energies

Article
Sustainability of Steel Office Buildings
Filip Broniewicz * and Miroslaw Broniewicz
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bialystok University of Technology,
15-351 Bialystok, Poland; m.broniewicz@pb.edu.pl
* Correspondence: f.broniewicz@doktoranci.pb.edu.pl




Received: 8 June 2020; Accepted: 16 July 2020; Published: 20 July 2020


Abstract: Sustainable construction is an important part of sustainable development because of its

contribution to the economy as well as the environmental and social impact of buildings on our
lives. Steel is one of the most basic materials, both in the structures and for the finishes. It enables
efficiency, durability, and recyclability, especially for office buildings. All these features of steel show
its sustainable potential. Consumers are becoming increasingly concerned about the environment.
They need to be able to make informed decisions about the impact of their actions. This publication is
aimed at setting out key themes for the design and construction of sustainable buildings. Examples of
office building environmental analyses are presented to illustrate how this is being achieved in
steel construction.

Keywords: sustainable construction; steel buildings; design for deconstruction

1. Introduction
According to the Polish Environmental Protection Law, when manufacturing products, it is
necessary to minimize the consumption of substances and energy, to use substances and technical
solutions with a minimum negative impact on the environment during the period of operation of the
product and after it, and to use substances and technical solutions which make it possible to repair the
product, disassemble it to separate used elements, and apply parts of the product in another product
or use them for other purposes. All these recommendations are met with steel, which is the most
processed structural material. Sustainable building design is based on methods and processes that are
compatible with nature and do not cause harmful effects on the natural and social environment [1].
Sustainable building design is the erection of buildings that meet the uppermost environmental
standards, achieving the highest ratings in multi-criteria building assessment systems. It is a process
which, in conventional design, introduces principles and priorities related to the environmental
impact of a building at every stage of its life. It ensures the identification of stages with a particular
environmental impact throughout the product life cycle and allows making a comparative analysis
of the environmental impact of different products, materials, and building structures performing the
same functions [2]. The manufacturing and operation of each construction product entail specific
environmental impacts during its entire life cycle. Some of these environmental impacts are common
to different construction materials, such as steel, concrete, and wood, while others are only specific to
the product type.
Traditionally, the price of a given construction material is the main criterion for the choice of
facility construction. However, this concept is currently too narrow and does not take into account
the environmental and social costs of the solution used. Sustainable building design identifies
environmental hazards associated with the product and allows to estimate the amount of energy
and materials used and the number of pollutants discharged into the environment. These costs are
borne not only by the purchaser of a given commodity or construction object but also by its users and
social and natural environment.

Energies 2020, 13, 3723; doi:10.3390/en13143723 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 3723 2 of 16

2. Aims and Objectives of this Research

The life cycle assessment (LCA) study was carried out following the methodology presented
in ISO 14040 [3] and ISO 14044 [4] and included four mandatory stages: goal and scope definitions,
inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment, and an interpretation phase. The LCA analysis starts
with a clear definition of the purpose and scope of the study. ISO standards require that the goal
and scope of an LCA are clearly defined and consistent with the intended application. This phase
includes the determination of the functional unit, system boundaries, data quality requirements,
allocation methods, and impact categories. The next step is the life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis,
which involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system. Inventory
flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. The life
cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase is the most important one, in which the selection of impact
categories, category indicators, and characterization models should be done. In the classification stage
of LCIA, the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact categories. Life cycle
impacts can be categorized under several phases of the development, production, use, and disposal of
a product. The last phase is the life cycle interpretation of LCA which allows to identify, quantify and
evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or life cycle impact assessment.
The main goal of the presented research is a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the impact
of the multi-storey steel building sector in Poland on the natural and social environment. The study
analyzed the environmental impact of a steel structure of an office building designed in Poland from
the phase of extraction of raw materials to the phase of recycling of steel elements.
The analysis took into account the actual mass, determined based on the design of steel structural
elements, necessary to make the steel structure of the building and composite floors, as well as national
data concerning environmental costs of operations related to the production and exploitation of
steel elements.
The second objective of the analysis was to estimate the environmental loads associated with
the energy required to illuminate the office building. In connection with planned commissioning of
the first nuclear power plant in Poland, the research was carried out for two sources of electricity
obtained from hard coal-fired power plants and a nuclear power plant to check to what extent the
consumption of electricity from a nuclear power plant reduces the environmental impact related to the
steel structure.
A modern multi-storey building consists of about 1000 components and hundreds of different
types of materials, which can last for over 100 years. Estimation of the environmental impact of steel
should be made taking into account in the whole life cycle, including the raw material extraction and
manufacturing stages (extraction of the ore, steel melting, production of the components, transport to
the site, assembly of the structure), the operation stage (use of the facility, its maintenance and repair),
and the decommissioning stage (demolition, storage of the components from demolition and their
reuse or scrapping, transport to steel mills, re-melting, and use).

3. The Steel Construction Market in Poland

The construction industry in Poland is not only comprised of large companies carrying out projects
worth millions of euros. There are about 400,000 companies operating in the construction market.
The value of the construction market in Poland is about PLN 200 billion. In comparison with the year
2018, the gross value added in the industry in 2019 increased by as much as 17% [5]. According to the
statistical reports, a high level of residential investment and infrastructure projects implemented with
EU funds were responsible for the large growth.
The construction industry, generating several percent of GDP, contributes to the production of
a gross domestic product also in other industries. These are, e.g., metallurgy industry, furniture,
building materials and household appliance manufacturers, as well as transport companies. The total
value of the construction market in Poland is estimated at around 13–14% of GDP.
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 3 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 3 of 16

ago, Dynamic
there was development
only 1.4 million sq. m of office
is particularly space.toHowever,
related the demand mostforoffices are located
new office in Warsaw
buildings in the
(over
centers5.4ofmillion sq. m),
large cities. which
Office has in
space recorded
regionalrecord interest covers
cities already from developers
nearly 4.9 and tenants.
million sq. m. A decade
ago, The
therelandscape
was only 1.4 of commercial
million sq. mspace has space.
of office also changed
However, completely,
most officesmainly due toinchanging
are located Warsaw
consumer preferences. According to statistical data, there are 524
(over 5.4 million sq. m), which has recorded record interest from developers and tenants. retail schemes operating on the
PolishThemarket, while
landscape 10 years agospace
of commercial therehaswere
alsofewer
changed than 300. In the
completely, last decade,
mainly each of the
due to changing larger
consumer
Polish cities had opened at least one modern shopping center. Large-scale commercial
preferences. According to statistical data, there are 524 retail schemes operating on the Polish market, buildings are
designed
while in theago
10 years vastthere
majority
were of casesthan
fewer as steel
300. structures, often using
In the last decade, eachalready existing
of the larger old industrial
Polish cities had
buildings.
opened at least one modern shopping center. Large-scale commercial buildings are designed in the
A large development
vast majority of cases as steelalsostructures,
concerns the logistics
often facilitiesexisting
using already market.oldWarehouses
industrial in Poland already
buildings.
occupy 15.7 million
A large sq. m, also
development threeconcerns
times more the than a decade
logistics ago.market.
facilities In 2018,Warehouses
nearly 2.2 million
in Poland sq. m were
already
added, and another 2 million sq. m are under construction, the largest number
occupy 15.7 million sq. m, three times more than a decade ago. In 2018, nearly 2.2 million sq. m of which is in Upper
Silesia,
were 488,000
added, andsq.another
m, as well as 295,000
2 million sq. msq.aremunder
in Central Poland, and
construction, 258,000number
the largest sq. m inofthe east. is
which Ten
in
years
Upperago, the 488,000
Silesia, value ofsq. them,investment
as well asamounted
295,000 sq.tomEUR 173 million,
in Central Poland, andand
now it is over
258,000 sq. m EUR 1.8
in the
billion.
east. TenTaking into account
years ago, the valuetheof scale of the changes
the investment so far,toinEUR
amounted the next 10 yearsand
173 million, thenow
steelitconstruction
is over EUR
market
1.8 willTaking
billion. grow into
evenaccount
more. Therefore,
the scale ofitthe
is advisable
changes sotofar, consider it a significant
in the next 10 years thepart
steelofconstruction
the overall
construction market.
market will grow even more. Therefore, it is advisable to consider it a significant part of the overall
construction market.
4. Impact of Steel Structures on the Natural and Social Environment
4. Impact of Steel Structures on the Natural and Social Environment
Steel office buildings are characterized by the use of steel as the main construction material. Steel
is also the office
Steel main buildings
element inarebuilding partitions
characterized (walls,
by the roofing),
use of fasteners,
steel as the substructures,
main construction and concrete
material. Steel is
reinforcement. The steel
also the main element structurepartitions
in building can offer (walls,
the highest material
roofing), efficiency—less
fasteners, consumption
substructures, and concrete of
natural resources,
reinforcement. Theless
steeltransport,
structure fewer emissions
can offer andmaterial
the highest energy consumption
efficiency—less [6]. Steel has a very
consumption high
of natural
capacity
resources,for recycling,
less transport, which
feweralso results and
emissions in reduced consumption[6].
energy consumption of natural
Steel hasresources, lesscapacity
a very high waste,
energy consumption,
for recycling, and results
which also emissions. Life cycle
in reduced stages of a steel
consumption structure
of natural are presented
resources, in Figure
less waste, energy 1
[7].
consumption, and emissions. Life cycle stages of a steel structure are presented in Figure 1 [7].

Figure 1.
Figure Life cycle
1. Life cycle of
of aa steel
steel structure.
structure.

High quality and durability of steel constructions favor sustainable development. Cost, speed,
High quality and durability of steel constructions favor sustainable development. Cost, speed,
quality, and market attractiveness are the main factors taken into account by investors and developers
quality, and market attractiveness are the main factors taken into account by investors and developers
when deciding on the type of construction structure to be used. Both investors and developers are
when deciding on the type of construction structure to be used. Both investors and developers are
worried about the budget, construction schedule, or market attractiveness of the facility, which should
worried about the budget, construction schedule, or market attractiveness of the facility, which
attract tenants and provide the investor with a fair profit over the entire life span of the building.
should attract tenants and provide the investor with a fair profit over the entire life span of the
Steel as a construction material has a high potential for recycling. Steel scrap from the demolition of
building. Steel as a construction material has a high potential for recycling. Steel scrap from the
construction sites is fully recyclable and is an important input for steelworks and foundries. Due to
demolition of construction sites is fully recyclable and is an important input for steelworks and
its high strength, durability, and flexibility, office construction solutions have long been based on the
foundries. Due to its high strength, durability, and flexibility, office construction solutions have long
been based on the use of steel frames as the main load-bearing elements. Although the energy
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 4 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 4 of 16

consumption
use of steel
of steel frames andmain
as the structural components
load-bearing is higher
elements. than the
Although thatenergy
of other building materials,
consumption of steel andthe
excellent recyclability
structural components is ofhigher
steel, than
its adaptability
that of othertobuilding
the requirements of excellent
materials, the future users, and its of
recyclability ease of
steel,
integration
its with
adaptability other
to the facilities with
requirements different
of future users,structures
and its easemake this material
of integration with the
otherfirst choicewith
facilities for
investorsstructures
different planning construction projects.
make this material the first choice for investors planning construction projects.
Steel does
Steel doesnotnotdegrade
degrade andand
cancan be recycled
be recycled manymany
times.times.
The onlyThelimitation
only limitation is the
is the level level of
of recycling
recycling efficiency,
efficiency, which,
which, in the caseinofthe case
steel of steel structures,
structures, reaches 95% reaches 95%amount
[8]. The [8]. Theofamount of energy
energy spent per
spent
ton of per ton of produced
produced steel decreases
steel decreases with eachwith each subsequent
subsequent recycling recycling cycle, approaching
cycle, approaching a certain
a certain constant
constant
value value2).(Figure
(Figure 2). A
A similar similar relationship
relationship also existsalso existsenvironmental
for other for other environmental
loads, e.g., loads,
CO2 , SO e.g., COx2,
x , NO
SOx,other
and NOx, gaseous
and other gaseous
and and solid pollutants.
solid pollutants.

Figure 2. Energy use per 1 t of steel produced in each recycle.

recycle.

For example,
For example,ififa abuilding
building contains
contains 100100
tonstons of structural
of structural steel,steel,
then itthen it is usually
is usually possiblepossible to
to recover
recover 99 tons of steel scrap from it, of which about 95 tons of new material is produced
99 tons of steel scrap from it, of which about 95 tons of new material is produced in the production in the
production
process. Theprocess. The
efficiency efficiencydepends
of recycling of recycling depends
on many on many
factors. Amongfactors. Among
them, the most them, the most
important are:
important are:
• the effectiveness of methods related to the demolition of existing structures;
• the effectiveness of methods related to the demolition of existing structures;
• the efficiency of the storage and sorting system (the advantage of steel is its magnetic properties,
• the efficiency of the storage and sorting system (the advantage of steel is its magnetic properties,
which allows it to be quickly and efficiently separated from other construction materials—concrete,
which allows it to be quickly and efficiently separated from other construction materials—
wood, etc.);
concrete, wood, etc.);
• the effectiveness of the process of its reuse.
• the effectiveness of the process of its reuse.
The
The use
use of
of steel
steel in the construction
in the construction industry
industry contributes
contributes to to the sustainable development
the sustainable development of of entire
entire
communities and economies. Steel is used not only because of its economic
communities and economies. Steel is used not only because of its economic viability and ecological viability and ecological
efficiency that result
efficiency that result from
from the
theuseuseofofdurable
durablematerial.
material.TheThe steel
steel industry
industry generates
generates thethe necessary
necessary tax
tax revenue for local municipalities. Steel structures are characterized by
revenue for local municipalities. Steel structures are characterized by short investment cycle, which short investment cycle,
which
resultsresults
in rapid in release
rapid release
of fundsof funds
involved involved
in the in the construction
construction process. process.
The
The steel construction is user-friendly. This freedom of space is possible
steel construction is user-friendly. This freedom of space is possible due
due to
to the
the high
high strength
strength
of the supporting structural elements. With low steel consumption,
of the supporting structural elements. With low steel consumption, the column dimensions are the column dimensions are small.
small.
At
At the
the same
same time,
time, thethe low
low thickness
thickness of of the
the curtain
curtain walls
walls allows
allows for for good
good use
use of
of space,
space, while
while small
small
heights of the elements (including ceilings) allow for a well-developed
heights of the elements (including ceilings) allow for a well-developed space. space.
A
A significant
significant advantage
advantage of of steel
steel is
is its
its flexibility
flexibility of
of use.
use. IfIf aa change
change of of purpose
purpose isis necessary,
necessary, itit is
is
possible to move dismantled structures to a new construction site after the
possible to move dismantled structures to a new construction site after the period of their originalperiod of their original use
and assign
use and them
assign to atobuilding
them a building of different
of different use. Even
use. Evenwooden
woodenstructures
structurescannot
cannotcompete
competewithwith steel
steel
elements
elements in in this
this respect.
respect.
The
The use
use ofof metallurgical
metallurgical products
products withwith modern
modern economical
economical shapes
shapes allows
allows reducing
reducing thethe costs
costs ofof
construction
construction elements manufacturing. The use of lightweight housing elements makes it possible to
elements manufacturing. The use of lightweight housing elements makes it possible to
transfer their production to the factory and make them in a serial and mechanized way, which leads
to a reduction in the price of these elements with high-quality products and lower assembly costs.
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 5 of 16

transfer their production to the factory and make them in a serial and mechanized way, which leads
to a reduction in the price of these elements with high-quality products and lower assembly costs.
The high strength-to-weight ratio of steel results in the low dead weight of the structure, which,
combined with the use of lightweight elements for walls and ceilings, leads to a significant reduction
of foundations and earthworks and, thus, their costs. Excellent fire insulation effectively enables steel
structures to compete with reinforced concrete structures in multi-storey buildings and confirms their
dominance in high buildings. Efficient corrosion protection agents allow for a significant extension
of the life of such coatings for up to 50 years, which reduces the frequency of refurbishment and
associated costs, obviously with a one-off increase during the investment phase.
Owing to the low weight of the steel structure and housing elements, it is possible to erect
buildings on weak ground economically. There is very little good land suitable for further development
in highly urbanized or industrialized cities. The new buildings are mainly intended for areas with
poor soil, high groundwater levels, or diverse structures.
However, there are many uncertainties in the steel construction market. The most important of
these are: the collection of steel scrap; environmental pollution from the steel construction industry;
geographical distribution of steelworks and steelwork plants; and foreign investment and the price of
steel products.
In Poland, as well as in other countries, there is no legally regulated system of obtaining steel scrap.
There is no economic model developed to increase the efficiency of steel structure recycling processes.
Without a good model for the current scrapping process, there is increasing uncertainty about the
impact of potential government action on the recycling of construction waste. Knowing the amount of
scrap that may be available over the next decade and the economics of this availability would make the
task of planners in the steel industry much easier. There seems to be a need for an in-depth analysis of
the scrap market and the impact of potential regulations to support the recycling of steel waste.
Regarding environmental pollution from the steel construction industry, there is no dispute that
increasingly stringent environmental regulations will directly or indirectly increase the cost of steel and
stricter pollution standards for the industry will increase demand for heat- and corrosion-resistant steels.
Other possible economic effects are the acceleration of the collapse of older facilities (thus speeding up
the introduction of new technology) and delaying the introduction of new furnace capacity due to
limited energy availability. The problems of pollution regulation seem to be more due to uncertainty
as to the setting of strict minimum criteria, time frame, and geographical location than to the actual
effect the standard would have.
An important factor influencing the potential economic benefits is a more optimal geographical
distribution of steelworks and steelwork plants. The location of large integrated plants at coastal
locations where preliminarily-reduced ore sent by large tankers can be used, and ferroalloy plants can
be moved to ore sites.
The takeover of Polish smelters by foreign capital and the exclusion of unprofitable plants from
production caused an increase in prices of steel products. Low supply of domestic steel products limited
their availability, and the need to import more expensive steel grades from abroad has arisen. This was
the reason for a significant reduction in the steel used in the residential and public utility segments.

5. New Construction Solutions

In the long-term, the strategy for sustainable development in the steel construction of office
buildings assumes the development of steel structures which are more economical, technological and
friendlier to people and the environment. Steel recycling is the main advantage of its pro-ecological
image, but it should be remembered that good design plays a leading role, i.e., preventing negative
environmental impacts [9]. Currently, applicable standards and design guidelines are aimed mainly at
reducing material consumption and increasing the safety and quality of the structure. Solutions are
promoted that allow the use of elements with large spans, and also great versatility, enabling their
reuse after dismantling the building. The extensive use of computer-aided design (CAD/CAM) and
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 6 of 16

the introduction of modern technologies in steel mills and steel structure factories have increased
competition in the market, conducive to these phenomena. A new range of filling and insulating
materials, with better properties, has also enabled the possibility of extremely high comfort buildings
while reducing expenses associated with their operation or modernization.
New construction solutions mainly concern internal partitions and curtain walls of building
objects. Ceilings in multi-storey buildings are designed using steel beams and a reinforced concrete
slab [10]. The floor slab usually consists of corrugated sheet metal, based on the upper or lower strips
of the floor beam, and a concrete layer of 130–150 mm thickness. The span of floor beams, usually
made of I-sections, is from 6 to 12 m, although it can reach 18 m. The width of the floor slab between
the support beams ranges from 2.5 to 4.0 m. Installation cables are placed in the ceiling space and
can be suspended from the floor slab or with the help of special brackets attached to the floor beams.
They can also pass through holes cut in the web of the beams. The integration of structural elements
with internal installation pipes contributes to the reduction of the ceiling thicknesses and, thus, the
reduction of the building height.

6. Design for Deconstruction

Reducing the demand for new material has many secondary environmental effects. The basis
for designing for deconstruction is the concept of many layers of a building object with different
service lives. It redefines the perception of buildings. Instead of perceiving them as a monolithic mass,
the building is treated as a set of many interdependent layers interacting with each other during the
exploitation phase [11]. According to this concept, buildings should be designed and built in such
a way that components which require more frequent replacement or maintenance are not covered by
long-term structural systems.
There are many principles to maximize the reuse of elements or recycling of materials in steel
buildings. Among them, the most important are:

• using a standard column grid and inter-storey height;

• connection of elements should facilitate dismantling;
• using standard and reusable fixing should be considered (e.g., bolted connections instead of
welded joints for steel structures);
• concerning recycling after deconstruction, the use of structural systems that are easier to deconstruct
and to demolish is recommended (elementary construction, steel vs. concrete);
• long beams to allow flexibility of use;
• allowing easy and permanent access to connections; and
• avoiding corrosion of the steel members by constructive measures.

7. Case Study—Six-Storey Office Building in Poland

The main purpose of this project was to determine the environmental loads associated with the
life cycle of a steel structure of a 6-storey office building located in Krakow, Poland, measuring 16.5 m
by 13.9 m. The building configuration and dimensions are presented in Figure 3.
The most labor-intensive stage of the LCA analysis is the life cycle inventory because it requires
collecting all the data necessary to evaluate the processes associated with the extraction of raw materials,
the production of steel and steel elements, and the production of the steel structure of the object with
its assembly and modernization.
The system boundary is only the steel structure of the building. This means that foundations,
walls, floors, cladding, interior fittings, and building services are neglected. In the further part of the
analysis, the process of producing the energy needed to illuminate the facility and the type of electricity
source and their environmental loads are examined. The functional unit is the production of 1 kg of
a steel product.
office building because they are a function of the entire building consisting of hundreds of materials
and components, not just the steel structure.
The life cycle analysis was carried out using PRÉ Consultants’ SimaPro tool following the
requirements formulated in ISO standards. The LCI data has been gathered according to the
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 7 of 16
principles set out in EN ISO 14040:1997 [3] and EN ISO 14041:1998 [12].

Figure 3. Layout of the building plan with internal partitions and building structure.
Figure 3. Layout of the building plan with internal partitions and building structure.
As part of the environmental assessment, extraction of natural resources, production processes
The
of applied
steel model
products and of LCA
their of a steel
transport, buildingof
production structure is based
components, on the LCA
construction, procedure
ongoing developed
maintenance
by CEN
of theTC 350structure
steel for carrying out an deconstruction,
of the facility, environmentalreuse,
assessment of and
recycling, construction
utilizationworks presented
of selected steel in
standards EN 15804
construction [13]
products wereand ENinto
taken 15978 [14] The adoption of a standardized environmental
account.
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 8 of 16

The analysis did not include environmental impacts associated with the operation phase of the
office building because they are a function of the entire building consisting of hundreds of materials
and components, not just the steel structure.
The life cycle analysis was carried out using PRÉ Consultants’ SimaPro tool following the
requirements formulated in ISO standards. The LCI data has been gathered according to the principles
set out in EN ISO 14040:1997 [3] and EN ISO 14041:1998 [12].
The applied model of LCA of a steel building structure is based on the LCA procedure developed
by CEN TC 350 for carrying out an environmental assessment of construction works presented in
standards EN 15804 [13] and EN 15978 [14] The adoption of a standardized environmental assessment
procedure for an office building ensures a uniform approach and allows comparability between
different buildings in terms of their environmental impact.
According to the procedure developed by CEN TC 350, the following stages of steel structure
production were identified:

• A—Production of semi-finished products (steel section IPE, HEB, steel plates and bars);
• B—Steel component production (beams, columns) and transport from the steel mill or stockholder
to the steelworks;
• C—Erection of steel construction on the site (assembly of steel elements, transport to the
construction site);
• D—Operation phase (maintenance, repair and replacement of elements);
• E—Demolition or deconstruction (reuse of steel construction, recycling and final disposal, transport
of the steel scrap).

The adopted boundaries of the LCA are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Scope of the LCA of the steel office building.

A B C D E
Raw material supply Transport Construction Use Deconstruction
Transport Drilling Transport Maintenance Transport
Cold rolling Welding Repair Waste processing
Heat treatment Coating Replacement Disposal
Refurbishment Reuse-recycling-recover

Due to the high level of steel product recycling, it was assumed that the production of new steel
would take place using basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS)/basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric arc
furnace (EAF) techniques, ensuring a high level of steel scrap utilization. The recycling rate for steel
sections is adopted as 90%.
To obtain representative datasets for steel products, such as hot rolled sections, plates,
organic-coated steel, hot-dip galvanized steel, information and data on individual stages of the
life cycle were collected directly from steel producers, steel construction factories, and assembly
companies located in Poland. Where relevant data was not available, generic data for steel products is
provided by the SimaPro [15] and World Steel [16] databases.
As a life cycle impact assessment tool, the Eco-Indicator 99 developed by PRé Consultants B.V. was
assumed. This method allows the assessment of emissions into the environment and the consumption
of natural resources in 11 different impact categories (carcinogenics, respiratory organics, respiratory
inorganics, climate change, radiation, ozone layer, ecotoxicity, acidification/eutrophication, land use,
minerals, and fossil fuels).
An important stage of the Eco-Indicator 99 analysis is the stage of assigning weight to individual
environmental impacts. It offers a way to measure various environmental impacts and shows the final
result in a single score. This method places significant emphasis on damage assessment. The individual
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 9 of 16

impact categories have been combined and grouped into three damage categories representing different
types of damage caused by them: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources.
The main stage of life cycle analysis is to create a list of all materials and processes necessary to
create a functional unit, which is, in this case, the steel structure of the office building. For the current
study, Table 2 shows the main construction materials with the respective quantities and processes used
for prefabricated steel construction. The calculations also include transport processes at individual
stages of the life cycle analysis (Table 3).

Table 2. Inventory analysis of steel frames office building.

Components Processes Quantity

Steel production 21 tons
Hot rolling 21 tons
Purlins Prefabrication 21 tons
C160 Transport (C) 20 km 420 tkm
Welding 3888 m
Galvanizing 1305 m2
Steel production 25 tons
Hot rolling 25 tons
Roof trusses Prefabrication and execution 25 tons
RHS 120×6/100×4 Transport (C) 20 km 500 tkm
Welding 258.5 m
Galvanizing 54 m2
Steel production 54 tons
Hot rolling 54 tons
Columns Prefabrication and execution 54 tons
HEB 220/200 Transport (C) 20 km 1080 tkm
Welding 50 m
Galvanizing 681 m2
Steel production 28 tons
Cold forming 28 tons
Side rails
Prefabrication and execution 28 tons
C160
Transport (C) 20 km 560 tkm
Galvanizing 1305 m2
Steel production 76 tons
Cold forming 76 tons
Façade cladding Prefabrication and execution 76 tons
Transport (C) 20 km 1520 tkm
Galvanizing 1123 m2
Steel production 41 tons
Hot rolling 41 tons
Beams
Prefabrication and execution 41 tons
IPE270/240
Transport (C) 20 km 820 tkm
Galvanizing 1123 m2

Table 3. Reference values for transportation.

Stage of LCA Process Vehicle Value

A Transport of scrap to the steel mill Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t gross weight 120 km
Transport from the steel mill or stockholder
B Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t gross weight 60 km
to the manufacturing facility
Transport of materials from the
C Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t gross weight 50 km
manufacturing facility to the construction site
D Transport to a recycling processing plant Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t gross weight 200 km
 B 60 km
manufacturing facility gross weight
Transport of materials from the manufacturing Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t
C 50 km
facility to the construction site gross weight
Truck, Euro 5, 28–32 t 200
D Transport to a recycling processing plant
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 gross weight km
10 of 16

8. Results
To create complex processes, simple processes defined in the SimaPro software package were
used,The results
based on dataof collected
SimaPro for analyses
Poland.ofAthe steelprocess
simple structureis aoffice
set of building locatedinput
data describing in Krakow
and outputare
presented in Figure 4 [18]. The Eco-Indicator 99 for the steel structure of the office
parameters, i.e., what and how much needs to be inserted to create one unit of the process, what and building is 66.1
kPt. In
how this will
many case,appear,
almost and
40%what
of thewill
environmental loads are process
affect the production generated by the
of one production
unit of the
[17]. Creating façade
a simple
cladding,
process and then
should havethrough
input andthe output
columns and Many
data. beams,ofrespectively, 18% and 16%.
the simple processes haveThis
beenisdefined
related in
to the
stainless steel
SimaPro softwareand polyurethane
package, bothproduction
for Polandprocess.
and Europe. Simple processes connect in the form of
Figureof5component
a network shows a comparison
processes. of the environmental impact of the individual parts of steel
construction expressed in 11 different impact categories according to the Eco-Indicator 99 method.
8.
TheResults
manufacture of steel construction of the building causes the greatest impact on “respiratory
inorganics” and “fossil
The results fuels”analyses
of SimaPro impact categories.
of the steelThe biggest environment
structure office buildingdamages
locatedareinrelated
Krakow to are
the
cladding (51% in case of “fossil fuels”, 32% in case of “respiratory inorganics”), columns
presented in Figure 4 [18]. The Eco-Indicator 99 for the steel structure of the office building is 66.1 kPt. and beams.
This
In this is largely
case, almost 40%influenced by the production
of the environmental loadsofarerigid polyurethane
generated by the foam (PUR)oforthe
production extruded
façade
cladding, and then through the columns and beams, respectively, 18% and 16%. This is related toand
polystyrene foam (XPS) in the case of cladding, as well as by the weight of the main columns the
beams. steel and polyurethane production process.
stainless

Figure 4. Single score comparison using Eco-Indicator 99 methodology of production and utilization of
Figure 4. Single score comparison using Eco-Indicator 99 methodology of production and utilization
structural steel in buildings.
of structural steel in buildings.
Figure 5 shows a comparison of the environmental impact of the individual parts of
steel construction expressed in 11 different impact categories according to the Eco-Indicator
99 method. The manufacture of steel construction of the building causes the greatest impact on
“respiratory inorganics” and “fossil fuels” impact categories. The biggest environment damages
are related to the cladding (51% in case of “fossil fuels”, 32% in case of “respiratory inorganics”),
Energies
columns 2020,
and13,beams.
3723 11 of 16

Figure 5.
Figure Weighting comparison
5. Weighting of the
comparison of the environmental impact categories
environmental impact categories related
related to
to the
the main
main parts
parts of
of
the steelwork.
the steelwork.

In Figures 6–8 presented below, one can see that the production of the steel structures of
buildings affects ecosystem quality most, than resources and, least of all, the human health category
[18]. The greatest environmental damages are related to hard coal (16 kPt hard coal burned in power
plant in human health damage category, 22 kPt hard coal in a mine in ecosystem quality) and
production of stainless steel (27 kPt stainless steel hot rolled coil in the ecosystem quality damage
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 11 of 16

Figure 5. Weighting comparison of the environmental impact categories related to the main parts of
This
Figureis 5.largely influenced
Weighting by of
comparison thetheproduction of rigid
environmental impactpolyurethane foam
categories related (PUR)
to the mainor extruded
parts of
the steelwork.
polystyrene foam
the steelwork. (XPS) in the case of cladding, as well as by the weight of the main columns
and In
beams.
Figures 6–8 presented below, one can see that the production of the steel structures of
In
InFigures
buildings affects6–8
Figures 6–8presented
presented
ecosystem below,
quality one one
below,
most, can
thansee
can that
seethe
resources production
that theleast
and, of all,
production
of the the
steel structures
ofhuman
the steel
health of buildings
structures
categoryof
affects
buildings
[18]. ecosystem quality most,
affects environmental
The greatest ecosystem quality than resources
most, are
damages and,
thanrelated
resourcesleast of all,
and,coal
to hard least the
(16ofkPt human
all,hard health
the human category [18].
healthincategory
coal burned power
The
[18].greatest
plant The
in human environmental
greatest environmental
health damagedamagesdamages are related
category, are to
related
22 kPt hard
hardto coalcoal
hard (16
coal
in a (16kPt
mine hard
kPtinhard coal
coalburned
ecosystemburned in
inpower
quality) power
and
plant in
production human
plant in human health damage
healthsteel
of stainless damage
(27 kPt category,
category, 22 kPt
stainless22steel hard
kPt hot
hard coal in
coal coil
rolled a mine
in ainmine in ecosystem
in ecosystem
the ecosystem quality)
qualityquality)
damageand
and
production
production of
of stainless
stainless steel
steel (27
(27 kPt
kPt stainless
stainless steel
steel hot
hot rolled
rolled coil
coil in
in the
the
category). Other significant environmental impacts are burning lignite in power plants, iron ore ecosystem
ecosystem quality
quality damage
damage
category).
category).
mining Other
and Other
disposalsignificant
spoil from environmental
lignite mining. impacts are burning
Significant impact on lignite in power
power plants,
the environment is alsoiron
plants, iron ore
ore
related
mining
tomining and
applying disposal
anda disposal spoil
protectivespoil from
zincfrom lignite
coatinglignitemining.
mining.
to steel Significant
or ironSignificant impact
to prevent impact on
rusting the
on(22 environment
thekPtenvironment is also related
is alsoquality
in the ecosystem to
related
applying
to applying
damage a protective
a protective
category). zinc coating
zinc coating to to
steel oror
steel iron totoprevent
iron preventrusting
rusting(22 (22kPt
kPtininthe
theecosystem
ecosystemquality
quality
damage
damagecategory).
category).

Figure 6. Comparison of major environmental impacts, related to the steel structure of the office
Figure 6.6.on
Figure
building, Comparison major
of major
the human health environmental
environmental
damage the steel
category. impacts, related to the steel structure
structure of
of the
the office
office
building,on
building, onthe
thehuman
humanhealth
healthdamage
damagecategory.
category.

Figure 7. Comparison of major environmental impacts, related to the steel structure of the office
building, on the ecosystem quality damage category.

In the case of human resources damage category (Figure 6), a great threat to human health is posed
by emissions Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI)—1.8 kPt. MDI is mostly used as a monomer in
the production of polyurethane polymers applicable in claddings from composite panels. In chronic
human exposure to MDI, the airways are the target organ. It is thought that this compound may
be one of the causes of occupational bronchial asthma. In the further part, life cycle analysis of the
steel structure of the office building, including the stages A, B, C, D, and E, was supplemented by the
process of producing usable energy needed for illuminating the facility. In this stage, the electricity
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 12 of 16

Figure 7. Comparison of major environmental impacts, related to the steel structure of the office
building, on the ecosystem quality damage category.
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 12 of 16

from coal-fired power plants was used. The assumed number of 60 W light points was 180. Electricity
demand was calculated assuming a daily use of up to 12 h for 230 days a year and 25 years:

25·230·12 h·180·60 W
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 = 62.1 MWh. 12 of 16
106
Figurejoining
After 7. Comparison of majorof
the LCA analysis environmental
steel structureimpacts, related
production to thewith
process steelthe
structure
energy of
forthe office
illumination
building, on the ecosystem quality damage category.
of the building production process, the life cycle analysis network results are presented in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Comparison of major environmental impacts, related to the steel structure of the office
building, on the resources damage category.

In the case of human resources damage category (Figure 6), a great threat to human health is
posed by emissions Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI)—1.8 kPt. MDI is mostly used as a
monomer in the production of polyurethane polymers applicable in claddings from composite
panels. In chronic human exposure to MDI, the airways are the target organ. It is thought that this
compound may be one of the causes of occupational bronchial asthma. In the further part, life cycle
analysis of the steel structure of the office building, including the stages A, B, C, D, and E, was
supplemented by the process
Figure 8. Comparison of producing
of major usableimpacts,
environmental energyrelated
neededtofortheilluminating
steel structurethe offacility. In this
the office
Figure 8. Comparison of major environmental impacts, related to the steel structure of the office
stage, the electricity
building, from coal-fired
on the resources damagepower plants was used. The assumed number of 60 W light points
category.
building, on the resources damage category.
was 180. Electricity demand was calculated assuming a daily use of up to 12 h for 230 days a year
The
and 25 results of the weighted comparison of damage categories using the Eco-Indicator
In years:
the case of human resources damage category (Figure 6), a great threat to human health is
99 methodology obtained for both processes related to the production and utilization of the steel
posed by emissions Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI)—1.8 kPt. MDI is mostly used as a
structure and the production of25electricity
∙ 230 ∙ 12necessary
h ∙ 180 ∙ 60 W
to illuminate the office facility show that electricity
monomer in the production of polyurethane polymers=applicable 62.1 MWh.in claddings from composite
10
production has a greater impact on the environment; its involvement is 56.4% of the total analysis of
panels. In chronic human exposure to MDI, the airways are the target organ. It is thought that this
both production process. The production of structural elements accounts for 43.6% of the environmental
compound may be the
AfterHowever,
joining one of theanalysis
causes of occupational bronchial asthma.process
In the further part, life cycle
impacts. onceLCA
used, materialsofcan steel structure
be reused, production
processed, or recycled. with the energy for
analysis of the
illumination steel structure of the office building,lifeincluding the stages A, results
B, C, D, areand E, was
Figure 9of the
shows building production
the weighted process,
impact of eachthecategory cycle
onanalysis network
the environment. As can presented
be seen in
supplemented
in Figure by the process of producing usable energy needed for illuminating
8. processes related to the production and utilization of the steel structure, the greatest the facility. In this
the case of
stage, the
The electricity from coal-fired power plants was used. The assumed number of 60 W light points
impact onresults of the weighted
the environment is to thecomparison
“respiratoryofinorganics”
damage categories using the
impact category ((i.e.,Eco-Indicator
the respiratory 99
was 180. Electricity
methodology obtaineddemand
for was processes
both calculated related
assuming to athe
daily use of upand
production to 12 h for 230 of
utilization daysthea steel
year
effect resulting from winter smog due to emissions of dust, sulfur and nitrogen oxides to air) and
and 25 years:
structure and the production of electricity necessary
then the “fossil fuels” impact category (i.e., the required to illuminate
surplus energythe peroffice facility
extracted MJ,show
kg, orthat
m3
electricity production has a greater impact on the environment; its involvement is 56.4% of the total
fossil fuel as a result of lower25 quality
∙ 230 ∙resources).
12 h ∙ 180 ∙In 60theWcase of processes related to the production
analysis of both production process. The production of structural
of electricity, the “fossil fuels” impact category has the greatest= 62.1impact
MWh.
elements accounts for 43.6% of the
on the environment, than the
10
environmental impacts. However, once used, materials can be reused, processed, or recycled.
“respiratory inorganics” impact category.
After joining the LCA analysis of steel structure production process with the energy for
illumination of the building production process, the life cycle analysis network results are presented
in Figure 8.
The results of the weighted comparison of damage categories using the Eco-Indicator 99
methodology obtained for both processes related to the production and utilization of the steel
structure and the production of electricity necessary to illuminate the office facility show that
electricity production has a greater impact on the environment; its involvement is 56.4% of the total
analysis of both production process. The production of structural elements accounts for 43.6% of the
environmental impacts. However, once used, materials can be reused, processed, or recycled.

Figure 9. Weighted comparison of damage categories using Eco-Indicator 99 methodology.

on the environment is to the “respiratory inorganics” impact category ((i.e., the respiratory effect
resulting from winter smog due to emissions of dust, sulfur and nitrogen oxides to air) and then the
Energies
“fossil 2020,
fuels”13,impact
3723 category (i.e., the required surplus energy per extracted MJ, kg, or m3 fossil 13 of 16
fuel
as a result of lower quality resources). In the case of processes related to the production of electricity,
the “fossil Figure 9. impact
Weighted comparisonhas of
thedamage categories
impact using
on theEco-Indicator 99 methodology.
Energies 2020, fuels”
13, 3723 category greatest environment, than the “respiratory
13 of 16
inorganics” impact category.
Figure 9 shows the weighted impact of each category on the environment. As can be seen in the
case The
of processes related tois the
way electricity production
produced for and utilization
operational of theissteel
needs structure,
dominant in the
the greatest impact
LCA analysis.
on the
The environment
following is to the “respiratory
is a simulation inorganics”
of various energy impact
sources, category
leaving ((i.e., the respiratory
the manufacturing processes effect
for
resulting from winter smog due to emissions of dust, sulfur and nitrogen oxides
steel structural components unchanged. Considering the future possibility of access to energy from to air) and then the
“fossil fuels”
nuclear power impact
plantscategory (i.e.,Figure
in Poland, the required surplus
10 presents energy per extracted
a comparison MJ, kg, or m fossil
of the environmental 3
damages fuel
as a result
caused fromofthe
lower quality resources).
production of the steel In the caseoffice
structure of processes
buildingrelated
with thetoproduction
the production of electricity,
of electricity from
the “fossilpower
coal-fired fuels” plants
impact(steel
category
structure + coal
has the greatest impact
energy) andon
thethe environment,
production of thethan
steelthe “respiratory
structure with
inorganics”
the production impact category.from nuclear power plants (steel structure + nuclear energy).
of electricity

Figure 10. Single score comparison of processes related to the production and utilization of the steel
structure and the production of electricity using Eco-Indicator 99 methodology.

The way electricity is produced for operational needs is dominant in the LCA analysis. The
following is a simulation of various energy sources, leaving the manufacturing processes for steel
structural components unchanged. Considering the future possibility of access to energy from
nuclear power plants in Poland, Figure 10 presents a comparison of the environmental damages
caused from the production of the steel structure office building with the production of electricity
fromFigure
Figure 10. Single
10.
coal-fired Single
power score
score comparison
comparison
plants of
of processes
processes
(steel structure related
related
+ coal to
to the
energy) production
theand
production and
and utilization
the production of theof
utilization of the
the steel
steel steel
structure
structure and the production of electricity using Eco-Indicator 99 methodology.
with structure and the of
the production production of from
electricity electricity usingpower
nuclear Eco-Indicator 99 methodology.
plants (steel structure + nuclear energy).
The results from
The
from the
the sensitivity
sensitivity analysis,
analysis, presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 11,
11, show
show that
that aa change
change to to nuclear
nuclear
The results
electricity way
has aelectricity
very largeiseffect
produced
on damagefor operational needs
categories. The is dominant
largest reduction ininthe
threeLCA analysis.
types of damageThe
electricity
following has
is a asimulation
very large effect
of on damage
various energy categories.
sources, The largest
leaving the reduction in three
manufacturing types of for
processes damage
steel
related to the use of nuclear energy occurs in damage caused to human health (about 54%) and
related to the
structural use of nuclear
components energy occurs
unchanged. in damagethe
Considering caused
future to human health
possibility of(about
access54%) and damage
to energy from
damage caused to resources (about 55%).
caused to resources (about 55%).
nuclear power plants in Poland, Figure 10 presents a comparison of the environmental damages
caused from the production of the steel structure office building with the production of electricity
from coal-fired power plants (steel structure + coal energy) and the production of the steel structure
with the production of electricity from nuclear power plants (steel structure + nuclear energy).
The results from the sensitivity analysis, presented in Figure 11, show that a change to nuclear
electricity has a very large effect on damage categories. The largest reduction in three types of damage
related to the use of nuclear energy occurs in damage caused to human health (about 54%) and
damage caused to resources (about 55%).

Figure 11. Single score comparison of damage categories caused by the production of the steel structure
office building with the production of electricity from coal-fired power plants (steel structure + coal
energy) and the production of the steel structure with the production of electricity from nuclear power
plants (steel structure + nuclear energy).

9. Comparison of Steel and Reinforced Concrete Construction

A comparison of two structural systems used for office buildings in the form of steel and reinforced
concrete construction allows us to conclude that, in most cases, the more adverse environmental
impact is related to reinforced concrete construction. LCA analysis of these two basic construction
systems is presented in [19], taking into account such impact categories as global warming potential,
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 14 of 16

acidification, eutrophication potential, human toxicity, resource depletion (water, minerals, and
renewable resources), climate change, fossil fuel depletion, and ecotoxicity, allows concluding that
reinforced concrete buildings have a much greater impact on the environment than steel buildings have.
The total value of pollution associated with the construction of an office building with a reinforced
concrete structure is 38% higher than the value associated with a similar building with a steel structure.
The reinforced concrete structure generates 9120 t of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 equivalent)
throughout the life cycle, while the steel structure generates 7550 t (23% less). At the end-of-life
period, the steel structure can be demolished and recycled, while the reinforced concrete structure is
demolished and the resulting waste is deposited into the environment, causing pollution.
The authors of the comparative analysis of two office buildings with steel and reinforced concrete
structures [20], based on the LCA analysis, concluded that the energy consumption over the entire
life cycle of a steel structure is 25% less than that of a reinforced concrete structure. Moreover, the
emissions into the environment associated with the use of a steel structure are 50% of the value
associated with the RC structure. However, due to the higher thermal transmittance of external walls,
the energy consumption associated with air conditioning and heating of the steel building partly
reduces this difference.
Based on three target impacts including CO2 emissions, resource depletion and energy
consumption, the author of the study [21] concludes that steel is a “better” and more sustainable
building material than concrete, The CO2 emissions for steel structure are 25% less, and resource
depletion is 68% less compared to the concrete structure. The study also shows that energy consumption
is equal for both steel and reinforced concrete structures.

10. Conclusions
The use of steel as a construction material of office buildings, due to its minimal impact on the
environment, is desirable to a much broader extent than before. Steel, as a product, meets many
environmental criteria, among which the most important are the possibility of almost complete
recycling, the minimum consumption of natural resources, the limited amount of waste, the possibility
of reusing elements, and the ability to adapt the structure to the changing requirements of users.
The energy consumption for the production and assembly of the steel structure represents only 3% of
the total energy demand of the building throughout its life span.
The case study aimed to determine major environmental impacts of a steel structure of a six-storey
office building located in Krakow in the entire life cycle, from the production of semi-finished products
to demolition or deconstruction, using SimaPro tools. The main value of the study is the emphasis on
collecting data characteristic of production processes carried out in Poland, related to the production
of steel elements, their assembly, and demolition. Data on the number of materials, waste at the
construction site, and energy consumption during the production of steel structural elements of the
facility were provided by production plants and contractors and, therefore, have high reliability.
Additionally, product data sheets created for a large number of products specific to Polish conditions
provide reliable information about the amount of raw and other materials consumed, as well as
the energy used to manufacture the steel structure of the office building. The main elements of the
analysis which are subject to a high degree of uncertainty are the environmental loads associated
with the transport of materials and components due to a large number of contractors and transport
companies. There is no uniform data on the transport of building materials regarding transport costs
and environmental burdens. Furthermore, the adopted transport distances, especially steel scrap at
the steel production stage, can be unreliable. However, the mentioned drawbacks of the analysis did
not have a great impact on the final environmental assessment due to the small impact of transport in
the life cycle analysis of the entire steel structure.
An important element of the conducted research was a comparison of environmental burdens
associated with sources of electricity. The use of nuclear energy reduces the destructive impact of
a power source to 6.9%, which is eight times less than when using energy from coal combustion.
Energies 2020, 13, 3723 15 of 16

A reduction of almost half of the damage caused to human health (about 54%) and caused to resources
(about 55%) can be realized. When comparing the values of the total impact of the two variants
(steel structure + coal energy and steel structure + nuclear energy) the benefit of the use of atomic energy
is visible, almost double. The only process that has a much greater impact on the environment (in the
case of nuclear energy) is the processing and storage of non-radioactive uranium waste. Additional
reduction of environmental impacts associated with the use of steel structures can be achieved by
taking into account the use of nuclear energy in the production of steel elements. This will further
reduce the overall building’s impact on the environment.
As a result of the analysis, the need to invest in “clean” energy sources—nuclear energy—becomes
clear. Despite numerous protests and public comments regarding the safe operation of nuclear power
plants, it is important to implement plans to build this type of power plant in Poland. An investment
in nuclear energy would also affect the basic aspects of the economy’s sustainability —a fall in energy
prices, a reduction in CO2 emissions, and a stable source of power. In the case of a permanent lack of
access to nuclear energy, it is beneficial to combine “traditional” and alternative, ecological energy
sources, e.g., those resulting from the use of solar or wind energy.
The presented analysis only covered the impact of the steel structure on the environment.
Further research should also take into account the economic and social aspects. Appropriate results can
be obtained using research methods, such as life cycle cost (LCC) and social life cycle assessment (SLCA).

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.B. and M.B.; methodology, M.B.; software, M.B.; validation, F.B.;
formal analysis, M.B.; investigation, M.B.; resources, M.B.; data curation, F.B.; writing—original draft preparation,
M.B.; writing—review and editing, F.B. and M.B.; visualization, M.B.; supervision, F.B.; project administration, F.B.;
funding acquisition, F.B. and M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education
(research projects W/WB-IIŚ/12/2019 and WZ/WB-IIL/4/2020).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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