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CHAPTER 1 - Fluid Power Physics
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ENERGY 
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As we begin our study of basic hydraulics we must first recognize that fluid 
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WORK
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Figure 1.1 –illustration of work

Example 1.1 - In Figure 1.1, 1000 pounds is moved a distance

of 2 feet. After the weight is moved a distance of two feet, how
much work has been accomplished?
Solution: Work (in.lbs) = 1000 (lbs) x 2ft = 2000 ft.lbs
Answer: 2000 ft.lbs of work

POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work, or work over time. In order to
have relative meaning for measuring power, power must be converted to
horsepower, which is a unit of measuring energy

Power = Force x Distance/ Time or Work/ Time

 Figure 1.2 - illustration of power 

Example 1.2 - In Figure 1.2, 1000 pounds is lifted a distance of

two feet in two seconds. How much power has been
accomplished?
Solution: Power = 1000 (lbs) x 2 ft/ 2 s = 1000 lb.ft/s
Answer: 1000 lb.ft/s

HORSEPOWER
Mathematically, hydraulic horsepower is expressed as follows: horsepower
equals flow, in gallons per minute (gpm), times pressure, inch-pounds per
square inch (psi), divided by 1714, a constant.

Hydraulic HP = Flow (gpm) x Pressure (psi)/ 1714 (constant)

Figure 1.3 - illustration of hydraulic horsepower

In Figure 1. 3 , a 10,000 pound weight is being lifted a distance of 1 foot. If

the load is lifted in 2 seconds, a power requirement is defined. This may be
expressed as hydraulic horsepower. To lift 10,000 pounds a distance of 1
foot in 2 seconds, there must be a required flow rate at a specific pressure,
based on cylinder size and the pump flow discharge.
Example 1.3 - In Figure 1.3, the 10,000 pound weight is lifted a
distance of 1 foot in 2 seconds. If the pump is providing 15 gpm
and the pressure requirement to lift the 10,000 pounds is 1700
psi, what is the theoretical horsepower requirement?
Solution: Hydraulic HP = 15 (gpm) x 1700 (psi)/ 1714 (constant)
= 14.88 HP
Answer: 14.88 HP

HEAT
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, although it can change its form. Energy in a hydraulic
system that is not used for work takes the form of heat.
 Figure 1.4 - wasted horsepower in a hydraulic system is converted into heat

Example 1.4 - In Figure 1.4, 10 gpm are going through a relief

valve, which has a pressure setting of 1500 psi. What is the
amount of energy being converted to heat?
Solution: Hydraulic HP = 10 (gpm) x 1500 (psi)/ 1714 (constant)
= 8.75 HP
Answer: 8.75 wasted HP

TORQUE
Torque is twisting force. Mathematically, torque is defined as force times a
moment arm and is
measured in foot-pounds. The moment arm is the distance from the object
on which the force is being applied to the actual force itself.

Torque = Force x Moment Arm

Figure 1.5 - illustration of

torque

This same theory applies to hydraulic motors. Hydraulic motors are

actuators that are rated in specific torque values at a given pressure. The
twisting force, or torque, is the generated work. A motor’s rotation per
minute (rpm) at a given torque specifies our energy usage or horsepower
requirement.
Example 1.5 - In Figure 1.5, 10 lbs of force is being applied to a
wrench 1 foot in length. What is the amount of torque being
produced on the bolt?
Solution: 10 lbs is the force. The moment arm in this example is
the distance between the force and the bolt. Therefore, we have
a moment arm of 1 foot. Torque = 10 lbs x 1 ft = 10 ft.lbs
Answer: 10 ft.lbs of torque
FLOW
Flow in a hydraulic system is produced from a positive displacement pump.
This is different from a centrifugal pump, which is not positive displacement.
There are three important principles that must be understood relating to
flow in a hydraulic system.
Principle one: Flow makes it go. For anything to move in a
hydraulic system the actuator must be supplied with flow. In
Figure 1.6, when the cylinder is retracted, it can extend only if
there is flow into port B. Shifting the directional control valve will
send flow to either extend or retract the cylinder.

Figure 1.6 - a simple hydraulic system

Principle two: Rate of flow determines speed. Rate of flow is

usually measured in gallons per minute (gpm). The pump
determines gpm. Changes in pump output flow will change the
speed of the actuator.
Principle three: With a given flow rate, changes in actuator
volume displacement will change actuator speed. With less
volume to displace, the actuator will cycle faster. For example,
referring to Figure 1.6 again, there is less volume to displace
when the cylinder is retracted, because the cylinder rod
occupies space, thus diminishing the volume to be displaced.
PRESSURE
Pressure in a hydraulic system comes from resistance to flow. To further
illustrate this principle, consider the flow produced from the hydraulic pump
in Figure 1.7. The pump is producing flow, not pressure. However, as flow
from the pump is restricted, pressure will result. This resistance to flow is
load induced from the actuator and also generated as the fluid is passed
through the various conductors and components. All points of resistance,
such as long runs of pipe, elbows, and various components, are
accumulative in series and contribute to total system pressure.

Figure 1.7 - the hydraulic pump is not

producing pressure

Pascal’s law forms the basis for understanding the relationship between
force, pressure, and area. The relationship is often expressed with the
symbol in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 - Pascal's law triangle

Mathematically we express this relationship as: Force is equal to pressure

times area; pressure is equal to force divided by area; and area can be
calculated by dividing force by pressure.

Force = Pressure x Area

Pressure = Force/ Area

Area = Force/ Pressure

Pascal’s law is expressed as follows: Pressure applied on a confined fluid
at rest is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force
on equal areas and at right angles to them.

Figure 1.9 - Pascal’s law applied to a container of fluid

Example 1.6 - In Figure 1.9, a vessel is filled with a non-

compressible liquid. If 10 pounds of force is applied to the 1
square inch stopper, and the bottom of the container is 20
square inches, what is the result, in force, on the bottom of the
container?
Solution: Pascal’s law states that pressure applied on a
confined fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished in all directions
and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to
them. Therefore, 10 pounds of force would result on every
square inch of the container wall. Force = 10 psi x 20 in2 = 200
lbs
Answer: 200 lbs of force

LOAD-INDUCED PRESSURE
Load-induced pressure is defined as pressure generated from the load, or
force on the actuator. The effective area of the cylinder piston is the area
available for force generation. In Figure 1.10, a 10,000 pound force gives a
load-induced pressure of 1,000 psi, based on the formula. When the
cylinder is extended, the required pressure to move the 10,000 pound load
is 1,000 psi less frictional forces.
 Figure 1.10 - pressure is induced by the load on the cylinder

During retraction, the effective area is only 5 square inches. This increases
the required pressure to 2,000 psi needed to retract the load.

PRESSURE DROP
Pressure that is not directly used to provide work may be defined as
pressure drop or resistive pressure. It is the pressure required to push the
fluid through the conductors to the actuator. This energy takes the form of
heat. Excessive pressure drop may contribute to excessive heat build up in
the hydraulic system. This resistive pressure is accumulative and must be
added to the overall system pressure requirements.

Figure 1.11 - pressure drop may result in heat build up

FLUIDS
The study of fluid power deals with understanding energy transmission
through a confined liquid. The hydraulic fluid may well be considered the
most important component in a hydraulic system. It serves as lubricant,
heat transfer medium, a means of transferring energy, and a sealant.
 Figure 1.12 - fluids in a hydraulic system serves multiple purposes

Hydraulic fluid is basically non-compressible and can take the shape of any
container. Because of this, it exhibits a certain advantage in the
transmission of force. Figure 1.13 is an example where the fluid will take
the shape of a container. Using a positive displacement pump energy is
transmitted from the prime mover (input source) to the actuator (output)
through the medium of a non-compressible fluid. As the fluid passes
through the conductors and components, certain considerations must be
given to ensure maximum efficiency of energy transfer. These
considerations include the understanding and proper application of fluid
velocity and viscosity.

Figure 1.13 - hydraulic fluid will take the shape of its container
VELOCITY
Velocity is the distance fluid travels per unit of time. With a fixed volume of
fluid going through a
conductor, the velocity of the fluid will depend on the inside diameter of the
conductor.

Velocity = (gpm) x 0.3208/ Inside Diameter x 0.7854

If the diameter of a conductor is increased, the velocity of the fluid will

decrease. Conversely, if the diameter of the conductor is decreased, the
fluid’s velocity will increase.

Figure 1.14 - inside diameter of a fluid conductor

To better illustrate this principle two simple systems are shown in Figure
1.15, in which two pumps of equal 30-gpm displacement move fluid through
conductors of different sizes. The displacement
remains equal while the velocity of the fluid varies with the size of the
conductor. The fluid turning fly wheel 2 is moving 4 times faster than the
fluid turning fly wheel 1 because the inside diameter of the pipe for fly
wheel 1 is twice the size of the inside diameter of fly wheel 2. However, the
flywheels turn at the same rate because the volume displacement is equal
in both systems.
 Figure 1.15 - a simple hydraulic system

VISCOSITY 
Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. A thicker fluid has
more resistance to flow and a higher viscosity. Viscosity is affected by
temperature. As a hydraulic fluid’s temperature increases, its viscosity or
resistance to flow decreases.

Figure 1.16 - an example viscos

of a fluid’s ity

A viscometer (Figure 1.17), the device used to measure a liquid’s viscosity,

consists of a small reservoir surrounded by a water bath used to heat and
maintain the liquid at a constant temperature. There is a small orifice below
the reservoir through which the liquid can pass once it is heated to a
specified temperature. A stopwatch is used to determine how much time it
takes to fill a 60-milliliter flask. The number of seconds that it takes to fill the
flask at a given temperature is the liquid’s viscosity at that temperature.
 Figure 1.17 - an example of a viscometer

Read More:

Basic Hydraulics - Flow Control Valves

Basic Hydraulics - Directional Control Valve

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