 m
Total head = Hs+ Hd+ Hf
=39.065+7.07

=46.135 m
w ×Q × H
BHP = 75 × η
1000× 0.04218 × 46.135
BHP = 75 ×0.8
Assuming efficiency of pump, η= 80%

BHP =32.432 HP
DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION COAGULATION TANK

Maximum daily demand=1215 m3/day
Detention time =4 hours
Capacity of tank =(MDD×detention)/24
= (1215×4)/24
=202.5 m3
Assume depth of tank=3.5m
Area of the tank required= capacity of tank/depth

=202.5/3.5
=57.85 m2
Diameter of sedimentation tank = √(4 A/ π )
=√ ¿)
=8.58 m
=9 m
Provide the tank size of diameter 9 m
Dimension of the tank=9 m dia. and (3.5+0.5) m deep [Providing a free board of
0.5m]
DESIGN OF SLOW SAND FILTER

Let rate of filtration=150 L/hr/m2
Q=1215 m3/day
Total surface area required= 1215/ (24×150×10-3)
=337.5 m2
No. of filter units = (√ Q)/4 =(√ 223.317)/4 =0.76 ≈ 1 unit
Provide rectangular tank of length ‘L’ and breadth ‘B’ at the ratio of L:B=2:1
L=2B
And A = L × B = 2B × B = 2B2
Therefore B=√ 337.5/2
=9.18 m
B=9.5 m
L=2×9.5=19 m
Hence use filter of 12 m ×9.5m

DESIGN OF CHLORINATION TANK

Quantity of water to be treated=1215 m3/day
Detention period= 15 minutes
Quantity of water to be treated=1215 × 15/(60×24)
=12.656m3
Provide depth of tank=2 m
Cross sectional area=12.565/2 = 6.328m2
Assume L: B=2:1
Area=L*B
Area = 2B2
2B2 = 6.328
B= 1.25 m, Length = 2.5 m
QUANTITY OF DISINFECTANT (BLEACHING POWDER)

Maximum demand of water = 1215 m3/day
Assuming chloride dosage of 0.5 ppm
Quantity of chloride required = (1215×103×0. 5)/106
= 0.60 kg/day
Bleaching powder is used as a disinfectant
The amount of bleaching powder required = Quantity of chloride× 100/30
= 0.60 × 100/30

=2 kg/day
DESIGN OF ELEVATED SURFACE TANK

Maximum daily demand = 1215 m3/day
Water tank should have storage capacity of demand of locality.
Assuming height of tank, H=5 m
Providing circular tank
Diameter of tank =√ ¿ H)
√
= 4 ×1215
π×5
=17.58 ≈ 18 m
FROM ELEVATED SURFACE TANK TO VILLAGE

a) Design of main line
V=0.85 m/sec
Qmax=1215 m3/day
=0.01406m3/sec
Area = Qmax/ V
=0.01406/0.85
=0.01654 m2
Diameter, d=√ ¿)
=√ ¿)
=0.145 m
=14.5 cm
b) Design of branch line

Discharge of branch line =40% of main line

Q = (40/100)× 0.01406
Q=0.00562 m3/sec
Area = Q/ V
=0.00562 /0.85
=0.00661m2
Diameter, d=√ ¿)
=√ ¿)
=0.091≈ 9 cm
c)Design of service line
Discharge of service line =30% of main line
Q = (30/100)× 0.00562
Q=0.00168 m3/sec
Area = Q/ V
=0. 00108 /0.85
=0.00198 m2
Diameter, d=√ ¿)
=√ ¿)
=0.050 m≈ 5 cm
DETERMINATION OF GRADIENT
By Hazen William’s formula; V=0.85 × CH× R0.63× S0.54
Hazen William’s coefficient CH=110
V=0.85 m/sec
R=dmain/4= 0.145/4 = 0.036 m

V=0.85 × CH× R0.63× S0.54

S=1 in 49
DESIGN OF SEWER
DISCHARGE OF SEWER SYSTEM

Dry weather flow =discharge × 80% of water supply
= (1215× 0.8)/ (24×60 × 60)
=0.01125 m3/sec
Maximum dry weather flow = 3×0.01125
=0.03375 m3/sec
Wet weather flow = (A×I×R)/360
Where A= Approximate area = 2.6 Ha
I =0.7(assumed)
R= intensity of rainfall
Wet weather flow = (2.6×0.7×15 )/360
=0.0758 m3/sec
Total discharge = dry weather flow + wet weather flow
=0.01125+0.0758
=0.08705 m3/sec
DESIGN OF SEWER PIPES
Assuming that the pipe is running half full,
Longitudinal flow= 1 in 120
Hydraulic mean radius = (wetted area/wetted perimeter) = d/4
Using Manning’s formula,

2 1
1
V= × R 3 × S 2
N
WKT Q=A ×V
0.08705=((π×d2)/4)× (1/0.014) ×(d/4)2/3 ×(1/120)1/2
Therefore d=0.3501 ≈ 35 cm
Provide main sewage pipeline of diameter =30 cm
And sub main sewage pipeline of diameter =20 cm
Later sewage pipeline = 10 cm
CHECK FOR VELOCITY

Non silting velocity =0.75 m/sec
Non scouring velocity =3 to 4 m/sec
For S = 1/120
V= (1/0.014) ×(0.35/4)2/3 ×(1/120)1/2
V=1.29 m/sec
Therefore, the above value is in between 0.75 m/sec and 3 m/sec.
Hence velocity of sewage is within permissible limits.
Now gradients,
Assuming V=1.29 m/sec
1.29= (1/0.014) ×(0.3/4)2/3 × S 1/2
S=1 in 120 ≈ 1 in 450.
DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANK
Total population of the town =5000
Assuming a detention period of 24 hours,
Quantity of sewage produced = 5000×135

=675000 l/day
Tank capacity
=675000 lit
=675 m3
Assuming the rate of sludge capacity at the rate of 30 lit per person per year and
period of cleaning as 1 year,
Volume of sludge deposited = 30×5000×1
=150000 liters
=150 m3
Therefore, capacity of tank = 675 + 150
= 825 m3
Consider 20% provision for future extension
Extra volume = 825 ×0.2
=30.33 m3
Total volume of tank =825 + 165
=990 m3
Use 2 units of septic tanks.
Therefore, capacity of each tank = 990/2 = 495 m3
Assuming the depth of the tank = 2.5 m
Cross sectional area of the tank = 495/2.5
=198 m2
Assuming (L/B) ratio =3:1
Area = L×B
198 = 3B×B
B = 8 m, L=24 m

Providing 0.5 m free board, overall depth = 2 m

Dimension of each tank = 24m×4m×3m
DESIGN OF SOAK WELL (Two soak wells)
Assuming percolation capacity of filter media = 1250l/m3/day
Volume required for soak well = (495×1000)/1250
=396 m3
Assuming the depth of soak well as 3m
Area of soak well =396/3 = 132 m2
Diameter of soak well, d =√ ¿)
=√ ¿)
=13 m
BLOCK LEVELLING FOR WATER TREATMENT PLANT

BACK SIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORE SIGHT HI RL CHAINAGE REMARK
1.725 921.99 920.269 BM
1.355 920.635 A0
1.355 920.655 A5
1.355 920.655 A10
1.475 920.635 A15
1.440 920.515 A20
1.315 920.55 B0
1.270 920.675 B5
1.180 920.720 B10
1.345 920.710 B15
1.425 920.645 B20
1.240 920.565 C0
1.195 920.750 C5

1.230 920.795 C10

1.260 920.760 C15
1.250 920.730 C20
1.125 920.740 D0
1.120 920.865 D5
1.110 920.870 D10
1.105 920.880 D15
1.155 1.155 921.99 920.835 D20
1.030 920.960 E0
1.070 920.920 E5
1.055 920.934 E10
1.080 920.910 E15
1.120 920.870 E20
FLYLEVELLING FROM WATER TREATMENT PLANT TO SURFACE ELEVATED TANK SITE
BACK SIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORE SIGHT LOS RL CHAINAGE REMARK

1.165 890.365 889.2 BM
1.09 889.275 0
0.635 889.73 10
3.655 0.145 893.875 890.22 20
3.075 890.8 30
2.455 891.42 40
1.935 891.94 50
1.465 892.41 60
1.01 892.865 70

1.125 0.475 894.525 893.4 80
3.745 890.78 90
3.435 891.09 100
2.935 891.59 110
2.465 892.06 120
2.2 892.325 130
1.605 892.92 140
1.045 893.48 150
0.59 893.935 160
4.79 0.100 899.215 894.425 170
4.095 895.12 180
3.445 895.77 190
2.895 896.32 200
2.265 896.95 210
1.6 897.615 220
1.035 898.18 230
0.465 898.75 240
4.6 0.015 903.8 899.2 250
3.335 900.465 260
2.695 901.105 270
2.015 901.785 280
1.37 902.43 290
0.745 903.055 300
3.425 0.065 907.16 903.735 310
2.895 904.265 320
2.355 904.805 330
1.805 905.355 340

1.25 905.91 350
0.805 906.355 360
1.14 0.35 907.95 906.81 370
1.88 906.07 380
1.63 906.32 390
1.63 907.95 906.32 390
1.5 906.45 400
1.415 906.535 410
1.59 906.36 420
1.745 906.205 430
1.905 906.045 440
2.085 905.865 450
1.535 2.09 905.86 460
1.58 905.815 470
1.56 905.835 480
1.485 905.91 490
1.37 906.025 500
1.27 906.125 510
1.1 906.295 520
0.935 906.46 530
0.765 906.63 540
0.71 906.685 550
3.495 0.575 906.82 560
3.125 907.19 570
2.895 907.42 580
2.565 2.835 907.48 590

2.655 907.66 600
2.48 907.835 610
2.34 907.975 620
2.14 908.175 630
1.905 908.41 640
1.71 908.605 650
1.495 908.82 660
1.245 909.07 670
1.015 909.3 680
0.845 909.47 690
0.71 909.605 700
0.535 909.78 710
0.38 909.935 720
0.2 910.115 730
3.005 0.6 913.26 910.255 740
2.885 910.375 750
2.755 910.505 760
2.675 910.585 770
2.495 910.765 780
2.380 2.32 915.260 910.94 790
2.095 911.165 800
1.965 911.295 810
1.805 911.455 820
1.5 911.74 830
1.27 911.99 840
1.055 912.205 850

0.91 912.35 860
0.635 912.625 870
0.345 912.92 880
3.395 0.145 916.51 913.115 890
3.16 913.35 900
2.97 913.54 910
2.78 913.73 920
2.63 913.88 930
2.375 914.135 940
2.13 914.38 950
1.86 914.65 960
1.625 914.885 970
1.355 915.155 980
1.135 915.375 990
0.885 915.625 1000
0.55 915.96 1010
3.405 0.13 919.785 916.38 1020
2.875 916.91 1030
2.18 917.605 1040
1.465 918.32 1050
1.18 918.605 1060
0.995 918.79 1070
0.835 918.95 1080
0.625 919.16 1090
0.52 919.265 1100
0.515 919.27 1110
0.365 919.42 1120

0.355 919.43 1130
0.14 919.645 1140
1.75 0.07 921.465 919.715 1150
1.785 919.68 1160
1.82 919.645 1170
1.68 919.785 1180
1.61 919.855 1190
1.2 920.265 1200
BLOCK LEVELLING FOR ELEVATED SURFACE TANK
BACK SIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORE SIGHT LOS RL CHAINAGE REMARKS

1.565 806.165 858.6 BM
2.225 857.94 A0
1.855 858.31 A5
1.58 858.585 A10
1.4 858.765 A15
1.28 858.885 A20
1.21 858.955 A25
1.165 859 A30
1.235 858.93 A35
1.295 858.87 A40
1.465 858.7 A45
1.68 858.485 A50
2.57 857.595 B0

1.985 858.18 B5
1.695 858.47 B10
1.62 858.545 B15
1.48 858.685 B20
1.38 858.785 B25
1.405 858.76 B30
1.45 858.715 B35
1.575 1.575 860.165 858.59 B40
1.73 858.435 B45
1.885 858.28 B50
2.95 857.215 C0
2.81 857.355 C5
2.755 857.41 C10
2.67 857.495 C15
2.66 857.505 C20
2.6 857.565 C25
2.59 857.575 C30
2.685 857.48 C35
2.725 857.44 C40
3.01 857.155 C45
2.89 857.275 C50
3.24 856.925 D0
3.02 857.145 D5
3.1 857.065 D10
3.05 857.115 D15
3 857.165 D20
3.175 856.99 D25

3.050 3.05 860.165 857.115 D30
3.11 857.055 D35
3.3 856.865 D40
3.35 856.815 D45
3.585 856.58 D50
3.415 856.75 E0
3.16 857.005 E5
3.3 856.865 E10
3.285 856.88 E15
3.395 856.77 E20
3.685 856.48 E25
3.675 856.49 E30
3.85 856.315 E35
3.89 856.275 E40
3.95 856.215 E45
4.03 856.135 E50
3.85 856.315 F0
3.91 856.255 F5
4.01 856.155 F10
3.695 856.47 F15
3.64 856.525 F20
3.735 856.43 F25
4 856.165 F30
4.025 856.14 F35
4.215 855.95 F40
4.35 855.815 F45

4.275 855.89 F50
4.16 856.005 G0
4.17 855.995 G5
4.25 855.915 G10
4.23 855.935 G15
4.4 855.765 G20
4.55 855.615 G25
4.77 855.395 G30
4.94 855.225 G35
5.18 854.985 G40
5.32 854.845 G45
5.39 854.775 G50
L/S FROM ELEVATED SURFACE TANK TO WASTE WATER TREATMENT SITE OF SANITARY AND WATER
SUPPLY LINE

BACK SIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORE SIGHT LINE OF COLLIMATION REDUCED LEVEL CHAINAGE

1.75 925.18 923.43 A0
1.235 923.945 1210
1.72 923.46 1220
3.64 921.54 1230
4.34 916.84 1240
0.355 924.825 1250
1.705 923.475 1260
1.71 923.47 1270
2.65 922.53 1280
0.65 3.65 922.18 921.53 1290
1.535 920.645 1300
2.185 919.995 1310
2.9 919.88 1320
3.61 918.57 1330
4.3 917.88 1340
0.345 5.01 917.515 917.17 1350
0.91 916.605 1360
1.49 916.025 1370
1.965 915.55 1380
2.445 915.07 1390
2.91 914.605 1400
3.485 914.03 1410
1.41 3.82 915.105 913.695 1420
1.83 913.275 1430
2.53 912.575 1440

2.94 912.165 1450
3.24 911.865 1460
3.44 911.665 1470
3.635 911.47 1480
3.93 911.175 1490
4.195 910.91 1500
0.62 4.4 911.325 910.705 1510
0.92 910.405 1520
1.86 909.465 1530
2.785 908.54 1540
3.625 907.7 1550
4.48 906.845 1560
0.565 5.3 906.59 906.025 1570
1.035 905.555 1580
1.35 905.24 1590
1.59 905 1600
1.82 904.77 1610
2.08 904.51 1620
2.41 904.18 1630
2.8 903.79 1640
0.85 3.295 904.145 903.295 1650
1.31 901.515 1660
2.06 902.085 1670
2.89 901.255 1680
0.89 3.66 901.375 900.485 1690
1.63 899.745 1700
2.585 898.79 1710

3.37 898.005 1720
0.715 4 898.09 897.375 1730
1.23 896.86 1740
1.72 896.37 1750
2.19 895.9 1760
2.6 896.49 1770
3.07 895.02 1780
3.5 894.59 1790
3.85 894.24 1800
1.82 904.77 1610
2.08 904.51 1620
2.41 904.18 1630
2.8 903.79 1640
0.85 3.295 904.145 903.295 1650
1.31 901.515 1660
2.06 902.085 1670
2.89 901.255 1680
0.89 3.66 901.375 900.485 1690
1.63 899.745 1700
2.585 898.79 1710
3.37 898.005 1720
0.715 4 898.09 897.375 1730
1.23 896.86 1740
1.72 896.37 1750
2.19 895.9 1760
2.6 896.49 1770
3.07 895.02 1780

3.5 894.59 1790
3.85 894.24 1800
1.745 896.345 1810
2.31 895.78 1820
2.895 895.145 1830
1.415 3.56 896.61 895.195 1840
2.28 894.33 1850
3.12 893.49 1860
4.15 892.46 1870
0.72 5.05 892.28 891.56 1880
1.52 890.76 1890
2.505 889.775 1900
3.465 888.815 1910
4.43 887.85 1920
5.2 887.08 1930
0.23 5.59 886.92 886.09 1940
1.5 885.42 1950
1.715 885.205 1960
1.706 885.16 1970
1.89 885.03 1980
1.905 885.015 1990
0.665 4.05 886.92 882.87 2000
1.82 885.1 2010
1.62 885.3 2020
1.995 884.925 2030
2.44 0.46 888.9 886.46 2040
1.625 887.275 2050

2.91 0.72 892.09 889.18 2060
1.995 890.095 2070
1.915 1.09 892.915 891 2080
1.54 891.375 2090
1.26 891.355 2100
2.25 0.945 894.22 891.97 2110
1.89 892.33 2120
1.615 892.605 2130
1.52 2.235 893.505 891.98 2140
1.305 892.2 2150
1.4 892.105 2160
1.725 891.78 2170
2.105 891.4 2180
2.33 891.175 2190
1 2.66 891.845 890.845 2200
1.995 890.095 2070
1.915 1.09 892.915 891 2080
1.54 891.375 2090
1.26 891.355 2100
2.25 0.945 894.22 891.97 2110
1.89 892.33 2120
1.615 892.605 2130
1.52 2.235 893.505 891.98 2140
1.305 892.2 2150
1.4 892.105 2160
1.725 891.78 2170
2.105 891.4 2180

2.33 891.175 2190
1 2.66 891.845 890.845 2200
1.07 2.95 891.625 890.555 2210
1.35 890.275 2220
1.305 890.32 2230
1.46 890.165 2240
1.585 890.06 2250
1.645 889.98 2260
1.74 889.885 2270
1.835 889.79 2280
2.205 2.01 891.82 889.615 2290
0.505 891.315 2300
0.92 890.9 2310
1.41 890.41 2320
2.04 889.78 2330
2.635 889.185 2340
3.24 888.58 2350
0.25 3.765 888.305 888.055 2360
0.835 887.47 2370
1.345 886.96 2380
1.745 886.56 2390
2.25 886.055 2400
2.635 885.67 2410
3.09 885.215 2420
0.88 3.58 885.605 884.725 2430
1.305 884.3 2440

1.785 883.82 2450
2.3 883.305 2460
2.91 883.695 2470
2.845 3.525 884.925 882.08 2480
1.53 883.395 2490
2.17 882.755 2500
2.675 882.25 2510
3.15 881.775 2520
0.87 3.62 882.175 881.305 2530
1.33 880.845 2540
1.655 880.52 2550
2.04 880.135 2560
2.52 879.655 2570
1.4 2.685 880.89 879.49 2580
1.58 879.31 2590
1.84 879.05 2600
2.135 878.755 2610
2.525 878.365 2620
3.06 877.83 2630
0.64 3.725 877.805 877.165 2640
0.355 1.265 876.895 876.54 2650
0.855 876.04 2660
1.42 875.475 2670
2.135 874.76 2680
4.155 2.985 873.91 2690

BLOCK LEVELLING FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT SITE

LINE OF REDUCE
BACKSIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT COLLIMATION D LEVEL CHAINAGE
0.9 870.77 869.87 TBM
0.895 3.78 867.885 866.99
1.23 866.655 A0
1.25 866.635 A2
1.21 866.675 A4
1.225 866.66 A6
1.11 866.775 A8
1.15 866.735 A10
1.065 866.82 A12
0.94 866.945 A14
0.955 866.93 A16
0.995 866.89 A18
0.95 866.935 B18
0.955 866.93 B16
0.94 866.945 B14
1.19 866.695 B12
1.18 866.705 B10
1.21 866.675 B8
1.12 866.765 B6
1.2 866.685 B4
1.255 866.63 B2
1.255 866.63 B2
1.33 866.555 B0
1.44 866.445 C0

1.295 866.59 C2
1.275 866.61 C4
1.21 866.675 C6
1.2 866.685 C8
1.18 866.705 C10
1.305 866.58 C12
1.105 866.78 C14
1.065 866.82 C16
0.995 866.89 C18
1.035 866.85 D18
1.21 866.675 D16
1.25 866.635 D14
1.195 866.69 D12
1.28 866.605 D10
1.17 866.715 D8
1.28 866.605 D6
1.375 866.51 D4
1.525 866.36 D2
1.525 866.36 D2
1.555 866.33 D0
1.62 866.265 E0
1.575 866.31 E2
1.505 866.38 E4
1.445 866.44 E6
1.24 866.645 E8
1.24 866.645 E10
1.335 866.55 E12
1.32 866.565 E14
1.32 866.565 E16
1.195 866.69 E18
1.265 866.62 F18
1.325 866.56 F16
1.37 866.515 F14
1.35 866.535 F12
1.275 866.61 F10
1.4 866.485 F8
1.405 866.48 F6
1.585 866.3 F4
1.55 866.335 F2
1.55 866.335 F2
1.555 866.33 F0
1.68 866.205 G0
1.585 866.3 G2

1.49 866.395 G4
1.47 866.415 G6
1.47 866.415 G8
1.475 866.41 G10
1.365 866.52 G12
1.31 866.575 G14
1.325 866.56 G16
1.35 866.535 G18
1.305 866.58 H18
1.3 866.585 H16
1.425 866.46 H14
1.46 866.425 H12
1.445 866.44 H10
1.51 866.375 H8
1.71 866.175 H6
2.185 865.7 H4
1.895 865.99 H2
1.895 865.99 H2
1.82 866.065 H0
2.065 865.82 I0
2.115 865.77 I2
2.505 865.38 I4
2.36 865.525 I6
2.345 865.54 I8
1.62 866.265 I10
1.455 866.43 I12
1.47 866.415 I14
1.395 866.49 I16
1.32 866.565 I18
1.315 866.57 J18
1.39 866.495 J16
1.435 866.45 J14
1.695 866.19 J12
2.395 865.49 J10
2.525 865.36 J8
2.72 865.165 J6
2.585 865.3 J4
2.35 865.535 J2
2.35 865.535 J2
2.21 865.675 J0

HIGHWAY
PROJECT

Introduction
Transportation contributes to the Economic, Industrial, Social and Cultural

development of country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region.
The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social
development.
The four major modes of transportation are:
 Roadways
 Railways
 Airways
 Waterways
Transportation by the road is only mode, which could give maximum service to one
and all. This mode has also the maximum flexibility for travel for with reference to route,
direction, time and speed of travel. It is possible to provide door-to-door service only by road
transport.
The other three modes viz. airways, waterways and railways have to depend on
transportation by road from their respective terminals, airports, and harbor stations.
The road network is therefore needed only to serve as the feeder system for other
modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide independent facility for
road travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout the country.
Objects of highway planning

 To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at a minimum cost.

 To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads, this could
provide maximum utility and could be reconstructed within the available resources
during the plan period under consideration.
 To work out financial system.
 To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criteria for phasing the road development program.
 To plan for future requirements and to improvements of roads in view of anticipated
development.
Highway alignment
The process of transferring the central line of the highway layout on the ground is
called as the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves; changes in gradient and vertical curves are vertical alignment elements.
The basic requirement of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations is that it should be
short, safe and economical.
Short
It is desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations. As straight
alignment would be shortest distance. Practical considerations like steep gradients, points to
be avoided, points to be pass through, and presence of obstacles result in deviation from a
straight alignment.
Safe
This is the most important consideration. The alignment should be safe enough from
the maintenance and construction point of view and also the vehicle operation. The alignment
should be consisting of safe geometrical features.
Economical

Any particular alignment is considered most economical only if the maintenance construction
and vehicle operation cost is lowest in comparison to any alternative alignment. All these
factors should be given due consideration before working out economics of each alignment.
Engineering Surveys for the Highway Project

Before finalizing the highway alignment, the following engineering surveys are
conducted. This is done in four stages. In the first three stages, all alternative alignments are
considered, keeping in view various needs of the highway alignment, the fourth stage is meant
for a detailed study of the selected alignment. The four stages of the highway alignment are:
 Map study.
 Reconnaissance.
 Preliminary survey.
 Final location.
Map study
The likely routes of the highway can be found from the topographic maps of the areas.
By careful study of such maps, the probable alignment can be located on the map taking care
to avoid valleys, ponds, lakes and other such topographical features, also the alternative routes
can be suggested keeping in mind the permissible gradient.
Reconnaissance
This is the second stage of survey for the highway location. To examine the general
character of the areas for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies, here all the
details are not available in the map, are collected and noted down, from the details collected
from the reconnaissance, the alignment proposed after map study may alter or change
completely.
Preliminary Surveys
The main object for conducting the preliminary survey is:

 To survey various alternate alignments proposed after reconnaissance and to collect

the necessary details of topography, drainage and soil.
 To compare different proposals in view of requirement of good alignment.
 To estimate the quarrying of earthwork, material and to work out costs of alternative
proposals.
 To finalize the best alignment after all considerations.
 The following works are done during the preliminary survey:
 Location of the horizontal line along the route determined during the reconnaissance.
 Tracing of the grade contours.
 Tracing the longitudinal section and cross section on either side of the alignment.
 Soil data along the route and surface drainage characteristics.
Final location and detailed surveys

The alignment finalized after the preliminary survey is to first locate by establishing
the longitudinal section and then survey has to be carried out to collect the necessary accurate
information.
Field survey work

The various surveys carried out are as follows:
 Reconnaissance.
 Fly leveling.
 Longitudinal section and cross sections.
 Plane table surveying.
Reconnaissance
It involves the determination of the most feasible site by observing the whole area. It
consists of the following things:
 Location of the existing highway.
 Nature of the soil.
 Availability of the construction material.

Fly leveling
Using the dumpy level and the leveling staff the temporary reference benchmark is
located on the project site. And by taking this as the reference the whole work has to be
carried out.
Longitudinal and cross section
Longitudinal and cross sections are carried out to determine the length of the road and
calculate the earth work required, cross section values are taken at every 10m points at each
2m interval, 8m to the left and 8m to the right perpendicular to the alignment. On curves the
cross sections are taken perpendicular to the both alignments, and longitudinal sections are
taken at every 5m interval along the alignment.
Plane table survey

For preparing the layout plan of the alignment the operation is carried out with the
help of plane table traversing. The details of the existing data are transferred on the drawing
sheets through the radial lines and the data is plotted on these sheets with some scale and the
corresponding distances of the points are marked by drawing radial lines to the chosen scale.
Traversing is carried out by adopting both radial and intersection method of plane table.
New alignment
The new highway alignment can be divided into following stages:
 Selection of the route, finalization of the highway alignment and geometric design
details.
 Collection of materials and testing of sub grade soil and other construction materials
mix design of the pavement material and design details of the pavement layers.
 Construction stage including quality control.
Route selection
The selection of the route is made keeping in view the requirements of alignment and
the geological, topographical and other features of the locality. However special care should

be taken as regards the geometric design standards of the road for possible upgrading of the
speed standards in future, without being necessary to realign the road. After the alignment if
finalized, the plans and working drawings are prepared, the necessary geometric design
requirements for highways and hill roads are provided.
Materials and design

The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys are tested in
the laboratory in order to design the pavement thickness required and the design of
embankment and cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as selected soil, aggregates
are collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and selected along the roads alignment
after subjecting these materials to the specified laboratory tests, in order to design the mixes
for the pavement component layers and to specify quality control test values during road
construction, mix design tests are carried out in the laboratory.
The possibilities of using low-cost construction materials like soil-aggregates mixes,
soft aggregates, stabilized soil and pozzolanic concrete mixes in the sub base or base course
layers of pavement should be fully explored. When high quality pavement materials like
bituminous mixes or cement concrete are to be used in surface source, the mix design
specified and construction control tests should be strictly followed. The pavement thickness is
designed based on the anticipated traffic, stability, and drainage conditions of the sub grade
and the type and thickness of the pavement layers chosen for the construction. In India, the
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) methods has been recommended by Indian Roads congress
for designing the thickness of the flexible pavements, recommended procedure for the design
of cement concrete pavement has also been specified by the Indian Roads congress.
Construction
The construction of the road may be divided into two stages:

Earthwork:
The earthwork consists of excavation and construction of the embankments.
During the excavation for the highway cuts, the earth slopes, their protection and construction
of drainage network are taken care off.
Highway embankment may be best constructed by rolled filled method by compacting the soil
in layers under controlled moisture and density using suitable rollers. In case of the high
embankments, the stability of the embankment foundation, slope and the possible settlement
of embankment with time have to be investigated.
Pavement construction:
The pavement construction is subsequently taken up starting with the preparation
of sub grade and construction of sub base, base and surface courses of the pavement.
Steps involved in alignment work

The various steps in a new highway project may be summarized in the following steps:
 Map study: With the help of the available topographic maps of the area.
 Reconnaissance survey: A general idea of topography and other features, field
identification of the soil and survey of the construction materials, by an on-the-spot
inspection of the site.
 Preliminary survey: Topographic details and soil survey along alternate

alignments, consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alignment,
preparation of the plans and comparison of the alternate routes, economic analysis and
selection of final alignment. Typical plans, longitudinal section and cross section
drawing for the new alignment.
 Location and alignment: Transfer of the alignment from drawings to the ground
by driving pegs along the center line of finally chosen alignment, setting out the
geometric design elements by location of the tangent points, apex points circular and
transition curves, elevation of center line and super elevation details.

 Detailed survey: Survey of the highway construction work for the preparation of
the longitudinal and cross section, computation of earth work quantities and other
construction materials, and checking the details of geometric design elements.
 Material survey: Survey of the construction materials, their collection and testing.
 Design: Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of the

embankment and bridges and pavement layers.
 Earthwork: Excavation for the highway cutting and drainage system, construction
of embankment.
 Pavement construction, preparation of sub grade, construction of the sub-base and

surface courses.
 Construction controls: Quality control tests during different stages of

construction and check for finishes road surface such as unevenness, camber, super
elevation and extra widening of pavement at the curves.
Geometric design
Importance of the geometric design
The geometric design of the highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersections. The geometric of
highway should be designed to prove optimum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum
safety at reasonable cost. Highways geometric are greatly influenced by the topography,
locality and traffic characteristics and the requirements of design speed.
Design control and criteria

The geometric design and highway depend on several design factors are:

Design speed, Topography, Traffic factors, Design hourly volume and capacity, Environment
and other factors
Design speed
Design of almost every geometric design element of a road is dependent on the design
speed. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the
highway. For example, the requirement of the pavement surface characteristics.
Topography
The topography of the terrain conditions influences the geometric design of a highway
significantly. The terrains are classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrains.
Traffic factors
The factors associated with the traffic that effect geometric design of roads are the
vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of the road users.
Design hourly volume and capacity

The traffic flow at volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off
peak hours to the highest value during peak hours. It will be the economical to design the
roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow. Therefore, a reasonable volume of the traffic
volume is decided for the design and is called as the design hourly volume.
Environmental and other factors

The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise
pollution and other local conditions should be given due to consideration in the design on the
road geometric.

DESIGN

DESIGN OF HIGHWAY
CAMBER
Cross slope or Camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the traverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface.
Important reason:
1. To prevent the entry of surface water to the sub grade soil through pavement, the
stability, surface condition and life of the pavement get adversely affected if the water
enters in the sub-grade and soil gets soaked.
2. To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layer.
Types of road surface Range of Camber

Heavy to Light
1. Cement Concrete and high type 1 in 50(2.0%) to 1 in 60(1.7%)
bituminous surface
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40(2.5%) to 1 in 50(2.0%)
3. Water bound macadam, and gravel 1 in 33(3.0%) to 1 in 40(2.5%)
pavement
4. Earth 1 in 25(4.0%) to 1 in 33(3.0%)
 Shape of the camber proposed is parabolic type of camber.

 Water bound macadam of 1 in 37 Camber is selected(The camber rate provided is
2.7%)
 The rise of crown with respect to edges=0.101m.
WIDTH OF PAVEMENT
The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number
of lanes. The lane width is determined on the basis of width of vehicle and minimum
clearance, which may be provided for safety.
Class of road Width of Carriage way

1. Single lane 3.75m
2. Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0m
3. Two Lanes with, raised kerbs 7.5m
4. Intermediate Carriageway (except on 5.5m
important roads)
5. Multi-lane pavements 3.5m per lane

 Width of pavement = 7.0m
KERB
Kerbs indicates the boundary between the pavements and shoulder; or sometimes islands or foot path
or kerb parking space.
1. Low or mountable type kerbs which remain in through traffic lanes, yet allow the
driver to enter the shoulder area.
2. Semi-barrier type kerb is provided on the periphery of roadway where the pedestrian
traffic is high. Kerb is 15cm above pavement.
3. Barrier type kerb is provided in built up areas adjacent to foot paths with
considerable pedestrians’ traffic. Height of kerbs is above 20cm from pavement.
In rural roads submerged kerbs are sometimes provided at pavement edge between edge and
shoulders.
 Two lanes without raised kerbs of 7.0m carriageway is selected.
SHOULDERS
Road margins: The various elements included in road margins are shoulder, parking lane,
frontage roads, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope.
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for the vehicle
compelled to be taken out of pavement or roadway.
The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5m
Footpaths or sidewalks are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well as pedestrian
traffic are heavy.
Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe traffic movement and
also aesthetic reasons.
 Width of shoulder =2.5m

ROADWAY WIDTH
Width of Roadway is the sum of widths of pavements or carriageway, including
separators if any, and the shoulders.
The width of Roadway as per IRC:
Roadway width, m
Sl. No. Road Classification Plain & Rolling Mountains and
terrain steep terrain
1. National and State Highway
a) Single lane 12.0 6.25
b) Two lane 12.0 8.80
2. Major district roads
a) Single lane 9.0 4.75
b) Two lane 9.0 -----
3. Other district roads
a) Single 7.5 4.75
b) Two lanes 9.0 -----
4. Village roads-single lane 7.5 4.00
 Width of the State Highway road =12m
DESIGN SPEED
 Design speed= 40 kmph
SIGHT DISTANCES
Safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, among other factor on road length at
which an obstruction, of any, becomes visible to the driver in the direction of travel. Sight
distance available from point is the actual distance along the road surface.

STOPPING SIDE DISTANCE (SSD)

The sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop a
vehicle travelling at design speed.
Design 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
speed,
Kmph
SSD in m 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
SSD on highway for design speed of 50 kmph.
Assume total reaction time ‘t’ may be taken as 2.5 seconds and design co-efficient of
friction as
f=0.36
V= 50 kmph
g= 9.81 m/sec²
50
V= = 13.89 m/sec
3.6
2
V
SSD =Vt + ( )
2g f
13.89 ²
= 13.89×2.5+
2 x 9.81 ×0.36
=62.04 » 62m
As per IRC, SSD= 62 m
 SSD = 62 m
 ISD = 2×62 = 124 m.
OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

If all vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically there should be no need
for any overtaking. In fact, vehicles do not move at the designed speed and particularly under
mixed traffic conditions.
The minimum distance open to vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum
overtaking sight distances (OSD).
IRC recommended OSD values:
Time component, seconds

Speed Safe overtaking sight
For overtaking For opposing
kmph Total distance (meters)
vehicle vehicle
40 9.0 6.0 15 165
50 10.0 7.0 17 235
60 10.8 7.2 18 300
65 11.5 7.5 19 340
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14.0 9.0 23 640
OSD on highway for design speed of 50 kmph.
OSD = (d 1 +d 2 +d 3 ¿
V= 50 kmph, a =2.5Kmph/sec (from table)
Assume V b=V −16
= 50-16
= 34 Kmph
Assume reaction time as 2 seconds.
From IRC, L = 6 m
d 1 = V b ×t= 9.4 ×2= 18.8 m
s= (0.7V b +L) = (0.7 ×9.4) +6 = 12.58 m
T=
√ 4×s
a
=
√4 ×12.58
2.5
= 4.49 sec
d 2=¿ ¿×T+ aT2/2) = (9.4×4.49) + (2.5*4.492/2) = 67.41 m

d 3= VT = 13.89×4.49= 62.37 m
OSD for one way traffic = d 1+d 2= 86.21 m
OSD for two-way traffic road
=d 1 +d 2 +d 3
= 18.8 + 67.41 +62.37
=145.58 m

Camber = 2% (1:50)
Overtaking Zones:
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible ahead at
every point is sufficient for safe overtaking. Overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at
design speed should be given at frequent intervals. These zones which are meant for
overtaking are called overtaking zones.
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

A horizontal highway curve is a curve is a plan to provide change in direction to the central
line of a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts
horizontally outwards through the center of gravity of the vehicle.
2
Wv
P=
gR
P=Centrifugal force
W=Weight of vehicle, kg
R=Radius of circular curve, m
V=Speed of vehicle, m/sec
G=acceleration due to gravity=9.8m/sec
Centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has 2 effects:
1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels and
2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards.
Super elevation:
In order to counteract the effect of Centrifugal force and to reduce tendency of vehicle to
overturn or skid, outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge.
EXTRA WIDENING
w n l2 V
e= +
2 R 9.5 √ R
2 ×6
2
50
= +
2× 80 9.5 √ 80
= 1.04 m.
LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE
80 80
1. c= =
75+V 75+50
= 0.64 m/sᶟ (0.5 to 0.8)

3
V
2. Ls =
cR
13.89ᶟ
= 0.64 ×80
= 52.340 m
eN
Ls = (W +W e )
2
0.07 ×60
= (7+ 1.04)
2
= 16.88m
Minimum value of transition curve,
2 2
Ls = V = 50
R 80
=31.25 m
SUPER ELEVATION
2
Rmin= V
127(e + f )
50 ²
= 127(0.07+ 0.15) = 89.48 m
R=80 m
V²
1. Super elevation, e = 225 R
50 ²
= 225× 80 = 0.14 >0.07
V²
2. f= - 0.07
127 R
2
50
= - 0.07
127 ×80
= 0.176.

EARTH WORK CALCULATIONS
D. D.
CHAINAGE RL F.LEVEL GRADIENT CUTTING FILLING DISTANCE FILLING CUTTING
0 812.83 818.200 1in30 1.6 0 0
60 817.605 817.200 1in30 0.4 60 722.67
120 818.710 816.200 1in30 2.4 60 1013.85
140 817.970 816.000 1in30 1.6 20 482.74
230 816.570 814.400 1in30 1.4 90 1626.66
260 816.025 814.200 1in30 2.2 30 651.345
300 816.355 813.400 1in30 2 40 1013.82
330 816.785 813.000 1in30 3.8 30 1053.12
420 812.160 811.600 1in30 0.4 90 2289.645
480 813.520 810.800 1in30 3 60 1232.4
520 811.960 810.400 1in30 1.6 40 1111.18
550 811.715 809.800 1in30 2 30 651.24
590 800.655 809.400 1in30 2.9 40 -1184.13
610 807.070 808.800 1in30 1.6 20 -815.415
720 805.075 807.400 1in30 2.1 110 -2454.595
790 806.240 806.600 1in30 0.2 30 -693.65
940 799.615 804.600 1in30 4 190 -3819.675
1240 796.390 800.600 1in30 2.6 300 -11992.65
1390 794.169 796.000 1in30 2.6 150 -4713.45
1410 791.270 795.600 1in30 5 20 -922.48
1470 792.380 794.800 1in30 2.9 60 -2877.06
1620 789.850 792.800 1in30 3 150 -5353.05
1770 785.960 792.200 1in30 4.2 150 -6545.925
1860 786.625 788.200 1in30 1.8 90 -3270.96
2000 786.490 786.490 1in30 140 -1519.42
DEPTH OF FILLING (m3) 11848.67

DEPTH OF CUTTING(m3) 46162.46
FLY LEVELLING FOR HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
LINE OF
BACKSIGHT INTERMEDIATE FORESIGHT COLLIMATION RL CHAINAGE
1.44 821.44 820
1.61 819.83 C0
1.6 819.84 R2
1.62 819.82 R4
1.76 819.68 R6
1.685 819.755 L2
1.745 819.695 L4
1.945 819.495 L6
2.64 818.8 C30
1.695 819.745 R2
2.95 818.49 R4
3.48 817.96 R6
2.655 818.785 L2
2.81 818.63 L4
3.48 817.96 L6
3.835 817.605 C60
3.85 817.59 R2
3.93 817.51 R4
4.8 816.64 R6

3.89 817.55 L2
1.405 4.4 821.440 817.04 L4
1.405 817.04 L4
4.8 816.64 L6
2.495 818.915 C90
2.85 818.59 R2
2.98 818.46 R4
3.86 817.58 R6
2.855 818.585 L2
2.93 818.51 L4
3.86 817.58 L6
3.2 818.24 C100
3.22 818.22 R2
2.34 819.1 R4
2.4 819.04 R6
2.27 819.17 L2
2.34 819.1 L4
2.4 819.04 L6
2.67 818.77 C110
2.75 818.69 R2
3.01 818.43 R4
3.125 818.315 R6
0.950 2.67 819.72 818.77 L2
0.950 818.77 L2
1.01 818.71 L4
2.02 817.7 L6
1.375 818.345 C120
1.465 818.255 R2

1.84 817.88 R4
1.855 817.865 R6
1.36 818.36 L2
1.495 818.225 L4
1.51 818.21 L6
1.81 817.91 C130
1.86 817.86 R2
1.96 817.76 R4
2.23 817.49 R6
1.77 817.95 L2
1.815 817.905 L4
2.29 817.43 L6
2.15 817.57 C140
2.35 817.37 R2
2.345 817.375 R4
0.95 2.38 819.720 817.34 R6
0.95 818.17 L2
1.01 818.71 L4
2.02 817.7 L6
2.165 817.555 L2
2.265 817.445 L4
2.8 816.92 L6
2.59 817.13 C170
2.6 817.12 R2
2.66 817.06 R4
2.995 816.725 R6
2.675 817.045 L2
3.15 816.57 L4

3.965 815.755 L6
3.065 816.655 C200
3.13 816.59 R2
3.24 816.48 R4
3.77 815.95 R6
3.12 816.6 L2
3.27 816.45 L4
3.51 816.21 L6
1.9 3.695 817.925 816.025 C230
1.95 815.975 R2
2.01 815.915 R4
2.58 815.345 R6
1.985 815.94 L2
2.415 815.51 L4
2.98 814.945 L6
1.745 816.18 C260
1.705 816.22 R2
1.58 816.345 R4
2.65 815.275 R6
1.865 816.06 L2
2.25 815.675 L4
3.08 814.845 L6
1.545 816.38 C270
1.52 816.405 R2
1.435 816.49 R4
2.205 815.72 R6
1.685 816.24 L2
1.835 816.09 L4

3.14 814.785 L6
2.57 815.355 C300
0.785 0.785 817.925 817.14 R2
0.755 817.17 R4
0.7 817.225 R6
1.5 816.425 L2
0.915 817.01 L4
1.28 816.645 L6
2.2 815.725 C320
0.82 817.105 R2
0.77 817.155 R4
1.265 816.66 R6
1.03 816.895 L2
1.29 816.635 L4
1.585 816.34 L6
0.71 1.14 817.495 816.785 C330
0.92 816.575 L2
1.1 816.395 L4
1.6 815.895 L6
0.645 815.85 R2
0.62 816.875 R4
0.94 816.555 R6
2.21 815.285 C360
2.205 815.29 R2
2.24 815.255 R4
3.32 814.175 R6
2.33 815.165 L2
2.445 815.05 L4

2.58 814.914 L6
3.89 813.605 C390
3.945 813.55 R2
3.93 813.565 R4
4.45 813.045 R6
3.98 813.515 L2
3.94 813.555 L4
4.45 813.045 L6
1.89 5.335 814.05 812.16 C420
1.96 812.09 R2
2.035 812.015 R4
3.23 810.82 R6
1.9 812.15 L2
2.45 811.6 L4
2.94 811.11 L6
1.715 812.335 C450
1.755 812.295 L2
1.785 812.265 L4
2.12 811.93 L6
1.735 812.315 R2
2.09 811.96 R4
3.75 810.3 R6
1.21 812.84 L460
1.13 812.92 R2
1.215 812.835 R4
1.295 812.755 R6
1.305 812.745 L2
1.47 812.58 L4

1.56 812.49 L6
0.745 813.305 C470
0.64 813.41 R2
0.62 813.43 R4
0.47 813.58 R6
0.9 813.15 L2
0.990 0.99 814.050 813.06 L4
1.8 812.25 L6
0.53 813.52 C480
0.44 813.61 R2
0.44 813.61 R4
0.28 813.77 R6
0.75 813.3 L2
0.835 813.215 L4
1.47 812.58 L6
0.59 813.46 C490
0.75 813.3 R2
0.88 813.17 R4
1.15 812.9 R6
0.77 813.28 L2
1.01 813.04 L4
1.25 812.8 L6
0.21 0.9 813.36 813.15 C500
0.125 813.235 R2
0.155 813.205 R4
0.535 812.825 R6
0.385 812.975 L2
0.615 817.745 L4

1.64 811.72 L6
1.4 811.96 C520
1.415 811.945 R2
1.345 812.015 R4
2.1 811.26 R6
1.56 811.8 L2
1.595 811.765 L4
1.735 811.625 L6
1.645 811.715 C550
3.61 809.75 R2
1.58 811.78 R4
1.375 811.985 R6
3.735 809.625 L2
3.95 809.41 L4
4.35 809.01 L6
4.625 808.735 C560
4.66 808.7 L2
4.71 808.65 L4
5.09 808.27 L6
4.615 808.745 R2
4.63 808.73 R4
0.095 4.635 808.82 808.725 R6
2.165 806.655 C590
2.17 806.65 R2
2.285 806.535 R4
2.545 806.275 R6
2.28 806.54 L2
2.7 806.12 L4

2.95 805.87 L6
1.75 807.07 C610
2.765 806.055 R2
2.835 805.985 R4
3.35 805.47 R6
2.8 806.02 L2
3.155 805.665 L4
3.95 804.87 L6
0.62 2.91 806.53 805.91 C640
0.61 805.92 L2
0.76 805.77 L4
0.825 805.705 L6
0.69 805.84 R2
0.76 805.77 R4
1.855 804.675 R6
0.83 805.7 C650
0.9 805.63 R2
1.315 805.215 R4
1.4 805.13 R6
0.75 805.78 L2
0.75 805.78 L4
1 805.53 L6
1.31 805.22 C670
1.4 805.13 R2
1.445 805.085 R4
1.5 805.03 R6
1.34 805.19 L2
1.715 804.815 L4

1.65 804.29 L6
1.48 805.05 C680
1.46 805.07 L2
1.645 804.885 L4
1.84 804.69 L6
1.57 804.96 R2
1.625 804.905 R4
1.78 804.75 R6
1.505 805.025 C690
1.48 805.05 L2
1.55 804.98 L4
1.9 804.63 L6
1.565 804.965 R2
1.635 804.895 R4
2.18 804.35 R6
1.725 1.465 806.79 805.065 C700
1.81 804.98 R2
1.845 804.945 R4
1.98 804.81 R6
1.75 805.04 L2
1.955 804.835 L4
2.25 804.54 L6
1.715 805.075 C720
1.77 805.02 R2
1.85 804.94 R4
2.15 804.64 R6

1.85 804.94 L2
1.9 804.89 L4
2.21 804.58 L6
1.675 805.115 C760
1.72 805.07 R2
1.775 805.015 R4
1.95 804.84 R6
1.815 804.975 L2
2.005 805.785 L4
2.38 804.41 L6
2.55 804.24 C790
2.57 804.22 R2
2.65 804.14 R4
2.92 803.81 R6
2.67 804.12 L2
2.95 803.84 L4
3.25 803.54 L6
3.52 803.27 C820
3.58 803.21 R2
3.57 803.22 R4
3.72 803.07 R6
3.6 803.19 L2
3.79 803 L4
0.5 4.055 803.235 802.735 L6
1.095 802.14 C850
1.195 802.04 R2
1.44 801.795 R4
1.65 801.585 R6

1.18 802.055 L2
1.28 801.955 L4
1.32 801.915 L6
2 801.235 C880
2.065 801.17 L2
2.235 801 L4
2.23 801.005 L6
2.225 801.01 R2
801.04 R4
2.175 801.06 R6
2.93 800.305 C910
3.045 800.19 R2
3.45 799.785 R4
2.69 800.545 R6
3.1 800.135 L2
3.175 800.06 L4
3.28 799.955 L6
3.62 799.616 C940
3.67 799.565 R2
3.8 799.495 R4
4.15 799.085 R6
0.74 3.64 800.335 799.595 L2
0.88 799.455 L4
0.84 799.495 L6
1.32 799.015 C970
1.395 798.94 R2
1.98 798.355 R4
2.15 798.185 R6

1.1 797.54 L2
1.33 797.31 L4
1.17 797.47 L6
1.425 797.215 C1090
1.5 797.14 R2
1.64 797 R4
2 796.64 R6
1.745 796.895 L2
1.695 796.945 L4
1.66 796.98 L6
1.76 796.88 C1120
1.9 796.74 R2
2.3 796.34 R4
2.735 795.905 R2
1.765 796.875 L2
1.9 796.74 L4
2.065 796.575 L6
2.145 796.495 C1150
2.27 796.37 R2
1.545 2.605 797.58 796.035 R4
1.42 796.16 R4
2.15 795.43 R6
1.2 796.38 L2
1.475 796.105 L4
1.895 795.685 L6
1.745 795.835 C1270
1.82 795.76 R2
2.12 795.46 R4

2.515 795.065 R6
1.795 795.785 L2
2.085 795.495 L4
2.05 795.53 L6
2.43 795.15 C1300
2.55 795.03 L2
2.695 794.885 L4
2.15 794.43 L6
2.48 795.1 R2
2.55 795.03 R4
2.675 794.905 R6
794.63 C1330
3 794.58 R2
3.08 794.5 R4
3.515 794.065 R6
2.985 794.595 L2
1.435 3.125 795.89 794.455 L4
3.27 792.62 L6
1.49 794.4 C1360
1.56 794.33 R2
1.68 794.21 R4
2.26 793.63 R6
1.55 794.34 L2
1.69 794.2 L4
1.92 793.97 L6
1.73 794.16 C1390
1.78 794.11 R2
1.85 794.04 R4

2.47 793.42 R6
1.72 794.17 L2
1.74 794.15 L4
2.45 790.845 L6
1.645 791.72 C1410
1.7 791.665 R2
1.98 791.385 R4
2.38 790.985 R6
1.665 791.7 L2
2.115 791.25 L4
2.77 790.595 L6
1.1 792.265 C1440
1.245 792.12 R2
2.15 1.6 793.915 791.765 R4
2.215 791.7 R6
1.63 792.285 L2
2.15 791.765 L4
2.57 791.345 L6
1.535 792.38 C1470
1.605 792.31 R2
1.835 792.08 R4
2.115 791.8 R6
1.57 792.345 L2
1.73 792.185 L4
1.77 792.145 L6
2.04 791.875 C1500
2.115 791.8 R2
2.3 791.615 R4

2.45 791.465 R6
2.11 791.805 L2
2.635 791.28 L4
2.685 791.23 L6
2.695 791.22 C1530
2.755 791.16 R2
1.215 2.93 792.2 790.985 R4
3.25 788.95 R6
1 791.2 L2
0.96 791.24 L4
1.29 790.91 L6
1.435 790.765 C1560
1.48 790.72 R2
1.685 790.565 R4
1.955 790.245 R6
1.28 788.99 L2
1.87 788.4 L4
2.24 788.03 L6
2.005 788.265 C1680
2.01 788.26 R2
2.09 788.18 R4
2.155 788.115 R6
2.16 788.11 L2
2.315 787.955 L4
2.625 787.645 L6
3.085 787.185 C1710
3.15 787.12 R2
3.1 787.17 R4

3.02 787.25 R6
3.11 787.16 L2
3.22 787.05 L4
3.57 786.7 L6
1.06 3.8 787.53 786.47 C1740
1.1 786.43 L2
1.24 786.29 L4
1.1 786.43 L6
1.14 786.39 R2
1.27 786.26 R4
1.87 785.66 R6
1.57 786.96 C1770
1.63 785.9 L2
1.97 785.56 L4
1.78 785.75 L6
1.53 786 R2
1.58 785.95 R4
1.78 785.75 R6
1.78 785.78 C1800
1.795 785.735 R2
2.51 785.02 R4
3.15 784.38 R6
3.81 785.72 L2
1.95 785.58 L4
2.25 785.28 L6
1.48 786.05 C1830
1.52 786.01 R2
1.63 785.9 L2

1.97 785.56 L4
1.78 785.75 L6
1.53 786 R2
1.58 785.95 R4
1.78 785.75 R6
1.78 785.78 C1800
1.795 785.735 R2
2.68 2.13 788.08 785.4 R4
2.825 785.255 R6
2.095 785.985 L2
2.13 785.95 L4
2.29 785.79 L6
1.455 786.625 C1860
1.51 786.57 R2
1.805 786.275 R4
1.915 786.165 R6
1.465 786.615 L2
1.15 786.93 L4
1.76 786.32 L6
1.7 786.38 C1890
1.85 786.23 R2
2.125 785.955 R4
2.73 785.35 R6
1.67 786.41 L2
1.705 786.375 L4
1.91 786.17 L6
2.115 785.965 C1920
2.19 785.89 R2

2.41 785.67 R4
2.615 785.465 R6
2.115 785.965 L2
2.13 785.95 L4
2.49 785.59 L6
1.655 2.12 787.615 785.96 C1930
1.75 785.865 R2
2.08 785.535 R4
2.215 785.4 R6
1.645 785.97 L2
1.17 785.905 L4
2.47 785.145 L6
1.64 785.975 C1940
1.74 785.875 R2
1.995 785.62 R4
2.27 785.345 R6
1.915 786.165 R6
1.465 786.615 L2
1.15 786.93 L4
1.76 786.32 L6
1.685 785.93 C1950
1.835 785.78 R2
1.91 785.705 R4
2.21 785.405 R6
1.63 785.985 L2
1.79 785.825 L4
2.24 785.375 L6
1.54 786.075 C1960

1.7 785.915 R2
2.01 785.605 R4
1.93 785.685 R6
1.48 786.185 L2
1.74 785.875 L4
2.02 785.595 L6
1.36 786.255 C1970
1.45 786.165 R2
2.25 785.365 L6
1.125 786.49 C2000
1.14 786.475 R2
1.335 786.28 R4
1.92 785.695 R6
1.12 786.495 L2
1.58 786.035 L4
REFERENCES

1. Highway Engg. By Khanna and Justo
2. Surveying Vol. I & II by B.C. Punmia
3. Water Supply and Hydrology by S. K. Garg
4. Environmental Engg. I & II by B.C. Punmia.

Survey 20191civ9001 DINAKAR NAIK A T

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EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT 2022

EXTENSIVE SURVEY PROJECT (CIV 255)

20191CIV9001 - DINAKAR NAIK A T 20191CIV90014 - LAKSHMAN P

20191CIV9003 - ABHISHEK A 20201LCV0004 - ABHISHEK M S

20191CIV9004 - HARISH R N 20201LCV0006 - SATHTYA NARAYANA Y N

20191CIV9008 - MOHAMMED MUHIBULLA S 20201LCV0008 - SYED SUFIAN AHMED

20191CIV9010 - M V UDAY RAJ 20201LCV0010 - VISHWAMBHAR V S L

20191CIV9012 -SURAJ R 20201LCV0012 - AKILESH K V

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Bhavan Kumar Assistant Professor,

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Department of Civil Engineering

Mr. Bhavan Kumar Mr. Ramachandra Gollar

Dr. Nakul R Dr. S B Anadinni Dr. Abdul Sharief D

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Name of the Examiners

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

I am thankful to Dr. Nakul R, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, Presidency

I am grateful to Teaching and Non-Teaching staff of Department of Civil Engineering and

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

ITGALPURA, RAJANKUNTE BANGALORE

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

Need For Irrigation:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Commercial crop with additional water:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Controlled water supply

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Definitions of some of the terms associated with Hydrology

 The atmosphere must have moisture

The rate of evaporation is dependent on:-

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

ii) Depression storage:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

ii) Direct runoff

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

= 86,400 B/104 D metres

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Gross commanded area

Cultivable Commanded Area

Factors Affecting Duty:

 Methods and System of Irrigation:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

 Mode of Applying Water:

 Time and Frequency of Tilling:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

 Base Period of the Crop:

 Climatic Conditions of the Area:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

Consumptive use of water:

Minor irrigation consists of irrigation from:

CIVIL ENGINEERING,PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY

An irrigation tank essentially consists of the following:

 An earthen bund across the valley creating a storage area.

BASIS FOR FORMATION OF TANK