Agora 2012 1

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/260713244
Learning Theories - A Psychological Overview
Article · March 2012
CITATION READS
1 38,313
2 authors, including:
Dana Rad
Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad
155 PUBLICATIONS 321 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Keeping Youth Safe from Cyberbullying View project
Keeping Youth Safe from Cyberbullying View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Dana Rad on 12 March 2014.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Volume VI (2012) No.1
AGORA
SEMESTRIAL JOURNAL
PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIAL WORK
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor – in – Chief
Olga Domnica Moldovan
„Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad, Romania
od_moldovan@yahoo.com
Associate Editor- in -Chief

Sonia Ignat
soniabudean@yahoo.com
Managing Editor
Mihaela Găvrilă-Ardelean
miha.gavrila@yahoo.com
Executive Editor
Alina Costin
alinacostin@yahoo.com
Associate executive Editor

Alina Roman
alinanadaban@yahoo.com
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Grozdanka Gojkov
University of Belgrad, Serbia
The High School of Vârșet
Member of Serbian Academy of Education Sciences
Lizica Mihuţ
Member of Serbian Academy of Education Sciences
Viorel Soran
„Babes-Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Member of the Romanian Academy
Catherine Sellenet
University of Nantes, France
Sabine Parmentier
DESS in clinical psychology of The University Paris III
Secretary of the Association of Psycho-analytic Formation and Freudian
Researches, Paris, France
thierryparmentier@yahoo.fr
Anton Ilica
Faculty of Education Sciences, Pshychology and Social Work
ilica_anton@yahoo.com
Olivier Douville
University Paris X of Nanterre
Clinical Psychology Departament
22, rue de la Tour d’Auvergne 75006 Paris, France
didier.lauru@noos.fr
Dorel Ungureanu
West University of Timișoara, Romania
Graphic design:
Teodora Moldovan, Tudor Moldovan (Nebula FX – Image Agency)
Adresa redacţiei
str. Elena Drăgoi, nr.2, Arad, Romania
Tel: 40 (0257) 219 555
e-mail: agora.arad@gmail.com
Fax: 40 (0257) 219 555
ISSN -1842-6840
Agora (online) – ISSN 2247-2401
ISSN -L-1842-6840
Index/Coverage: Ulrich’s
The full text is available for view/download in PDF format free of charge
CONTENTS
A Sociological Approach of Communication in Groups

and Organisations ……………
Matei Şimăndan
Pragmatic Relativism and Its Implications........................

Matei Şimăndan
Parents Self Informing Actions on

Children Cultural Consumption ......................................
Tiberiu Dughi
Public Diplomacy - Foreign Policy Instrument...............

Rodica Panta
Learning Theories - A Psychological Overview ................

Dana Bălaş Timar
Roxana Moraru
Formation through Practice in the Field of

Social Assistance.........................................................
Alina Costin
Journal Agora, ISSN: 1842-6840, E-ISSN: 2247-2401, ISSN-L: 1842-
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.1 pp.7-22
A Sociological Approach of Communication

in Groups and Organisations
M.Şimăndan
Matei ŞIMĂNDAN,
Ph. D,
Abstract: This paper is trying to structure the points of view

regarding the way the relationship into this group
influence the communication between its members. The
following idea is the group structure is influenced by it
self. Given this perspective the stages of group evolution,
communication networks in formal and informal groups,
as well as the relationship between communication and
organizational culture are analyzed. Some recent
researches conclusions regarding the organizational
culture relationship-communication culture relationship
and the main explanatory models, elaborated in this
context are discussed in the paper’s final part.
Key words: relationship, group influence, group

communication, group evolution organizational culture
Two perspectives on the dynamics of social groups

Due to the frequency of the specific relationships and
interactions that it generates, communication is one of the most
studied processes of the group. From this point of view, one has
researched matters
6
M.Şimandan
relating to the structure of the relations of communication, the types of

information exchanged and their effects on the organization and operation of
groups, the frequency and intensity of that involvement of individuals in the act
of communication, the differences of compliance of the person as opposed to the
group, the orientation of emotional relationships which are established between
members of the group, the manner in which the interaction and communication
lead to the formation of group attachment and solidarity, the mechanisms by
which communication produces a difference of status within the group and
between individuals etc.
In the tradition of research psycho-sociology, a typology of social groups
has developed, based on several criteria. A first classification criterion is the
one concerning the relations between the members of a group, according to
which we distinguish "primary" groups, characterized by face-to-face
relationships, and the „secondary” groups, where individuals don’t know each
other directly.
According to the criterion of normativity involved in their organization,
the groups may be "formal", where there is a written rules of operation, norms
published in regulations or laws, legal, and „informal” groups, constituted on
the basis of relations of friendship and common concerns, where the rules are
more flexible and less covered.
Regardless of the typology group, one and the same individual may belong
to several groups simultaneously. In such cases, the intensity of participation in
the life of these groups is not equal, depending on personal interests and
options, the cultural and socio-moral environment, the degree of interpersonal
accommodation of the group members and various group or social contexts.
The way in which psychosocial phenomena and the common activity of
the group members evolve determined the investigation of the phases or stages
in the evolution, since there is a variety of models and points of view regarding
this field. Of these, the approaches of Bernard Bass and Eduard Ryterband [ 1]
and that of Bruce Tuckman [ 2] remained works of reference.
Bass and Ryterband conclude that, whatever the nature of the common
business, the groups make the same steps in their evolution:
• Mutual acceptance, - in which the members of the group manifest from
the beginning fear of inadequacy, conformism and retained behavior. The
problems typical to this first stage are generally related to sympathy/dislike,
imposing relations of power/dependence and the attempts tests some of the
members of the group to have and to acquire privileged positions or
domination.
7
A Sociological Approach of Communication in Groups and Organisations
• Communication and decision, - in which individuals come to a stage of

open communication, express their experiences, establish rules of conduct and
strategies for solving the problems. At this stage, consensus, feelings of
solidarity and membership of the group acquire increasing importance.
• Motivation and productivity, - in which the participation to the work of
the group creates satisfaction, systems of cooperation and involvement in the
activity of the group, which eventually lead to an increase in the productivity of
the common activity.
• Control and organization, - team up with the maturation of the
relations between the members of the group and where individual skills are
taken into consideration.
Concerned about the psychosocial phenomena and the behaviors that take
place within groups, Tuckman draws up a model which includes four stages
(Forming, storming, Norming and Performing), where he later added a fifth
stage (deforming and mourning).
To illustrate the sequence of the evolution stages of social groups, the
author design the Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing chart (Fig. 1).
3 2
Norming Storming
4 1
Performing Forming
Fig. 1. Chart: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing

(cf. Tuckman, 2001).
According to this diagram, the stages identified by the author have the
sequence indicated by the arrows, and the aspects that define these stages are
summarized as follows:
• Forming, - it is characterized by the fact that the man becomes aware of
goals and the structure of the group, of its composition and its frame of
reference. In this stage, the following aspects become important: hierarchical
structure, the type of leadership promoted, the rules of conduct, the roles and
responsibilities of the individual, as well as the effort of defining the identity of
the group.
8
M.Şimandan
• Storming, - is characterized by organization, program and rules, by the

control of authority and the establishment of statuses and roles. From the point
of view of communication, the members of the group manifest themselves more
openly and more intensely, and the emergence of disagreements or conflicts can
be avoided if the group strengthens its operation structure. • Norming, - is
defined by the establishment of marks and standards by the group, as well as
through designing its own rules of conduct which are intended to ensure its
consensus. If the group has different purposes from those of the organization,
cooperation and individual adhesion can act against its performance and can
lead to different types of conflicts.
• Performing, - it is characterized through the preoccupations of
consolidating group relations and of centering the activity on common purposes
and performance. At this stage, the efforts of individuals converge and the
group manifests its stimulating influence over its members.
To suggest the influences which are established between these evolution
stages of the group, Tuckman suggested the scheme in Fig. 2, in which we can
notice not only the sequence of the stages, but also the relations to be
established between foundation, norming and performance.
Formarea
Performanţa Structurarea
Normarea
Fig. 2. The succession of the evolution stages of the group

(cf. Tuckman, 2001).
As he has already said in his previous research, Tuckman talks about a fifth
stage - the state of dissolution - that can be installed after any of the preceding
stages, if the requirements typical to the group are not met or if the conflicts and
cohesion of the group aren’t managed. The author cited insists on the fact that
the dissolution of the group may also occur as a result of completion of the work
load for which the group was established or after the re-launching of the
evolution of a new group or the orientation group members to new purposes.
9
Creating communication networks
Extensive and intensive research over social groups have concluded that
the structure of the group is influenced by communication, and communication,
in turn, is influenced by the structure of the group. This means that the
structure of the group determines the creation of networks of communication
inside a group, where the rules of movement of messages between the members
of the group and their position in the communicational process are regulated.
Communication networks are constituted in all social groups and include
all the channels of communication arranged in a specific configuration, the
distinction between formal networks (models of communication clearly
established) and informal networks (models of flexible communication)
consisting in the following features: in the situations of informal
communication the participation is not equal, and the members who speak more
are responded with the lowest form of interaction.
Other aspects of differentiation regard the means of approaching the
network of communication, depending on which we distinguish: the relational
approach, which focuses on the direct communication links between the
members of the network with an emphasis on identification of the role position;
the positional approach, centerd on the structure of the hierarchy of the group;
the cultural approach, that focuses on the meanings transmitted through
communication at the level of the company or of the cultural community.
On the other hand, the communication carried out by various networks can
be regarded from two angles: the speed and the effectiveness of
communication. If under the aspect of communication speed the centralized
networks are superior to the decentralized ones, from the point of view of their
efficiency the centralized networks of communication resolve conflicts more
correctly, while decentralized networks are most appropriate for solving
complex problems.
It is, of course, understood that, from one group to another, we can talk
about the size of the communication network, about its density (the more
numerous the group, the less diverse the communication, group cohesion
growing instead), about the centrality and laterality of the communication
relationships, as well as proximity, as a form of nonverbal communication. If,
in a first stage, the research of communication relationships had an
experimental character, slowly they they began to be studied in real social
contexts, being analyzed independently of any other type of interaction.
10
M.Şimandan
I
So, at present, the analysis of relations of communication presents itself as
a separate field of research, which seeks to study the efficiency of
communication, depending on the characteristics of the groups, of the nature of
the activities and specific tasks, as well as the social contexts in which the
groups are located.
From the perspective of the problems we are interested in here, the studies
of Leavitt [ 3], Bavelas [ 4] and Bennett [ 5], brought to the center of attention
the following conclusions:
• The role played by an individual in the work group is determined by his
more or less central situation in the system of communication in the group.
• The centrality occurs when the network of communication is directed by
a person, who filters and directs messages, while the laterality consists in the
forms of spontaneous interpersonal communication.
- Formal communication is derived from the formal structure of the group
and informal communication takes place in informal groups by direct means,
including through its contagion phenomenon.
-The communication network influences the efficiency of communication
through the accessibility of channels for the participants, as follows: some
restrictive networks allow the contact of the person with only a specific part of
the network and, by default, access to only part of the information, respectively,
networks in which the participants have a greater freedom of access to the use
of communication channels.Based on these grounds, the authors mentioned
above have highlighted two types of networks:
• Restrictive networks (the in-line or "chain" network, the W-shaped, X-
shaped or "in the wheel" network), with different degrees of centrality and with
uneven access of the people to information, with the person located in the
center having more access than the ones at the network edge, and being able to
control the flow of information and have the opportunity to accumulate
additional power in the group.
• Flexible networks (in the form of a circle or multi-channel) in which no
person can „monopolize” the information; access to information being equal,
none of the participants is in a position to manage the information as the source
of individual power, and the level of satisfaction of participants is higher than is
the case of centralized networks.
It is understandable that these types of networks are commensurate with
the characteristics of specific tasks and activities carried out by the group, the
contexts in which the groups are located, as well as with the trajectory of the
movement of messages in the group.
11
In close connection with aspects discussed above, the process of

communication raises the problem of group cohesion and the role of the leader
in the intra-group communication. Communications supports cohesion in
several ways: By supplying some symbols or signs of membership in the form
of a common language, by enlarging the feeling of belonging to a „private”
world, the one who wants to be accepted by group being forced to use the
conventions of verbal or non-verbal addressing by the frequency of interactions
between two or more persons to increase the mutual sympathy between the
parties, by the appearance of the group rules and expectations regarding the
behavior of the members.
Our discussion also leads to the conclusion that in the group appear
relations of power, the leader of the group generally being the person who best
conforms to the standards of the group and complies with behavioral standards
promoted and appreciated by the group. The leader of the group has a prestige
which it is derived from both compliance with the rules, his sympathy and his
popularity, as well as because of the way in which communication is coming
toward the leader or starts from him to the members of the group by the so-
called system of "lines of influence".
The literature on the subject draws attention to the fact that, in addition to
the formal leader (the person designated with official title of leadership) and the
informal leader (the person who exercises the greatest influence in the context
of the group, due to his extended sympathy), in the process of communication
there is also the function of the gatekeeper, associated to the person who
occupies a position that influences communication greatly in the group. "The
person who has the position of gatekeeper, writes Simona Ştefănescu, has to
face a very large number of information, which sometimes overpass his ability
of "storing" it. A consequence of this situation may be what one calls
"information overload" - a problem whose gravity depends on the size of the
group. Solving it is easier in small groups. Many times, small groups are not
faced with this problem, because here the information is managed and delivered
directly by the group members, without always requiring the mediation of the
leader" [ 6].
With this comment, I shall move on to the discussion of one of the most
interesting themes of group communication: the relationship between
communicational culture and organizational culture.
12
M.Şimandan
Organizational communication and culture

Communication within the organization assumes taking into consideration the
elements of organizational culture, between the conventional system and the
cultural one existing a mutual connection. In other words, the information and
communication are the basis of the cultural system, thereby contributing to the
formation of organizational culture and at the same time, the cultural system
influences the quality of communication.
As part of the organizational system, communicational culture includes all
the data and information which flows through the channels of communication
both formally and informally, within the organization and between the
organization and the external environment, as well as the procedures for their
transmission.
As regards organizational culture, it refers to the whole ideas, knowledge,
rules, values and ways of relating between the people. Referring to these
aspects, Mihaela Vlăsceanu insists upon the fact that some of the components
of the culture of the organization are cognitive (skills, mental models,
metaphors and linguistic practices), other are normative (rules and standards,
policies, principles, values and strategies, models of behavior and interpretative
philosophies), and others are emotional (experiences, feelings, ideologies,
socio-moral climate).
Quoting Edgar Schein, the author distinguishes between the following
components of organizational culture [ 7]:
• Regulations and behaviors in people’s interaction (the languages used,
traditions and rituals which are applied in specific situations);
• Rules of the group (default standards and values activated in the relations
between individuals);
• Expressed values (principles and values explicitly formulated for the
members of the group);
• Policies and ideological principles that guide the actions of the members
of the organization in their relations with the beneficiaries of the products or
services rendered;
• Formal and informal institutional rules;
• The socio-moral climate socio-moral and the organization of space
within the organization;
• Personal skills (specific skills expected from the members of the
organization in solving their tasks);
• Modes of reflection and linguistic practices;
• Activated meanings (ways of understanding and interpreting events);
• Metaphors and symbols (configured in ideas, feelings, experiences or
images about the self or about the phenomena within the organization).
13
The author’s conclusion is that, more important than this enumeration is

the mode of formation of the elements mentioned above, „that is the degree of
structural integration, of coherence and, respectively, of disintegration or
inconsistency. The first variant (the integration) corresponds to a centralized
cultural orientation, while the second (the inconsistency), to a centrifugal one.
The de-structuring effects in relation to the organization's performance are
obviously favorable to the first version. However, such effects are possible as
long as the culture of the organization is receptive to the messages of the
environment in which they operate. The dependency on the environment,
concludes M. Vlăsceanu, is the variable that gives account of the effects of the
organization’s culture" [ 8].
Attempting a rapprochement between organizational culture –
communicational culture communication, Simona Ştefănescu [ 9] shows that,
depending on the membership of the organization and the profession of the
employees, one can delimit between two types of subculture:
• Institutional subculture, - which refers to the overview of beliefs,
aspirations and the conduct of the employees, and reflects the activities in
which they performed. The influence of these characteristics and conditions are
to be found in both activities of the members of the organization, as well as in
the way that communication is carried out between them, and this will impose,
over time, the creation of a communicational culture with institutional features.
• Professional subculture, - which refers to the overview of norms, values,
beliefs and behaviors typical to different categories of employees according to
the occupation they have and the level of training. According to the dominant
features of an organization, communicational culture will operate as a system of
language that defines the given profession.
Summarizing the discussion to the organizational communication -
organizational culture relationship, I will focus on the four types of
organizational cultures, theoretized by Charles Handy in his work,
Understanding Organizations [10]. The idea from which he starts is that
between culture and communication there is interdependence, each of the types
of organizational culture having a particular type of communicational culture.
The four categories of organizational culture, together with the related elements
of communicational culture are the following [ 11]:
(a) the power culture, - is encountered frequently in small organization, in
some commercial companies, as well as in political organizations, trade unions
or pressure groups, whose configurations consists of concentrical network, with
a source of central power and with lines of influence exercised radially from the
respective source (Fig. 3).
14
M.Şimandan
Fig. 3. The “power” type of organizational culture

The main features of this type of organizational culture are:
• The organization is based on relationships of trust and sypathy, on the
interpersonal communication between the members of the organization and on a
reduced number of rules and procedures.
• Control is exercised by means of people particularly designated and the
decisions are usually made as an effect of the balance of influences.
• Communication is carried out mainly from the top to the bottom, and is a
direct and prescriptive communication which does not lead to a birocratization
of the relationship between individuals.
• Work is dominated by individual competition, and personal failures
determine a pronounced fluctuation of the members of the group.
• Organizations with this type of culture may respond rapidly to the turn of
events, but ensuring success depends on the decisions taken by the persons
located in the central position, the organization’s size, as well as the number of
activities it is trying to perform.
B) The ”role" culture, - typical to the classical organization, with formal
power structures, characterized by a high degree of specialization of the
functional sectors, the interaction between these being controlled by a
restricted leading team. (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Cultura organizaţională de „tip rol”.
15
This type of organizational culture is teaming up with the following more

important aspects:
• The hierarchical position is the main source of power, the people are
selected according to the compliance with their corresponding roles and
personal power is limited in favor of the power conferred by expertise in the
field.
• Control is exercised by the leading team by rules and procedures, by the
definition of posts and the authority conferred on them, their role being more
important than the person who occupies it.
• The influencing methods are defined by precise procedures, and the
employees who perform their task according to standards are rewarded, a fact
which can generate frustration to the people who want to exercise control over
their own work or who are more concerned with the results, not the methods.
• The „role” culture offers the individual safety and the ability to acquire a
professional specialization, and the managers are offered the chance to become
experts in the application of the forms and methods of management.
• The efficiency in this type of organization depends on the rationality in
establishing tasks and responsibilities, and the main disadvantage consists in the
rigidity with which one perceives changes and attempts to build the future of
the organization based on old models of operation;
• The means of communication are precisely defined, in close connection
with formal channels of communication and the hierarchical structure of the
communication flow.
c) The „task” culture, also called "matrix organization", - is oriented
toward achieving a particular task, of an individual project or of a target. The
graphic representation of this structure includes the wires relationship in bold,
and the nodes suggest the positions in the organization where the power and
influence are located (Fig. 5).
ci)
Fig. 5. The “task” type of organizational culture
16
M.Şimandan
The main characteristic of this type of organizational culture consists on

the one hand, in the fact that the focus is on the accomplishment of the task, to
ensure appropriate resources and people at each level of the organization's
function. On the other hand, the influence is based on the power of the expert,
rather than on the hierarchical position, which is why the power is much more
dispersed than in the previous types.
Other special features of „load type” organizational culture refer to:
• The individual has a high degree of autonomy in the course of his work
and has the ability to establish relationships based on competence and mutual
respect with his colleagues.
• The load type of culture depends on the mobilization of the whole group
in order to improve effectiveness, as well as the identification of individuals
with the objectives of the organization.
• Being a teamwork culture, the results of the group are situated before
individual objectives and the divergences in position or attitudes, and for this
reason this type of culture is more appropriate to the current trends of change
and adaptation to change.
• Communication in the load type culture is interactive, it is carried out in
a climate of cooperation between people with various social positions, and the
leader is flexible trusts in his ability to operate in conditions of instability.
• The major disadvantage of this type of culture arises from the difficulty
of exercising control, as there are no restrictions of time and resources; in cases
where resources become limited, competition is triggered between the leaders
of groups, and the culture is transformed, either in a role culture or in a role
culture.
D) the „person” culture - is the most frequently encountered form of
organizational culture because the emphasis is on special psychosocial features
of the individual and not on the organization. In this case, the organization is
subordinated to the individual, having the role of promoting the interests of its
members, without a major objective.
As we can see in Fig. 6, the „person” has an open structure, the individual
has a broad action range and the base of power in the organization, when it
exists, is given by the expert.
17
Fig. 6. The “person” type of organizational culture
It should be noted that this form of organizational culture is encountered

frequently in the fields of creative research, consultancy and legal advice, in
partnerships of different shapes or in cooperatives. Usually, the employees of
such an organization are difficult to run, since they consider the organization as
a framework for achieving their own interests. On the other hand, the
communication in such organizations has a pronounced informal character,
based on cooperation, personal affinities and professional interests.
Apart from the aspects that characterize a form of organizational culture or
another, it might be asserted that the typology to which I referred depends on
several factors: the historical period and the form of ownership, the size of the
organization and the scope of the activity, the level of technological
development and the system of social values, aims and objectives of the
organization, the economic and social context, etc.
One does not ruled out the possibility that, in the same organization, to co-
exist two or more forms of the cultures mentioned, with easily understandable
consequences upon the formation of the communicational culture.
Conclusions
The main idea which has to be retained is that, in both groups, as well as
in organizations, communication has a formal or informal character. Formal
channels of communication are associated with a formal system of
responsibilities which comply with the hierarchical order, are designed to
enable you to transfer information vertically and horizontally, is meant to
ensure the coordination of its activities and to promote their organization's
image to the outside.
18
M.Şimandan
Unlike the formal communication, informal communication is carried out

by informal channels created spontaneously, it modifies in a less controlled way
and it operates in parallel with the formal communication. Although the forms
of communication coexist with the informal ones, the proper functioning of the
organization and of the group requires efficient operation of the forms of
communication, whether formal or official. The informal channels of
communication can be used especially in situations of redesigning an
organization, in obtaining information related to the satisfactions or frustrations
of the
employees or in counteracting harmful rumors to the activity of the

organization.
Finally, a problem that must be mentioned refers to the organizational

functions of communication, functions which may be summarized in the
following sentences: control (clarification of their duties and establishment of
responsibilities), information (considered to be a basic element in the decision-
making process), coordination (designed to make the joint action more
effective), motivation (which stimulates the cooperation and involvement of
the members in achieving the objectives), creating the emotional climate
(designed to ensure that expression of personal emotions and experiences).
Bibliography:
[1] Bass, B; Ryterband, E., (1979/2002), Organizational Psychology, (2nd ed.),
Boston, Mass, Allyn and Bacon.
[2] Tuckman, B., (2001), Developmental sequence in small groups, in Group
Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal, No: 3
http://dennislearningcenter.osu.edu/references (accesat în 16 aug. 2011).
[3] Leavitt, H.J., (1951), Some effects of certain communication patterns on
group performance, in „Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology”,
46, 1, p. 38–50.
19
[4] Bavelas, Al., (1950), Communications patterns in task oriented groups, in

„Journal of the Acoustical Society of America”, 22, p. 271–282.
[5] Bennett, W.L., (1988), News The Politics of Illusion, New York, Longman.
[6] Ştefănescu, S., (2010), Sociologia comunicării, Târgovişte, Editura Cetatea
de Scaun, p. 166.
7] Vlăsceanu, M., (2003), Organizaţii şi comportament organizaţional, Iaşi,

Editura Polirom, p. 266.
[8] Ibidem, p. 266.
[9] Ştefănescu, S., op. cit., p. 167.
[10] Handy, Ch., (1993), Understanding Organizations, Oxford, Oxford University
Press.
[11] Ibidem, p. 192–204
20
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.1 pp.7-22
Pragmatic relativism and its Implications

M.Şimăndan
Matei ŞIMĂNDAN
„Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad
Abstract: The paper approaches what, in the most recent

stage of epistemological debate, is called the controversy
over relativism. In the first part, the author critically
examines the concepts of objectivity, relativism, and truth,
with a particular emphasis on their consequences on the
theory of knowledge within the social sciences.
Accordingly, the main concern is centred on Richard
Rorty’s contributions to the rethinking of some theses of
traditional philosophy, and on the alternatives he is
proposing in the context of post-modern and post-
structuralist sensibilities. The conclusions arise from the
author’s engagement with Rorty’s version of pragmatism,
according to which saying that some of our beliefs are not
true is the same with saying that somebody else might
come with a better idea or with more consistent proofs that
would eventually correct those ‘false’ beliefs.
Key words: relativism, rationality, truth, pragmatism,

social practices
21
M.Şimandan
Preliminary distinctions
Usually, the epistemological distinction between objective
and subjective serves two main purposes: on one hand, it helps
distinguishing between two levels of cognitive achievements, on
the other hand, it helps separating the perspectival approach,
which is circumscribed to particular, specific points of view, from
the objective or nonperspectival approach, which finds its clearest
expression in what T. Nagel called ‘the view from nowhere’.
Tackled within a larger philosophical context, the
perspectival approach entertains the situated character of
knowledge and is associated with cognitive relativism, whereas
the view ‘from above’ belongs particularly to the positivist
tradition, being associated with objectivism and foundationalism
(however, its area of underwritten commitments goes well beyond
the positivistic tradition, covering what is usually called ‘The
Enlightenment/ Modern worldview’). Then, one has to notice it is
only about judgements, opinions, theories, or concepts that we
can say they are objective or subjective. In other words,
objectivity may be interpreted as propriety of the contents of
mental acts and mental states. Such a concept should include that
theoretical datum addressed by the range of theories of objectivity
as attempts of grounded explanation of things and facts. In the
philosophical tradition of knowledge, Kant had the insight to state
that an objective judgement might be assumed to be valid for all
people. It is because of the need for a rational grounding of
judgements that objectivism is closely linked to a unique
perspective on things, through the language of a conceptual
22
scheme that incorporates the diverse cultural forms

practised by individuals and societies at a given moment.
Taking these premises as a departure point, I shall first
examine several positions of thought structured around the
concepts of objectivity, relativism and truth, emphasising their
consequences upon the theory of social knowledge.
Romanian epistemologist Mircea Flonta appreciated that : ‘
a description or explanation of facts has objective value if it is
exposed to the control of an ever-more-precise experience, ever
better structured, and successfully passes this control. The fact
that the elaboration of ideas subject to scrutiny will be oriented
and conducted by ideals of knowledge, Flonta continues, does not
affect at all the rigourousness and strictness of this scrutiny. The
unifying, overarching ideas that constitute the theoretical horizon
of a scientific discipline at a given moment can be, at the same
time, objective (in other words, validated by experience), and
relative (conforming to some regulative principles or
representations of cognitive excellence, often unformulated,
which give identity to a historical form of scientific life). Neither
the facts of the history of science, nor principled positions allow
the affirmation of an exclusionary relation between objectivity
and relativity, understood in the aforementioned way. It is the way
in which objectivism and relativism do not exclude each other. In
this sense, it seems to be particularly needed and appropriate to
set the distinction between a radical relativism, which contests the
rationality and objectivity of scientific knowledge, and a moderate
23
M.Şimandan
relativism.’ (1998, p.17) which offers a novel understanding of

the peculiarities of scientific knowledge.
At its turn, H. Siegel contends that epistemological
relativism is the view according to which ‘Knowledge (and/or
truth) is relative – relative to time, place, society, culture,
historical epoch, conceptual framework, or to education and
personal beliefs – so that what passes as knowledge depends on
the value of one or more of these variables. Whether knowledge
or truth are relative in such a way, this is happening because
different cultures, societies, etc., accept different sets of principles
and standards for the evaluation of knowledge claims, and there is
no neutral way to choose between these alternative sets of
standards’ (2001, p. 308).
It follows from here, then, that the main thesis of relativism
is that truth and the foundation of knowledge claims are relative
to the standards employed in evaluating these claims. This makes
, in fact, quite impossible to determine objective truth and its
alleged epistemic foundation. It is this observation that makes
D.J. Hess to remark, not without irony, that ‘relativism is for
philosophers a similar word with what is positivism for
researchers in the social sciences and humanities: it is better to
say of another one s(he) endorses it.’ (1997, p.37).
How are these issues approached by contemporary
perspectives within the social sciences, and especially by the
‘post-modern’ ones ? Then, what should we understand by the
notion of scientific detachment when social researchers aim to
examine the institutions of a community and their mechanisms of
24
functioning? Finally, is it still possible to treat the ideal of

rationality in the terms of an intellectual construction and of
universally acknowledged standards of validation?
A new vision on the dilemmas confronting epistemology
and philosophy, as well as a reinterpretation of them are advanced
in Richard Rorty’s ‘Philosophy and the mirror of nature’ (1979)
and ‘Objectivity, relativism, and truth’ (2000). In what follows I
will critically engage with some of the possible answers he is
proposing to the questions so far raised in this paper.
Social practice and truth

Pointing to the controversy within the social sciences about
the possibility of plural discourses and the social justification of
beliefs, Rorty uses the terms ‘epistemology’ and ‘hermeneutics’
to describe two strategies of understanding rationality.
For hermeneutics, he contends, being rational means being
willing to stay away from epistemology – from the idea that there
is such a thing as a special set of terms in which all contributions
to the conversation should be formulated – and wanting to catch
from the flight the jargon of your interlocutor, rather than
translating it in your own terms.
For epistemology, being rational means finding the
adequate set of terms in which to formulate all contributions, so
that agreement becomes possible. For epistemology, conversation
is implicit research. For hermeneutics, research is routine
conversation.’ (1979, p. 318).
25
M.Şimandan
By this remark, Rorty is pointing to the fact that the ultimate

context through which the problem of knowledge should be
understood is ‘conversation’ and that, eventually, truth is a matter
of negotiation, of mutual understanding and empathy, and of
compromises (this ethical dimension is commented by Ryu, 2001,
p. 5, who, comparing Derrida with Rorty notes: ‘postmodern
ethics is based on incredulity with regard to traditional
metanarratives, and it defines ethics in terms of sensitivity or
responsibility to “otherness” and difference’). These insights are
reached only after a detailed historical foray into the idea of
‘privileged’ or ‘adequate’ representation entertained by traditional
philosophies of knowledge. He tries to convince his readers that
the theory of truth-as-correspondence is not only impossible, but
also damaging given its assumed metaphysics (capable of setting
the distinction between true and false beliefs) and epistemology
meant to offer the procedures for the justification of beliefs. As a
replacer for the abandonment of the traditional notion of truth, Rorty
proposes the pragmatic idea of truth, which, in his opinion, doesn’t
require either a metaphysics, or an epistemology. According to this
view, truth does not any longer presupposes a description of the
correspondence between beliefs and facts, nor does it require a
description of the cognitive possibilities of the human subject. The
author goes even further, aiming for the dissolution of all assumptions
and distinctions consecrated by the tradition of knowledge (he also
explicitly criticises recent analytical philosophy – Rorty, 1999, p. 13- :
‘the diverse answers to the question of the relation between language
and reality given by analytic philosophers do indeed divide up along
some of the same lines which once divided realists from idealists’).
‘The epistemological behaviourism’ promoted by him attempts to direct
26
our attention not towards the correspondence of our cognitive

representations with facts, but towards ‘ the practices of justification’
taken to be the true fundaments of knowledge. According to this line of
thought, there are true those statements accepted by a cultural
community according to the standards of rationality produced and
admitted by that respective community, or, putting things differently,
true statements are nothing but codifications of socially accepted
practices.
At a closer scrutiny of these bold ideas, it is not difficult to
notice that Rorty in fact reduces the objectivist conception of truth
to the idea of justification grounded on social practices accepted
by the majority of the members of a community. The strategy he
is advancing as alternative consists in the fact that for the
epistemological validation of truth one doesn’t any longer require
a disciplinary matrix meant to unify different discourses into a
form of common rationality, as it is the case for empirical
epistemology.
Among the consequences of this view, one could identify,
on one hand, the undermining of any difference between what
should be and what it is, and, on the other hand, the
dismantlement of any methodological constraint regarding
research, with the notable exception of that one derived from
conversation.
The question arising here would be: is rationality a social
practice historically situated, or could one really talk of standards
of rationality which transcend contingent, particular places and
times? And, furthering this line of enquiry, what kind of link
could one establish between rationality and objective truth ? Rorty
27
M.Şimandan
contends that we should not stir philosophical debates around

terms such as truth, and that we would better let them in their
contextual uses. Unpacking the signification of this last
contention, Andrei Marga (2000, p.36) notes that ‘ in their
effective enterprises of knowledge, humans elaborate their
behaviours according to those of their fellows and to their
environment; these strongly contextualised behaviours are, in fact,
reluctant of the generalisations underwriting the philosophical
definitions of concepts.
Rorty’s statement according to which knowledge is a purely
empirical, historical-sociological concept, is commented by
Marga in the following terms: ‘It is historical, being always
“situated” , it is sociological because there are no reasons to
believe that we can transcend consensuses reached in situations
which are fatally contingent.’ (2000, p.36).
The main conclusion suggested by Rorty’s enterprise is that
the investigation of the process of knowledge has as purpose ‘the
solving of as many problems as possible’, truth being ‘what it is
useful for us to believe’. A consistently articulated pragmatism
entails, in other words, a rejection of some of Rorty’s own
putatively pragmatist claims’!) . In this context, it should be
added that the type of culture the author is pleading for seems to
be one which would be satisfied with a faillibilist knowledge of
science in its entirety. He is assuring us that such a culture would
be of help for doing with our obsession with objectivity and the
search for truth-as-certitude which confers authority to statements
societies privilege at a given moment.
28
Objectivity and human solidarity
Rorty develops a series of themes discussed so far in a

study concerned with the relation between objectivity and human
solidarity. He separates, before doing anything else, between the
theoretical current constituted around the idea of objective truth,
to which we relate to as humans in order to give meaning to our
generic life, and the current organised around the idea of human
solidarity, intended to give meaning to each individual. The first
current was imposed to the foreground given the fact that ‘we are
inheriting the objectivist tradition centred on the presupposition
that we have to get outside our community long enough so that
we become capable to examine it in the light of something which
transcends it, and, more precisely, of that something held in
common with whichever real or possible human community’
(Rorty, 2000, pp. 76 – 77). According to this tradition, the
theoretical construction must allow for the distinction between
false and true beliefs on the basis of procedures leading to the
correspondence of truth with reality.
To this mode of thought, Rorty counterposes the pragmatic
idea which brings to the foreground the inter-subjective
conception of objectivity. This view maintains that ‘the desire for
objectivity is not the desire to escape the limitations of one’s
community, but the desire to reach an as-large-as-possible inter-
subjective agreement, the desire to expand the reference of “us”
as far as possible’ (Rorty, 2000, p.78).This version of relativism
29
M.Şimandan
distilled through a pragmatist critique is understood by the author

in a three-fold perspective: ‘The first is the view according to
which each belief is as good as any other belief. The second is the
view that “truth” is an equivocal concept, having as many
meanings as procedures for justification exist. The third is the
view that nothing can be said about truth or rationality, with the
exception of descriptions and familiar procedures of justification a
given society – ours- is using in one or another areas of research’
(2000, p.78). Rorty insists that pragmatism defends only the third
view, named ethnocentrical, without crediting either the first view
(accused to be self-infirmating), or the second one (dismissed by
him for being eccentric; however, many debates could arise from
these distinctions: suffice to give Wilshire’s case, who goes as far
as to say – 1997, p.103- that ‘Rorty, following a great crowd of
analytic philosophers, limits truth to some (adulatory) property
assigned to sentences or statements’).
Nevertheless, at the end of his demonstration, Rorty admits
that , after all, pragmatism, in general, doesn’t have a theory of
truth, let alone a relativist one. Hence the idea that the
pragmatist’s account about the value of research based on
cooperation and solidarity ‘has only an ethical base, and not an
epistemological or metaphysical one’.
In other words, solidarity appears as a form of social
consensus, which can be counterposed to objectivism,
scientificity, or to rational arguments, and its acceptance
represents, according to Rorty, a common space of justification,
30
of the dialogical horizon of interpretation, and of the maximum

amount of knowledge we can aspire to reach at.
Examining Rorty’s invocation of the idea of solidarity to the
detriment of that of objectivity, scientific rationality, and truth, R.
Niculau writes: ‘The advocating of solidarity as perfect “model”
of social interaction is important in that it goes hand in hand with
the rejection of epistemology (science, objectivity, universally
valid principles of logic, a priori truths, proper representation of
the external reality) as special cognitive scheme, as privileged
model of social intervention, as unique paradigm of action, or as
trial in front of which all the other cultural forms are judged (…)
The refusal to treat rationality as a structure analogous to the
logical operations of exact sciences does not signify the
abandonment of rationality in itself, but the abandonment of one
of the narrow cognitive forms to which it has been reduced’, and
when Rorty maintains that ‘solidarity would be a possible
“model” of understanding, he does not pretend that this model
should be transformed into the new paradigm of knowledge,
foundation, or reason, which would replace the previous
paradigms that revealed to be inadequate’ (2001, p.114). R.
Niculau argues that, in the view of the American philosopher,
solidarity seems to be ‘a word among many others, which helps
eliminating the absolutist claims of some theories and the
autonomous tendencies of some contingent forms of language,
without having as a purpose to legitimate other theories,
conceptions, or forms of language’, (2001, p.114), solidarity
having rather a therapeutic function of edification, at the centre of
31
M.Şimandan
which stands the need to do with the illusion of the certainty of

knowledge.
The double significance of an organising concept
Rorty examines the issue of scientific rationality and of the
possible meanings ascribed to it in a similar manner. Thus, being
rational means, on one hand, a matter of respecting procedures
established in advance, which is acting methodically on the basis
of criteria of success fixed in preamble. Such a style of thought,
contends Rorty, characterises the natural sciences in general, and
each academic discipline tends to achieve such a cognitive status.
On the other hand, it has to be noticed that the social sciences and
the humanities are concerned rather with purposes, than with
means, which rends inoperant the type of rationality practised by
experimental sciences. According to Rorty, the social and
humanist sciences don’t have any modality to evaluate their
success on the basis of criteria specified in advance, because they
operate with purposes always to be redefined. If, however, these
sciences are considered rational, then ‘rationality will have to be
conceived as something different from the fulfilment of pre-
established criteria (..) In this second meaning, the term “rational”
designates rather a set of natural virtues: tolerance, respect for the
opinions of those around us, the willingness to listen, etc., which,
all together, give a “weaker” sense to rationality’. At least for the
case of the social-human sciences, the author believes that ‘we
should contend ourselves with the second, “weaker” concept of
rationality, and to avoid the “strong” version of this concept’
(2001, p. 101), idea which speaks for itself about the possibilities
32
for the interpretation of one and the same organising concept of

science.
Richard Rorty doesn’t miss the opportunity to make a case
for pragmatism, through statements of the following kind:
pragmatists would want to replace desires for objectivity or
contact with a reality superior to a community, with desires for
solidarity with that collective; they believe that in the process of
knowledge there are persuasion and respect for other opinions that
should prevail, and not force; intellectual curiosity and the desire
for new data or ideas constitute the single virtues that scientists
should possess, and not the belief in a virtue named rationality,
situated above or beyond these moral virtues. He writes
‘according to this view, there is no reason to praise scientists for
being more “objective”, or “logical”, or “methodical”, or
“devoted to truth” than other people. But there are plenty of
reasons to praise the institutions they have developed and within
which they work and to use these as models for the rest of culture.
For these institutions, Rorty contends, confer concretness and
detail to the idea of “unforced agreement”. The reference to these
institutions embodies the idea of “free and open interaction” – that
type of interaction in which it is impossible for truth not to win’.
He concludes in the following terms: ‘My rejection of the
traditional notions of rationality can be summarised in the
affirmation that the single sense in which science is exemplary is
that it represents a model of human solidarity’ (2000, p. 104),
thesis underwritten rather by ethical considerations, than by
epistemological or philosophical ones.
33
M.Şimandan
Conclusions
Without entering in the dense network of ideas that can be
derived from Rorty’s philosophy one thing seems from the
beginning to be very clear: he dislocates the traditional image of
science premised upon distinctions such as objectivity /
subjectivity, truth / subjectivity, and upon the assumption of us
confronting our statements with an objective reality, in favour of
an interpretation of science as understanding achieved by a given
community at a given moment. Some would accuse him, that,
although he admits that the single sense in which science can be
exemplary is that according to which it represents a model of
human solidarity, this thesis doesn’t do anything but to offer an
explicitly relativised experience about knowledge. Trigg, for
example, notes that, in general, relativism has a paralysing effect
for the social sciences because ‘it is one thing to affirm that the
physical sciences do not hold the monopoly of truth, and it is
something else to throw away the concepts of truth, reality, and
knowledge. It is one thing to be against a too narrow scientific
paradigm of rationality, and something else to broaden it so much
so as to make seem that the most rigorous social researcher is no
more rational than the most superstitious head of a tribe. The
single consequence of this position, concludes the British
philosopher, is the generating of a total doubt regarding the value
or the purpose of the social science, and even of all intellectual
activities (1996, p. 109).
34
Leaving aside these too conservative types of critique

(which includes Rorty ‘among the present-day stars of the
postmodernist comic opera’…), I would contend that the good
way to tackle the challenge of relativism is a more detailed
theorising of what is hidden behind this label. Through a similar
theoretical style, but speaking from within a completely different
cultural background, Romanian philosopher Andrei Marga
disentangles in a very analytical way the understanding of
relativism, by identifying a series of its manifestations and
consequences. Engaged in a critique of relativism, he exploits a
vast arsenal of logical, semantical, epistemological, pragmatic,
historical, and transcendental arguments, offering meanwhile
several ways for overcoming relativism. Not least important for
the purpose of this paper is his systematisation of the main forms
of relativism and of the type of statements that can be associated
to them. One can distinguish:
a) historical relativism – represented by the sentences:
historical formations are diverse, including from the point of view
of their internal organisation; each formation cumulates a specific,
which cannot be imported without distortion by other formations;
b) cultural relativism - represented by the sentences:
cultural facts have a genesis context and a meaning in relation to
it; any perspective about the world is only one of the many
possible, one cannot establish hierarchies of importance among
competing perspectives;
c) cognitive relativism - represented by the sentences: our
contact with the world is mediated by descriptions of that world,
35
M.Şimandan
which are multiple, and depend on assumptions; there is no

privileged version about how the world is; all of them are equally
legitimate; all what we have are criteria for saying that a certain
version solves better certain problems, without being possible to
establish whether one version of description corresponds better
with the real world than another one;
d) moral relativism – represented by the sentences: there
are no universally valid moral rules; moral rules presuppose
options about the meaning of human life; they cannot be arranged
into an hierarchy; we cannot really understand forms of life
different from ours (2007, p. 102 – 103).
The text just mentioned seems to me significant for
contextualising the way Rorty tries to relate to the problem of
knowledge and to the themes I have analysed in this paper. What I
would say in the end, is that, even if social scientists don’t benefit
from the comfort of a common framework of understandings or
criteria for evaluation, they all should critically engage with
Richard Rorty’s philosophy, not least for enriching and
transforming it with their specific epistemic and ethical
standpoint, as social scientists.
36
Bibliography:
[1] Flonta, M., (1998), Afacerea Sokal şi critica relativismului
epistemologic contemporan, Studiu introductiv la vol. G. S.
Pãrãoanu, Tranziţii ontologice, Bucureşti, Editura All, pp. 5
– 20.
[2] Flonta, M., (2008), Cognitio. O introducere criticã în
problema cunoaşterii, Ed. a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura All.
[3] Hess, D., (1997), Sciences Studies. An Advanced Introduction,
New York & London, New York University Press.
[4] Jenkins, K., (2000), A postmodern reply to Perez Zagorin, in
History and Theory, 39, pp. 181 – 200.
[5] MacGilvray, E., (2000), Five myths about pragmatism, or,
against a second pragmatic acquiescence, in Political
Theory, vol. 28, no.4, pp. 480 – 508.
[6] Marga, A., (2000), O filozofie majorã a timpului nostru:
relativismul pragmatic al lui Richard Rorty, Studiu
introductiv la vol. R. Rorty, Obiectivitate, relativism şi
adevãr, Bucureşti, Editura Univers, pp. 5-40.
[7] Marga, A., (2002), Relativismul pragmatic, în vol.,
Introducere în filosofia contemporana, Iaşi, Editura
Polirom, p.317-334.
[8] Marga, A., (2007), Relativismul şi consecinţele sale.
Relativism and its Consequences (bilingual edition) Cluj-
Napoca, Cluj University Press.
[9] Nagel, T., (2008), Perspectiva de nicăieri, Bucureşti, Editura
Vellant.
37
M.Şimandan
[10] Neculau, R., (2001), Filozofii terapeutice ale modernitãţii

târzii, Iaşi, Editura Polirom.
[11] Rorty, R., (1979), Philosophy and Mirror of Nature,
Princeton, Princeton University Press.
[12] Rorty, R., (2000), Obiectivitate, relativism şi adevãr,
Bucureşti, Editura Univers.
[13] Rorty, R., (2000), Philosophy and Social Hope,Penguin
Books, London.
[14] Rorty, R., (2008), Contingenţă, ironie, solidaritate,
Bucureşti, Editura Paralela 45.
[15] Siegel, H., (2001), Relativism, în J. Dancy şi E. Sosa
(editori), Dicţionar de filosofia cunoaşterii, Bucureşti,
Editura Trei, pp. 308-311.
[16] Simandan, M., (2010), Teoria cunoaşterii sociale, ( ed. a II-a
), Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Române.
[17] Trigg, R., (1996), Întelegerea ştiintei sociale, Bucureşti,
Editura Ştiinţificã.
38
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.1 pp.7-22
PARENTS SELF INFORMING ACTIONS

ON CHILDREN CULTURAL
CONSUMPTION
Tiberiu Dughi
Tiberiu DUGHI
Abstract: This article shows ways in which the parents

inform themselves on children’s cultural consumption
offer. This research aims to show the parents conscious
involvement and the share of each information source.
The research was made on a 260 families from urban
and rural Arad areas, and it part of a large study focused
on cultural consumption proposed to children by parents
and also on values choused in family. The entire study
was published in 2011 as a book – Values set of parents
and cultural consumption proposed to children. One
conclusion shows the preference for teachers as a source
on information, rather than media sources.
Key words: parents, leisure time, information, source of

information, assumption, and children
1. Theoretical bases
Specific to a certain culture are those habits that are
concrete, observable and comparable. Those form the culture
along with social habits, manners and all the other habits that are
shared and transmitted along the members of a community.
39
T.Dughi
Behavior scientists exclude as a point of interest in studying a

culture the knowledge, attitudes and set of values and focus on
social habits, practices and other thing people do on a daily basis.
(Roth, 2002; Costin, 1996; Neculau, 2004).
Cultural consuming implies, from this perspective, o series
of actions taken by the individuals, in order to reach cultural
products, with the purpose of satisfaction and recognition,
products offered by the cultural services. Cultural services means
“activities provided to the cultural consumers, with or without
their direct involvement, in order to answer a set of needs or the
expected satisfactions.” (Moldoveanu, Ioan-Franc, 1997, p.15)
While analyzing the cultural consumption proposed to
children we had to consider the adults behavior as cultural
consumers. This behavior has three major stages: pre-buying,
buying (consumption) and post-buying. The process of buying has
the following conscious steps: acknowledging the need,
prospecting – self informing, analyzing the alternatives, buying,
using the services or goods and evaluating the results by
comparing the satisfaction with the cultural need. This steps are
influenced by a series of factors: social characteristics, standard of
living, way of living, interpersonal relations, prices and costs, the
way services are organized and a series of personal factors:
preferences, needs, expectations, representations, previous
experiences and al the psychical processes that motivate the
cultural consumption. (Moldoveanu, Ioan-Franc, 1997, p.138-
141).
40
Parents self informing actions on children cultural consumption
2. Objectives and hypotheses

These data are part of a bigger research witch forms a PhD
thesis named “Parents values and the cultural consumption
proposed to children”, thesis developed for “Scoala de studii
doctorale de psihologie” Cluj Napoca, Babes-Parents self
informing actions on children cultural consumption Babeș -Boilay
University. The main objective of this thesis is to identify the
particularities of parents values orientation and the relations with
7-11 years children regarding free time, educational activities and
cultural consumption.
For this article we have chosen to present detailed information
about the activities, of parents regarding the childrens cultural
consumption, meant to inform.
Being an exploratory study on a non-probabilistic contrast
sample, as a starting hypothesis is that the mother assumes the
leading role in organizing the cultural consumption of children.
She takes as a source of information the specialist in education.
3. Sample
The research was conducted on a sample of 520 subjects,
forming 260 families. The sample used is a contrasting type, the
subjects form two broad categories: 140 families from rural
environment and 120 families from the city of Arad, this being
the only city in the county that provides access to culture in a
significantly different form from rural areas. Within the urban
group (Arad city) it was used as sampling 10 schools representing
41
T.Dughi
all areas of the city, and within those schools there were
selected parents from all primary school levels. There were picked
only the families with both parents present, regardless of their
marital status. In the rural samples there were picked different
towns depending on their distance from Arad city, thus taking in
account the possibility of accessing the cultural resources. 5 to 10
families were picked depending on towns dimensions, each
family with at least one 7 to 11 years old child.
4. Research instrument
The method chosen to collect data was the query. This
method was picked due to the fact that in a relatively short period
of time a relatively big amount of information is gathered from a
lot of subjects. Also the gathered data is easily processed and
closed questions can be used in the query.
The considered appending variables were: the amount of
cultural consumption information sources, the amount of interest
in self-informing and the frequency of feedback asked from the
child regarding the cultural consumption. The independent
variables are the rural or urban environment, religion and number
of children per family.
The data was structured (using the Lickert algorithm) as
follows: five stages, 1 meaning None, 2 meaning Very Rarely, 3
meaning Rarely, 4 Often, 5 Very Often and also five stages for the
frequency 1 meaning very little feedback asked, 5 meaning a lot
of feedback asked.
42
When building the query the following were taken in

account: the concept of cultural consumption depending on
theoretical data and depending on the hypothesis and objectives of
the study. In forming the questions there were used simple terms,
non ambiguous terms, clear and without double negations
sentences. Most questions were closed. The Lickert scale was
used to show the frequency, intensity or other aspects of the
phenomenon. Some questions offered different variants from
which the subject was able to pick the one suited for his behavior
or opinion.
5. Data analysis and interpretation

5.1.Self informing on the offer referring the childs of
free time activities
The degree of self informing on the offer referring the
childs o free time activities is significantly different: F(5.1295) =
611.445 at p=.000. In fact, there are significant differences at a
statistically threshold p <.001 between all methods (mother,
father, grandparents, siblings), except between "paid person" and
"other persons". Thus the mother is the most informed compared
with the other persons considered. She is followed by the father,
grandparents and siblings.
43
T.Dughi
Table 1. The degree in which the family members or other

people inform themselves on child’s free time activities
Mother Father Grandparents Siblings Paid Other

persons persons
N 260 260 260 260 260 260
Average 4,65 3,67 2,47 1,17 ,43 ,55
Median 5,00 4,00 2,00 ,00 ,00 ,00
Standard ,78 1,07 1,57 1,48 ,82 1,09
deviation
Minimum 0 1 0 0 0 0
Maximum 5 5 5 5 5 5
Regardless on the environment, it was found that the

mother is responsible for finding the information regarding the
child’s free time activities (m=4.65 - see Table 2). In urban areas
the father and grandparents inform themselves on child’s free
time activities more than in rural areas. In rural areas, however,
the brothers search for this information more than in urban areas,
due to the role tasks undertaken by the parents.
Inferential processing results indicates significant
differences based on the environment when it comes to the fathers
involvement in child’s free time activities, compared with the
involvement of other persons and siblings. In other words the
father in urban areas involves himself more than the father in rural
areas. This situation is exactly the opposite in sibling’s case.
44

people inform themselves on child’s free time activities based on
the environment
Mother Father Grandparents Older Paid Other

brothers person persons
Urban 4,65 3,81 2,56 0,85 0,52 0,71
Rural 4,65 3,55 2,39 1,41 0,36 0,42
When comparing based on the mothers religion we get the

same general pattern. There are differences in the averages
obtained by other family members (see Table 3). After assessing
the result it can be seen the mother’s religion has a great impact
on father’s, sibling’s, paid person’s and other person’s degree of
self informing.

mother’s religion
Mother Father Grandfathers Siblings Paid Other

person person
Orthodox 4,71 3,79 2,54 ,88 ,33 ,48
Catholic 4,33 2,87 2,47 1,07 1,20 1,27
Pentecostal 4,51 3,44 2,12 2,44 ,46 ,51
Baptist 4,82 3,91 2,27 ,73 ,36 ,36
Adventist 4,75 4,00 2,75 1,25 ,25 ,25
Reformed 4,00 2,00 2,25 2,50 2,50 2,50
45
T.Dughi
Depending on the income there are significant differences

on father, siblings and paid persons (hi square is 15.10; 26.00;
11.98 at a p value of .01; .00; .035). It can be seen that the father’s
involvement in children’s cultural involvement rises with the
income. A possible explication is that once the material needs are
satisfied, the next important needs are cultural and educational.
Same explication is for the siblings in the families with lower
income.
5.2. Information Source
Most parents and family members prefer to inform about
the leisure activities of children from teachers, other parents,
colleagues and books. Sources with the smallest interest are those
related to media: newspapers, magazines and TV. There were
significant differences obtained based on source type
F(7.1813)=97.076 at p=. 000.
Table 4. Information source regarding free time
Other parents Colleagues Books Teacher

2,89 2,53 2,51 3,78
Newspapers, TV Children Others
Magazines
2,20 2,38 2,44 1,06
46
4
4
3,5
3,5
3
2,98
2,82
2,54
2,53 2,58
2,44 2,5
2,5 2,42 2,36
2,29 2,3
2,12
2
1,5
1,5
1
0,72
0,5
0
Alţi părinţi Colegi Cărţi Educatori Ziare, TV Copii Altele
reviste
Urban Rural
Figure 1. Source of information on leisure depending on

parents residence.
Rural areas families inform themselves from TV, books,

teachers and children more than those in urban areas. In the other
situations the parents from urban areas get bigger scores.
Significant differences are in the case of teachers (t(258)=-3.339
at p=.001) and other means (t(258)=4.4264 at p=.000). The
environment does not have a significant impact on other sources
of information.
It must be noted the parent’s tendency to inform
themselves form authorized people, rather than get the info from a
specialized book or magazine. The difference between urban and
rural environment is 0.5, which shows a preference for this option
47
T.Dughi
in rural environments. This situation is generated by the

high level of credibility teachers have, on one side and in the
other high averages, on the importance given to the previous
experience (parents who already accessed this information
sources). The interesting part is the placement of other children
experiences, as a source of information, close to the information
from specialized books and above information from magazines.
For comparisons based on the number of children there are
several significant differences:
- from other parents - hi square=15.585 at p=. 004
- from specialized books - hi square=10.289 at p=. 036
- from magazines and newspapers - hi square=15.485 at p=.
004
- from TV programs - hi square=11.037 at p=. 026. It is
interesting to note that parents who have more than one
child are those that inform themselves from other parents
or children opposite to the parents of one child, who are
likely to obtain information from books and magazines or
television programs. Teachers are still the most widely
used source regardless of the number of children in the
family
48

the number of children
Other Colleagues Books Teachers

parents
1 child 2,76 2,56 2,64 3,76
2 children 3,02 2,70 2,65 3,78
3 children 3,46 2,32 2,00 3,82
4 children 2,11 1,67 2,00 3,67
More than 2,31 2,08 1,77 4,00
4 children
Newspapers, TV Children Others
Magazines
1 child 2,51 2,64 2,62 1,17
2 children 2,07 2,25 2,21 1,11
3 children 1,79 2,14 2,68 ,75
4 children 1,56 1,44 2,11 1,00
More than 1,92 2,38 2,46 ,46
4 children
5.3. Discussions with children on leisure activities

When determining the children’s cultural consumption it
is important to listen to the information coming from the children
aside from outside information. That is the explanation for
considering relevant to identify whether the discussions between
parent and child regarding the leisure activities offer, exists or not.
When raises the question: “How often do you discuss with your
children about their leisure and cultural activities?”, most parents
(53,5%) answer that they do this often, followed by the parents
which answer that they do this very often (31,5%). A considerable
percentage for the parents which speaks often and very often with
their children comparing with those which rarely
49
T.Dughi
do that (13,8%) or hardly ever (1,2%): square hi = 160,769 to p

= .000. The statistics results could not make a difference based on
the environment, family values, mother’s religion, child’s sex nor
the number of the children.
For example, considering the family values, the statistics
shows that a higher percentage of parents with reflective values
discuss with their children about this subject, followed by – in this
order – parents with professional values, parents with emotional
values, parents with moral values, parents with relational and
material values. The differences are small, not being significant,
as mentioned above (square hi = 5,126 to p = .401).
Also, the same thing happens if mothers religion is to be
considered (square hi = 8,544 to p =.129), it results that a higher
percentage of parents with Baptist mothers discuss with their
children about this subject, followed by Catholic, Orthodox,
Adventist, Pentecostal and Reformed.
If the incomes are to be considered, there are significant
statistic differences (square hi = 1,781 to p=.026). A higher
percentage of the parents with lower incomes discuss with their
children about their leisure activities, comparing to the parents
with higher income level, as seen in the chart below.
The percentage of discussions between the parents and
their children regarding the leisure activities decreases as the
income increases. This does not apply to the families with the
incomes lower than 500 ron. If there is no need for the parents to
50
concern regarding the material welfare, it might be that

they will enlarge the time spent concerning their children leisure
activities.
Conclusion
As shown before, it is obvious that the report regarding the
leisure activities offer it’s being made, the most part of it - by the
mother and afterwards by the father. The higher percentage of the
parents and family members gets data regarding the children’s
leisure activities from teachers, from other parents, from
colleagues and from the books. The least used sources for finding
out these data are those referring to mass-media: newspapers,
magazines and TV. The discussion had with children regarding
the leisure activities are considered being necessary, most of the
parents are initiating these kind of discussions. The information
above is a good and strong argument in organising and sustaining
training for parents regarding the cultural offer for children,
training made by teachers - as they have authority and
competence in this area.
References
• Costin, C. (1996) Politicile culturale şi calitatea vieţii.
Editura de Vest, Timişoara.
51
T.Dughi
• Moldoveanu, M., Ioan-Franc, V., (1997) Marketing şi

cultură, Editura Expert, Bucureşti
• Neculau, A., coord., (2004), Manual de psihologie
socială, Polirom, Iaşi
• Roth, A. (2002) Modernitate şi modernizare socială.

Editura Polirom, Iaşi
52
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.1 pp.7-22
Public Diplomacy- Foreign Policy Instrument

R. Panta
Rodica PANTA
State University of Chişinău
Moldavian Republic
Abstract: Public diplomacy was one of the key Cold War

weapons but, with the end of the bipolar world, it became less
popular. After the tragedy of 9/11, the US and other nations
started revitalizing their public diplomacy programs to mitigate
negative attitudes in foreign societies. However, in the new global
political and communication context there was a need for a new
approach. Public diplomacy based on cooperation with non-state
actors, two-way communication and the use of new technologies
was labeled the new public diplomacy. The concept appeared as a
mostly academic term, but soon it also became widely applied by
practitioners.
Keywords: Public diplomacy, “soft power”, new public

diplomacy; communication cooperation.
Beginning of the Cold War was accompanied by a series

of technological innovations, which have disrupted the global
53
communication manner. New media have accelerated the pace of

life; have augmented trade and spread of ideas in the world.
Creating Internet and access to information marked the “entrance”
of the civilian population in the political sphere. Today, the
credibility and the image the states projected are crucial
components of their foreign policy; because these form “their
softpower policy”. The credibility of a State to members of the
international society (states, international institutions, companies
and NGOs) depends, among other things, on the ability to listen
and be heard, and a tool that meets the needs of states to create
“soft power” is the public diplomacy.
Foreign policy, previously an area managed exclusively
by diplomats behind closed doors, is increasingly democratized -
ordinary citizens, NGOs, national ministries, private companies,
academicians and other actors are directly involved in the foreign
policy through public debate aimed at foreign policy issues. In an
international environment previously dominated by tools of
persuasion and coercion, the information exchange and its
attractiveness as essential elements for the development of the
“soft power”, stand out increasingly. The main concern of the
actors in international relations is determined by the fact that the
“powerful engine of the global economy will affect the fragile
cultural, social and political systems, and even the sovereignty of
54
R.Panta
States”. In the quote above, E. H. Potter(2002) alludes to the

growing concern of the Western countries to win the hearts and
minds of the audience from different parts of the world. While in
developed countries, especially in the West, an academic
discourse on public diplomacy has already developed, based on
the comparison between public diplomacy and traditional
diplomacy, the academic discourse aimed at the public diplomacy
of the small states is still quite poor. For the small and medium
states, public diplomacy is an opportunity to gain influence and
establish itself on the international agenda, in ways that exceed
their "hard" power determined by their limited resources.
Public diplomacy: conceptual theoretical approach

Most researchers consider Edmund Guillon, the author of
the contemporary “public diplomacy” term. The career diplomat
used the phrase in 1965, in connection with the establishment of
the Edward R. Murrow Center within Tuft University, Faculty of
Law and Diplomacy. Within the informational material of the
Center, the term was defined as “the influence of public attitudes
in the formation and execution of foreign policy. It encompasses
dimensions of international relations beyond traditional
diplomacy ... [Including] government’s formation of public
opinion of other countries, interaction between private interest
groups from different countries, informing the public on
international affairs and their influence on domestic policy,
55
communication between those whose function is communication,

such as diplomats and foreign journalists , (and) the process of
intercultural communication”(2010).
During the Cold War, defining public diplomacy focused on
its concretization. At the same time, research has been focused on
discussing what is and what is not public diplomacy. From this
perspective, a few groups of specialists which set the development
of the academic and practical discourse of the contemporary
public diplomacy may be mentioned. The largest group consists
of “traditionalists” - public diplomacy specialists, journalists and
diplomats, many of whom began their careers in this field as early
as the Cold War period, when public diplomacy is characterized
by a high level of state-centrism. On one hand, the main way of
communication with the outside world was done through the
states - ideological enemies, and on the other hand the effective
interactions between the two sides, under the circumstances of the
Iron Curtain, were relatively small. In the context of impermeable
borders, the only actor able to carry out international
communication remained the state. As a result, several
generations of diplomats and journalists appeared, for which a
state public diplomacy is carried out by the government agents or
the private sector, but being employed by the state for these
purposes. Among them were the ones who organized cultural
exchanges and activities in various embassies; journalists that
were working in state newspapers, magazines, radio, oriented
56
R.Panta
towards the outdoor- audiences and also organizers of various

educational activities.
For a better understanding of the public diplomacy, it is
necessary to compare it with the traditional diplomacy. The 1998
Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language, defines the
term diplomacy as follows: "1. “Activities carried out by a State
through its diplomatic representatives in order to achieve the
intended foreign policy; cunning behavior clever, subtle; 2.
career, profession of diplomat, 3. all diplomacy representatives in
the body. – From French "diplomatie" .
In his valuable book Diplomacy, Harold Nicholson
observed that “diplomacy is an old profession” and diplomats of
value “were always trained people familiar with the area and the
related fields”(1988, p. 6). The complex nature of the profession
results from the mandate given to negotiators from ancient times
until today. Diplomats were entrusted with the mission to
negotiate: peace and alliance treaties, agreements on issues of
great importance for those countries; multilateral conventions in
which the interests of States should be better reflected.
Diplomacy is most often confused with “foreign policy”
or “external relations”, but the terms are not synonymous.
Diplomacy is the main but not the only instrument of foreign
policy (policy that is driven by political leaders, through the
diplomats, civilian officials or military). Foreign policy, on the
57
other hand, establishes goals, prescribe strategies and enforce

measures to be used for their achievement. It can use secret
agents, subversive actions, can declare war or impose their views
through other acts of violence, but at the same time can also use
diplomacy, the only non-violent way to achieve its goals(1988, p.
23). Its main tools are dialogue and international negotiation,
particularly led by ambassadors (term derived from the French
"envoye" - meaning “the one who is sent”) and other political
leaders with negotiation skills. In contrast to foreign policy, which
is generally expressed publicly, most of diplomacy is conducted
secretly, although most of time its results are made public in
contemporary international relations.
The foregoing allows us to conclude that the public
diplomacy differs from the traditional diplomacy by the fact that
public diplomacy deals not only with governments, but especially
with individuals and non-governmental organizations.
Furthermore, public diplomacy activities often present different
views, representing not only government’ positions but also those
of the citizens, engaging diverse and numerous non-governmental
elements of a society(2004, p. 32). These exchanges between
government and citizens of the foreign state can be conducted by
public or private sector actors, often from NGOs. It is important
to note that public diplomacy has an official purpose determined
by the government(2009, p. 33). As pointed out by Hans N.
Touch, traditional diplomacy is characterized by a level of privacy
58
R.Panta
and public diplomacy is a process open and accessible to all.

Public diplomacy consists in spreading a message, ideas or
information with the purpose of targeting the audience’s beliefs.
This definition, from an etymological perspective, establishes a
link between public diplomacy and propaganda. The line that
separates you two is very thin, some researchers believing that
public diplomacy is a refined form of propaganda.
Bruce Gregory, Director of “George Washington”
University Institute of Public Diplomacy, proposed three ways of
analyzing public diplomacy (2005). The first consists in
considering public diplomacy as an instrument of state acting in
three temporal cycles. The first cycle - the media and continuous
abundance of information is the shortest in duration. Diplomats
and government officials cannot constantly respond to this
request, but must do so. In other words, governments should
answer of the abundance of information as fast as civil society,
and from now on cannot control the communication exchanges
rhythm. The second cycle is the public diplomacy campaign that
can take months or years, as it addresses sensitive issues. During
these campaigns, diplomats must make important choices. First,
they must select the message or messages which they distribute,
so that then they decide how to convey them and how they adapt
them to different regions of the world, what symbols should be
used to convince the target audience, the catalyst: the
Ambassador, the Prime Minister or government agencies. There
are a few questions governments should ask themselves before
59
launching a public diplomacy campaign, in order to ensure

credibility.
60
Last cycle, is one in which public diplomacy is used as a

long term commitment. It is the sphere in which diplomacy is
building bridges between peoples of the world and their
institutions, for example such instruments as exchange programs
between universities and, involving the artists. Each of these
dimensions of public diplomacy is instrumental, serving different
interests of each state and, public diplomacy has its limits within
each of them (2011, p. 63).
A second way of conceptualizing public diplomacy in the
service of the state is to consider it a government instrument of
multiple components. Public diplomacy is distinguished from
other policy instruments, because each component is a
government department that uses the concept under another name,
such as: cultural diplomacy, international marketing, informing.
military operations, etc.
The third analysis method of public diplomacy is to
recognize the importance of the national sphere in foreign affairs.
Often, it is considered wrong that the Department of Foreign
Affairs is a separate entity from the foreign affairs, but the
separation between the two areas is purely mechanical and
impermeable. Both spheres influence each other and are
interdependent. Considering that the ideas of a society form the
"soft power" of a country, foreign affairs departments must
develop the potential of its society through universities, business
communities and NGOs. Ministry of Foreign Affairs must have
61
minister acting not only internationally but at the national level

also.
62
R.Panta
The link between public affairs and public diplomacy consists of

the dual role of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (to act
domestically and internationally). Thus, the public diplomacy
becomes a state instrument that can be used within its borders
also. Definitions of public diplomacy, presented above, are
generally accepted by academic circles, but it also remains a
contested term, because so far, there is no consensus regarding its
definition or goals pursued(2011, p. 61). Its equivocal feature can
be explained by the multidisciplinary nature of the term. This is
because public diplomacy is not an exclusively political concept;
it is the intersection of several areas: communication,
international marketing, and international relations. The absence
of the sentiment can be explained by the fact that only in recent
years; the term began to be (re)analyzed. “Rediscovering the
term” is closely related to the work of Joseph Nye, Bound to
Lead, published in 1990, in which the author develops the notion
of "soft power". Prior to introducing this concept, academic texts
were not referring to public diplomacy, but to another form –
“national prestige”(2009, p. 35). The author, concerned about the
decline of the American power following the disappearance of the
Soviet threat, has determined that the nature of state power is
transformed and that the U.S. should use the second facet of
power – “soft power”. This change of the nature of power comes
from the inability to calculate it only in terms of resources,
population, territory, natural resources, military strength, social
stability, economic level, but also the ability to change the
63
behavior of other states. Thus, Nye believes that during the Cold
War and especially after its conclusion, the power varies
depending on the purpose, relationships and context, the sources
of power being less fungible and more diffuse. Fourteen years
later, in his book Soft Power: The Means to Success in World
Politics, Nye estimated that this feature is due to the revolution in
information and communication sector.
Concept of “soft power”

But what does “soft power” mean? The concept can be
explained by its opposite - “hard power”. “Hard power” is the
pressure, inducement, military or economic threats imposed by a
state to get something, while “soft power” is materialized by the
fact that someone else wants to do what we want. Rallying
capacity is not equivalent to the concept of influence because it
can also prevent economic pressure or military “hard power”. The
last refers to a relationship of control, while the first leads to
cooperative behavior. A country has three sources of “soft
power”: the first comes from culture, values and internal policies,
or its foreign policy style and essence (2004, p. 12).
Culture, as the same author argues, can be divided into
two categories: popular culture and what Nye called “high
culture” - ballet, opera, painting. When this culture is admired and
includes universal values and interests, it constitutes a source of
“soft power”. Obviously, like any relationship of power, it also
64
R.Panta
depends on context, and external auditors must be receptive.

Culture can be transmitted by various agents, other than the
government ones, by those in the private sector, through trade,
visits and exchanges. Often considered a tool of public
diplomacy, cultural diplomacy is the domain of diplomacy aimed
at establishing, developing and sustaining relationships with other
countries through culture, arts, education and science. Being a
exterior projection of the cultural values of a state and the its
promotion to the level of bilateral and multilateral relations,
cultural diplomacy aims to support relations with other countries
through culture, education and science; open alternative ways of
communication to the public of the residence country, cultivate
and initiate (if needed) long-term cultural relations between states;
exercise influence in supporting foreign policy priorities; to use
the tools of cultural diplomacy to promote economic interests.
Cultural diplomacy is, on the one hand, the sign of maturity,
economic and political power of a state, but also a good barometer
of the intensity and sincerity of relations between states that
practice it. Researchers in the field of cultural diplomacy, such as
Kevin Mulcahy and Harvia Feigenbaum, emphasize the
difference between public and cultural diplomacy in that first is
oriented toward short-term information dissemination and to
promote policies; and the cultural - to establish long term
relationships. Public diplomacy as traditionally perceived includes
government support programs in the cultural, educational and
65
informational fields, citizen exchange and programs aimed at

informing and influencing the foreign audience (2010, p. 7).
The values that a government seeks to promote, as well as
internal policies, represent the second source of the rallying
ability.
A third source of the rallying capacity is the style and
essence of the foreign state policy. This source of "soft power" is
probably the part that the government can control. Public
diplomacy is derived from the strategic interests of each country's
foreign policy, but, although public diplomacy should be
conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the resources
allocated from its own budget, but it is not mandatory. Depending
on the interests of the party or parties in power, or the
organizational situation of a government at a certain time;
resources and the implementation of public diplomacy objectives
can be assigned to several governmental bodies other than the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, such as the Ministry of Defense,
Ministry of Tourism and Foreign Intelligence Service. In cases
where the resources come from or are used by the Ministry of
Defense or the Foreign Intelligence Service, we can suspect that
we are dealing with propaganda disguised action.
Nye insists that “soft power” has its own limits, because the
government does not entirely control its rallying sources, as is the
case of culture. The effects of this power can be diffused, and not
result in a concrete government action. For this reason we believe
66
R.Panta
that "hard power" instruments should no longer play their role in

world politics, since recently the term "smart power" - which
combines the two, is being more used.
Conclusions
The above-mentioned demonstrates the central role
exerted by civil society in the success of public diplomacy. For a
successful public diplomacy, the state must be attractive for its
own citizens, so that later it would be attractive for foreigners. For
a country to attain a certain level of national consensus on
international issues is essential for citizens to understand the
affairs of the state and the international community and to be
involved in their implementation through programs and activities
applied by the state.
Today, more than ever, young people travel and are in contact
with different people belonging to different regions, which makes
us believe that diplomats and governments are not the only to
transmit messages foreign populations. Diaspora and expatriates
are diffusers of the state’s national image; they become “citizen
diplomats”(2009, p. 58).
Bibliography:
67
[1] Bruce G., (2005), Not Your Grandparent’s Public Diplomacy,

Ottawa, Public Diplomacy Retreat Department of Foreign
Affairs,https://www.gwu.edu/~smpa/faculty/documents/PD
Retreat_000.pdf
[2] Cull N., (2010), Public Diplomacy before Guillon: The
Evolution of a Phrase, US Center of Public Diplomacy. -
http. uscpublicdiplomacy.org/pdfs/gullion.pdf.
[3] Devirieux, M., (2011), Étude et critique du concept de
Diplomatie Publique, in: Journal of Policy Studies, Winter.
[4] Guceac, I., Porcescu, Sergiu, (2010), Diplomaţia publică –
componentă indispensabilă a discursului extern în condiţiile
globalizării, în: Akademos, nr. 1(16).
[4] Nicolson, H., (1988), Diplomacy, Washington, Georgetown
University Press.
[5] Nye, J., (2004), Soft Power: The means to success in world
politics, New York, Public Affairs.
[6] Potter E., (2002), Canada and the New Public Diplomacy. -
http://www.clingendael.nl/publications/2002/20020700_cliy
aper_dip_issue81.pdf.
[7] Potter, E., (2009), Branding Canada: Projecting Canada’s
Soft Power through Public Diplomacy, Monreal, McGill-
Queen's University Press.
[8] Shaum R., (2004), Noua diplomaţie. Relaţii internaţionale
moderne, Bucureşti, Editura Antet.
68
R.Panta
69
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.2 pp.7-22
Learning Theories - A Psychological

Overview
D. Bălaş Timar
R. Moraru
Dana BĂLAŞ TIMAR

Roxana MORARU
Abstract: Learning theories are conceptual frameworks

that describe how information is absorbed, processed,
and retained during learning. Learning theories are those
that combine conceptual models at the assertion level
principles for systematic knowledge of the learning
activity through a series of scientific statements
functional value informative, explanatory, predictive,
summary, normative, in different variations of specific
authors or schools. The analysis illustrates the learning
theories of two complementary trends: connectionism
and functionalism.
Learning theories integrated to connectionist trends are
based on the idea that the learner is the only source of
accumulated experience to solve the problem. Learning
theories embedded in the functional trends pursue the
current structure of the problem. Both trends aimed,
ultimately stimulating learning activities complementary
line teaching. Thus, the preference for improvements in
70
the past does not mean ignoring the structures present

the problem as no preference for the present does not
mean ignoring the accumulation of the past.
Keywords: learning styles, learning behaviors,

sequencing, schema, double loop learning, social
learning, cognitive dissonance, drive reduction,
connectionism, repair theory, attribution theory, gestalt
theory.
Cognitive/Learning Styles
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way an individual
processes information. Unlike individual differences in abilities
(e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) which describe peak
performance, styles describe a person's typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually
considered to be bipolar dimensions whereas abilities are unipolar
(ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of an
ability is usually considered beneficial while having a particular
cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain
manner. Cognitive style is a usually described as a personality
dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social
interaction.
A number of cognitive styles have been identified and
studied over the years. Field independence versus field
dependence is probably the most well known style. It refers to a
tendency to approach the environment in an analytical, as opposed
to global, fashion. At a perceptual level, field independent
personalities are able to distinguish figures as discrete from their
backgrounds compared to field dependent individuals who
experience events in an undifferentiated way. In addition, field
dependent individuals have a greater social orientation relative to
field independent personalities. Studies have identified a number
connection between this cognitive style and learning (see
Messick, 1978). For example, field independent individuals are
likely to learn more effectively under conditions of intrinsic
71
D. Bălaş Timar R. Moraru
motivation (e.g., self-study) and are influenced less by social

reinforcement.
Other cognitive styles that have been identified include:
• scanning - differences in the extent and intensity of
attention resulting in variations in the vividness of
experience and the span of awareness
• leveling versus sharpening - individual variations in
remembering that pertain to the distinctiveness of
memories and the tendency to merge similar events
• reflection versus impulsivity - individual consistencies
in the speed and adequacy with which alternative
hypotheses are formed and responses made
• conceptual differentiation - differences in the
tendency to categorize perceived similarities among
stimuli in terms of separate concepts or dimensions
Learning styles specifically deal with characteristic styles
of learning. Kolb (1984) proposes a theory of experiential
learning that involves four principal stages: concrete experiences
(CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization
(AC), and active experimentation (AE). The CE/AC and AE/RO
dimensions are polar opposites as far as learning styles are
concerned and Kolb postulates four types of learners (divergers,
assimilators, convergers, and accommodators) depending upon
their position on these two dimensions. For example, an
accommodater prefers concrete experiences and active
experimentation (AE, CE).
Pask has described a learning style called serialist versus
holist. Serialists prefer to learn in a sequential fashion, whereas
holists prefer to learn in a hierarchical manner (i.e., top-down).
Theoretically, cognitive and learning styles could be used
to predict what kind of instructional strategies or methods would
be most effective for a given individual and learning task.
Taxonomies
Following the 1948 Convention of the American
Psychological Association, Benjamin Bloom took a lead in
formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational
process". Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who
developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior
72
important in learning. This became a taxonomy including three

overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
(see Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom & Krathwhol, 1956,
Gronlund, 1970).
Cognitive learning consisted of 6 levels: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
For each level, specific learning behaviors were defined as well as
appropriate descriptive verbs that could be used for writing
instructional objectives. For example:
1. Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list,
memorize, name, order, recognize, reproduce
state.
2. Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss,
explain, express, identify, indicate, locate,
recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,
3. Application: apply, choose, demonstrate,
dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate,
practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
4. Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize,
compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,
discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment,
question, test.
5. Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, formulate,
manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up,
write.
6. Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose
compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate,
core, select, support, value, evaluate.
The Affective domain (e.g., Krathwhol, Bloom & Masia,
1964) consisted of behaviors corresponding to: attitudes of
awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability
to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to
demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are
appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This
domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values,
such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and supporting.
Although not part of the original work by Bloom, others
went on to complete the definition of psychomotor taxonomies.
For example, Harrow (1972) proposed these six levels: Reflex
73
(objectives not usually written at this "low" level), Fundamental

movements - applicable mostly to young children (crawl, run,
jump, reach, change direction), Perceptual abilities (catch, write,
balance, distinguish, manipulate), Physical abilities (stop,
increase, move quickly, change, react), Skilled movements (play,
hit, swim, dive, use), and Non-discursive communication
(express, create, mime, design, interpret).
The significance of the work of Bloom and others on
taxonomies was that it was the first attempt to classify learning
behaviors and provide concrete measures for identifying different
levels of learning. The development of taxonomies is closed
related to the use of instructional objectives and the systematic
design of instructional programs (see Gagne, Merrill or Mager ).
Learning Strategies
Learning strategies refer to methods that students use to
learn. This ranges from techniques for improved memory to better
studying or test-taking strategies. For example, the method of loci
is a classic memory improvement technique; it involves making
associations between facts to be remembered and particular
locations. In order to remember something, you simply visualize
places and the associated facts.
Some learning strategies involve changes to the design of
instruction. For example, the use of questions before, during or
after instruction has been shown to increase the degree of learning
(Ausubel). Methods that attempt to increase the degree of learning
that occurs have been called "mathemagenic" (Ropthkopf, 1970).
A typical study skill program is SQ3R which suggests 5
steps: (1) survey the material to be learned, (2) develop questions
about the material, (3) read the material, (4) recall the key ideas,
and (5) review the material.
Research on metacognition may be relevant to the study
of learning strategies in so far as they are both concerned with
control processes. A number of learning theories emphasize the
importance of learning strategies including: double loop learning
(Argyris), conversation theory (Pask), and lateral thinking
(DeBono). Weinstein (1991) discusses learning strategies in the
context of social interaction, an important aspect of Situated
Learning Theory.
74
Sequencing of Instruction
One of the most important issues in the application of
learning theory is sequencing of instruction. The order and
organization of learning activities affects the way information is
processed and retained (Glynn & DiVesta, 1977; Lorch & Lorch,
1985; Van Patten, Chao, & Reigeluth, 1986)
A number of theories (e.g., Bruner, Reigeluth, Scandura)
suggest a simple-to-complex sequence. The algo-heuristic theory
of Landa prescribes a cumulative strategy. According to Gagne's
Conditions of Learning theory, sequence is dictated by pre-
requisite skills and the level of cognitive processing involved.
Criterion Referenced Instruction (Mager) allows the learner the
freedom to choose their own learning sequence based upon
mastery of pre-requisite lessons. Component Display Theory
(Merrill) also proposes that the learner select their own learning
sequence based upon the instructional components available.
Theories that emphasize the goal-directed nature of
behavior such as Tolman or Newell & Simon would specify that
the sequence of instruction be based upon the goals/subgoals to be
achieved. Gestalt theories, which emphasize understanding the
structure of a subject domain, would prescribe learning activities
that result in a broad rather than detailed knowledge for a
particular domain.
On the other hand, behavioral (S-R) theories of learning
such as Thorndike, Hull or Skinner, would tend to support a linear
sequence of instruction. From the behavioral perspective, learning
amounts to S-R pairings and mastery of a complex subject matter
or task involves the development of a chain or repetoire of such
connections. Indeed, a fundamental principle of Skinnerian
programmed learning was the "shaping" of such S-R chains.
Theories of adult learning such as andragogy (Knowles)
or minimalism (Carroll) emphasize the importance of adapting
instruction to the experience or interests of learners. According to
these theories, there is no optimal sequence of instruction apart
from the learner. A similar position based upon abilities would be
espoused by theories of individual differences (e.g., Guilford,
Cronbach & Snow, Sternberg) and supported by research on
cognitive styles.
75
Schema
Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited with first proposing the
concept of schema (plural: schemata). He arrived at the concept
from studies of memory he conducted in which subjects recalled
details of stories that were not actually there. He suggested that
memory takes the form of schema which provide a mental
framework for understanding and remembering information.
Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further
developed the schema concept. Schema have received significant
empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example,
the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved showing
people pictures and asking them questions about what the story
depicted; people would remember different details depending
upon the nature of the picture. Schema are also considered to be
important components of cultural differences in cognition (e.g.,
Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert
performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of
expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide
perception and problem-solving.
Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many
theories of cognition including: Schank (scripts), AC
(productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget, and Rumelhart &
Norman (modes) as well as some instructional theories such as
Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sweller .
Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris)

Argyris (1976) proposes double loop learning theory
which pertains to learning to change underlying values and
assumptions. The focus of the theory is on solving problems that
are complex and ill-structured and which change as problem-
solving advances.
Double loop theory is based upon a "theory of action"
perspective outlined by Argyris & Schon (1974). This perspective
examines reality from the point of view of human beings as
actors. Changes in values, behavior, leadership, and helping
others, are all part of, and informed by, the actors' theory of
action. An important aspect of the theory is the distinction
between an individual's espoused theory and their "theory-in-use"
(what they actually do); bringing these two into congruence is a
76
primary concern of double loop learning. Typically, interaction

with others is necessary to identify the conflict.
There are four basic steps in the action theory learning
process: (1) discovery of espoused and theory-in-use, (2)
invention of new meanings, (3) production of new actions, and (4)
generalization of results. Double loop learning involves applying
each of these steps to itself. In double loop learning, assumptions
underlying current views are questioned and hypotheses about
behavior tested publically. The end result of double loop learning
should be increased effectiveness in decision-making and better
acceptance of failures and mistakes.
In recent years, Argyris has focused on a methodology
for implementing action theory on a broad scale called "action
science" (see Argyris, Putnam & Smith, 1985) and the role of
learning at the organizational level (e.g., Argyris, 1993; Schon &
Argyris, 1996).
Double loop learning is a theory of personal change that
is oriented towards professional education, especially leadership
in organizations. It has been applied in the context of management
development.
Here are two examples from Argyris (1976, p16). A
teacher who believes that she has a class of "stupid" students will
communicate expectations such that the children behave stupidly.
She confirms her theory by asking them questions and eliciting
stupid answers or puts them in situations where they behave
stupidly. The theory-in-use is self-fulfilling. Similarly, a manager
who believes his subordinates are passive, dependent and require
authoritarian guidance rewards dependent and submissive
behavior. He tests his theory by posing challenges for employees
and eliciting dependent outcomes. In order to break this
congruency, the teacher or manager would need to engage in open
loop learning in which they delibrately disconfirm their theory-in-
use.
Principles:
1. Effective problem-solving about interpersonal or
technical issues requires frequent public testing of
theories-in-use.
77
2. Double loop learning requires learning situations in

which participants can examine and experiment
with their theories of action.
Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the

importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes,
and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states:
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention
hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves
as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains
human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The
component processes underlying observational learning are: (1)
Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective
valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer
characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set,
past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding,
cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3)
Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-
observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4)
Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.
Because it encompasses attention, memory and
motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and
behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the
strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller
& Dollard (1941). Bandura’s work is related to the theories of
Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of
social learning.
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the
understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological
disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification
(Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the
technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training
programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the
78
concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura,

1997).
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social
learning situations are television commercials. Commercials
suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair
shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of
attractive people. Depending upon the component processes
involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the
behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being
advertised.
Principles:
1. The highest level of observational learning is
achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it
overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels
or images results in better retention than simply
observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled
behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled
behavior if the model is similar to the observer and
has admired status and the behavior has functional
value.
Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)
According to cognitive dissonance theory, there is a

tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their
cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency
between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must
change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy
between attitudes and behavior, it is most likely that the attitude
will change to accommodate the behavior.
Two factors affect the strength of the dissonance: the
number of dissonant beliefs, and the importance attached to each
belief. There are three ways to eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce
the importance of the dissonant beliefs, (2) add more consonant
beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or (3) change the
dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
79
Dissonance occurs most often in situations where an

individual must choose between two incompatible beliefs or
actions. The greatest dissonance is created when the two
alternatives are equally attractive. Furthermore, attitude change is
more likely in the direction of less incentive since this results in
lower dissonance. In this respect, dissonance theory is
contradictory to most behavioral theories which would predict
greater attitude change with increased incentive (i.e.,
reinforcement).
Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving
attitude formation and change. It is especially relevant to
decision-making and problem-solving.
Consider someone who buys an expensive car but
discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives. Dissonance
exists between their beliefs that they have bought a good car and
that a good car should be comfortable. Dissonance could be
eliminated by deciding that it does not matter since the car is
mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the
dissonant belief) or focusing on the cars strengths such as safety,
appearance, handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs).
The dissonance could also be eliminated by getting rid of the car,
but this behavior is a lot harder to achieve than changing beliefs.
Principles:
1. Dissonance results when an individual must choose
between attitudes and behaviors that are
contradictory.
2. Dissonance can be eliminated by reducing the
importance of the conflicting beliefs, acquiring
new beliefs that change the balance, or removing
the conflicting attitude or behavior.
Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull)
Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the

stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response
(R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other words,
Hull was interested in studying intervening variables that affected
80
behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior

training (habit strength). Like other forms of behavior theory,
reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning.
However, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction
plays a much more important role in behavior than in other
frameworks (i.e., Thorndike, Skinner).
Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many
postulates stated in mathematical form; They include: (1)
organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under
conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases
with activities that are associated with primary or secondary
reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than
the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the
second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli
associated with the cessation of a response become conditioned
inhibitors, (5) the more the effective reaction potential exceeds the
reaction theshold, the shorter the latency of response. As these
postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that
accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability
(oscillation) in learning.
One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory was
the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can
respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific
response has a probability which can be changed by reward and is
affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some
respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of
cognitive theories such as schema and production systems .
Hull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning.
Most of the research underlying the theory was done with
animals, except for Hull et al. (1940) which focused on verbal
learning. Miller & Dollard (1941) represents an attempt to apply
the theory to a broader range of learning phenomena. As an
interesting aside, Hull began his career researching hypnosis – an
area that landed him in some controversy at Yale (Hull, 1933).
Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard
(1941): A six year old girl who is hungry and wants candy is told
that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase.
The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she
finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the
room and a new piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In
81
her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in
86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl
finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). The girl exhibited a
drive for the candy and looking under books represented her
responses to reduce this drive. When she eventually found the
correct book, this particular response was rewarded, forming a
habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit was
increased until it became a single stimulus-response connection in
this setting.
Principles:
1. Drive is essential in order for responses to occur
(i.e., the student must want to learn).
2. Stimuli and responses must be detected by the
organism in order for conditioning to occur ( i.e.,
the student must be attentive).
3. Response must be made in order for conditioning
to occur (i.e., the student must be active).
4. Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement
satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must satisfy the
learner's wants).
Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth)
According to elaboration theory, instruction should be

organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning.
For example, when teaching a procedural task, the simplest
version of the task is presented first; subsequent lessons present
additional versions until the full range of tasks are taught. In each
lesson, the learner should be reminded of all versions taught so far
(summary/synthesis). A key idea of elaboration theory is that the
learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which
subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated.
Elaboration theory proposes seven major strategy
components: (1) an elaborative sequence, (2) learning prerequisite
sequences, (3) summary, (4) synthesis, (5) analogies, (6) cognitive
strategies, and (7) learner control. The first component is the most
critical as far as elaboration theory is concerned. The elaborative
82
sequence is defined as a simple to complex sequence in which the

first lesson epitomizes (rather than summarize or abstract) the
ideas and skills that follow. Epitomizing should be done on the
basis of a single type of content (concepts, procedures,
principles), although two or more types may be elaborated
simultaneously, and should involve the learning of just a few
fundamental or representative ideas or skills at the application
level.
It is claimed that the elaboration approach results in the
formation of more stable cognitive structures and therefore better
retention and transfer, increased learner motivation through the
creation of meaningful learning contexts, and the provision of
information about the content that allows informed learner
control. Elaboration theory is an extension of the work of Ausubel
(advance organizers) and Bruner (spiral curriculum).
Elaboration theory applies to the design of instruction for
the cognitive domain. The theoretical framework has been applied
to a number of settings in higher education and training (English
& Reigeluth, 1996; Reigeluth, 1992). Hoffman (1997) considers
the relationship between elaboration theory and hypermedia.
Reigeluth (1983) provides the following summary of a
theoretical epitome for an introductory course in economics:
1. Organizing content (principles)- the law of supply and
demand
a) An increase in price causes an incease in the
quantity supplied and a decrease in the quantity
demanded.
b) A decrease in price causes a decrease in the
quantity supplied and an increase in the quantity
demanded.
2. Supporting content - concepts of price, supply,
demand, increase, decrease
Practically all principles of economics can be viewed as
elaborations of the law of suppy and demand including monopoly,
regulation, price fixing, planned economies.
Principles:
1. Instruction will be more effective if it follows an
elaboration strategy, i.e., the use of epitomes
83
containing motivators, analogies, summaries, and

syntheses.
2. There are four types of relationships important in
the design of instruction: conceptual, procedural,
theoretical and learning pre-requisites.
Connectionism (E. Thorndike)
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original

S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result
of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such
associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the
nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R
theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could
be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable
internal states.
Thorndike's theory consists of three primary laws: (1)
law of effect - responses to a situation which are followed by a
rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become
habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness - a series
of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which
will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise -
connections become strengthened with practice and weakened
when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was
that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding
state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends
upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new
learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general.
In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was
introduced; connections are more readily established if the person
perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt
principles). Another concept introduced was "polarity" which
specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in
which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike
also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., rewards affect not
84
only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent

connections as well.
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of
learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was especially
interested in the application of his theory to education including
mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike,
1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and
adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).
The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory was a cat
learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside
the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to
associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-
R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state
of affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise specifies that
the connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred
many times (the law of effect) and was rewarded (law of effect) as
well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).
Principles:
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of
effect /exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together
if they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
Repair Theory (K. VanLehn)
Repair theory is a attempt to explain how people learn

procedural skills with particular attention to how and why they
make mistakes (i.e., bugs). The theory suggests that when a
procedure cannot be performed, an impasse occurs and the
individual applies various strategies to overcome the impasse.
These strategies (meta-actions) are called repairs. Some repairs
result in correct outcomes whereas others generate incorrect
85
results and hence "buggy" procedures. Repair theory has been

implemented in the form of a computer model called Sierra.
Repair theory has been developed from extensive study
of children solving arithmetic problems (Brown & VanLehn,
1980). Even with simple subtraction problems, many types of
bugs were found, often occurring in combinations. Such
systematic errors are not to be confused with "slips" (cf. Norman,
1981) or random mistakes since they reoccur regularly in a
particular student's work. On the other hand, bugs are not totally
consistent:
"Students' bugs, unlike bugs in computer programs, are
unstable. Students shift back and forth among bugs, a
phenomenon called bug migration. The theory's explanation for
bug migration is that the student has a stable underlying
procedure but that the procedure is incomplete in such a way that
the student reaches impasses on some problems. Students can
apply any repair they can think of. Sometimes they choose one
repair and sometimes another. The different repairs manifest
themselves as different bugs. So bug migration comes from
varying the choice of repairs to a stable, underlying impasse."
(VanLehn, 1990) p 26.
Repair theory assumes that people primarily learn
procedural tasks by induction and that bugs occur because of
biases that are introduced in the examples provided or the
feedback received during practice (as opposed to mistakes in
memorizing formulas or instructions). Therefore, the implication
of repair theory is that problem sets should be chosen to eliminate
the bias likely to cause specific bugs. Another implication is that
bugs are often introduced when students try to extend procedures
beyond the initial examples provided.
Repair theory applies to any procedural knowledge.
However, to date the theory has only been fully developed in the
domain of children solving subtraction problems. However,
elements of repair theory show up in subsequent work of
VanLehn’s on intelligent tutoring systems and problem solving.
If a student learns subtraction with two digit numbers
and is then presented with the following problem: 365 - 109 =?,
they must generate a new rule for borrowing from the left column.
Unlike a two digit problem, the left adjacent and the left-most
column are different creating an impasse. To resolve the impasse,
86
the student needs to repair their current rule (Always-Borrow-

Left) by making it Always-Borrow-Left Adjacent. Alternatively,
the student could skip the borrowing entirely generating a
different bug called Borrow-No-Decrement-Except-Last.
Principles:
1. Bugs that cause errors in procedural tasks are
systematic and can be identified.
2. Once the bugs associated with a particular task are
known, they can be used to improve student
performance and the examples used to teach the
procedure.
Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals

interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and
behavior. Heider (1958) was the first to propose a psychological
theory of attribution, but Weiner and colleagues (e.g., Jones et al,
1972; Weiner, 1974, 1986) developed a theoretical framework
that has become a major research paradigm of social psychology.
Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why
people do what they do, i.e., attribute causes to behavior. A
person seeking to understand why another person did something
may attribute one or more causes to that behavior. A three-stage
process underlies an attribution: (1) the person must perceive or
observe the behavior, (2) then the person must believe that the
behavior was intentionally performed, and (3) then the person
must determine if they believe the other person was forced to
perform the behavior (in which case the cause is attributed to the
situation) or not (in which case the cause is attributed to the other
person).
Weiner focused his attribution theory on achievement
(Weiner, 1974). He identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and
luck as the most important factors affecting attributions for
achievement. Attributions are classified along three causal
dimensions: locus of control, stability, and controllability. The
locus of control dimension has two poles: internal versus external
locus of control. The stability dimension captures whether causes
87
change over time or not. For instance, ability can be classified as a

stable, internal cause, and effort classified as unstable and
internal. Controllability contrasts causes one can control, such as
skill/efficacy, from causes one cannot control, such as aptitude,
mood, others' actions, and luck.
Attribution theory is closely associated with the concept
of motivation. It also relates the work done on scripts and
inferencing done by Schank.
Weiner’s theory has been widely applied in education,
law, clinical psychology, and the mental health domain. There is a
strong relationship between self-concept and achievement.
Weiner (1980) states: "Causal attributions determine affective
reactions to success and failure. For example, one is not likely to
experience pride in success, or feelings of competence, when
receiving an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives only that grade, or
when defeating a tennis player who always loses...On the other
hand, an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives few high grades or a
victory over a highly rated tennis player following a great deal of
practice generates great positive affect." (p.362). Students with
higher ratings of self-esteem and with higher school achievement
tend to attribute success to internal, stable, uncontrollable factors
such as ability, while they contribute failure to either internal,
unstable, controllable factors such as effort, or external,
uncontrollable factors such as task difficulty. For example,
students who experience repeated failures in reading are likely to
see themselves as being less competent in reading. This self-
perception of reading ability reflects itself in children's
expectations of success on reading tasks and reasoning of success
or failure of reading. Similarly, students with learning disabilities
seem less likely than non-disabled peers to attribute failure to
effort, an unstable, controllable factor, and more likely to attribute
failure to ability, a stable, uncontrollable factor.
Lewis & Daltroy (1990) discuss applications of
attribution theory to health care. An interesting example of
attribution theory applied to career development is provided by
Daly (1996) who examined the attributions that employees held as
to why they failed to receive promotions.
Attribution theory has been used to explain the difference
in motivation between high and low achievers. According to
attribution theory, high achievers will approach rather than avoid
88
tasks related to succeeding because they believe success is due to

high ability and effort which they are confident of. Failure is
thought to be caused by bad luck or a poor exam, i.e. not their
fault. Thus, failure doesn't affect their self-esteem but success
builds pride and confidence. On the other hand, low achievers
avoid success-related chores because they tend to (a) doubt their
ability and/or (b) assume success is related to luck or to "who you
know" or to other factors beyond their control. Thus, even when
successful, it isn't as rewarding to the low achiever because he/she
doesn't feel responsible, i.e., it doesn't increase his/her pride and
confidence.
Principles:
1. Attribution is a three stage process: (1)
behavior is observed, (2) behavior is determined to
be deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to
internal or external causes.
2. Achievement can be attributed to (1) effort, (2)
ability, (3) level of task difficulty, or (4) luck.
3. Causal dimensions of behavior are (1) locus of
control, (2) stability, and (3) controllability.
Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was

one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory which
emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of
behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of
"grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or
interpret a visual field or problem in a certain way (Wertheimer,
1922). The primary factors that determine grouping were: (1)
proximity - elements tend to be grouped together according to
their nearness, (2) similarity - items similar in some respect tend
to be grouped together, (3) closure - items are grouped together if
they tend to complete some entity, and (4) simplicity - items will
be organized into simple figures according to symmetry,
regularity, and smoothness. These factors were called the laws of
organization and were explained in the context of perception and
problem-solving.
89
Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem-

solving. Werthiemer (1959) provides a Gestalt interpretation of
problem-solving episodes of famous scientists (e.g., Galileo,
Einstein) as well as children presented with mathematical
problems. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior
according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure
of the problem: "A certain region in the field becomes crucial, is
focused; but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural
view of the situation develops, involving changes in functional
meaning, the grouping, etc. of the items. Directed by what is
required by the structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is
led to a reasonable prediction, which like the other parts of the
structure, calls for verification, direct or indirect. Two directions
are involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what
the structure of the whole requires for the parts." (p 212).
Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning,
although it applies most directly to perception and problem-
solving. The work of Gibson was strongly influenced by Gestalt
theory.
The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by
Wertheimer is children finding the area of parallelograms. As
long as the parallelograms are regular figures, a standard
procedure can be applied (making lines perpendicular from the
corners of the base). However, if a parallelogram with a novel
shape or orientation is provided, the standard procedure will not
work and children are forced to solve the problem by
understanding the true structure of a parallelogram (i.e., the figure
can be bisected anywhere if the ends are joined).
Principles:
1. The learner should be encouraged to discover the
underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the
relationship among the elements).
2. Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an
important stimulus for learning
3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of
organization: proximity, closure, similarity and
simplicity.
Conclusions:
90
All inventory strategies above are active in learning

activity, involving information processing strategies. But they are
not specific to learning in general, so their installation and
training, in itself, does not automatically ensure effective learning.
Experimental practice decision-making strategies, memory or
understanding, in isolated tasks, detached from the overall context
of learning will not eventually led to expected performance.
Addressing the brain as a whole promotes concentration,
the acquisition of knowledge, and the whole, not just parts. There
is a more complex level, where body, mind and brain are
inseparable and are in interaction with each other, influencing
each other, as demonstrated in stress research.
The mind does not work like an automatic mechanism, it
is a versatile system. Mental self-organization relies on certain
points, stable structures that we form, but they are always adjusted
and filled with information and meaningful experiences to further
develop a mental model of this kind.
Teaching is oriented towards orchestration approaches
and the environment in which occurs the absorption of
educational experiences. Learning environment provides
challenges to pupils/students, teachers striving to eliminate fear
and inhibition learners. Challenges vary from individual to
individual, the personal meaning assigned to them, but keep the
mind alert. Consolidation and internalization of information is
achieved through active processing experience, thorough analyzes
and the study of different perspectives of a reality. In short, the
three principles underlying teaching brain nuanced approach as a
whole, are:
• putting students / pupils in complex learning
situations,
• stimulate active processing of experience,
• keeping the mind in a state of alert.
The brain as a whole approach is important for that
allows the development of more complex skills, such as
creativity. This requires the processing of whole and also the
processing of parts.
91
Bibliography:
Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A Taxonomy for
Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.
Argyris, C. & Schon, D. (1974). Theory in Practice. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, C. (1982). Reasoning, Learning and Action.
Individual and Organizational. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Argyris, C. (1993). On Organizational Learning.
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and
Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A Social Learning
Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York:
General Learning Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of
control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering: An Experimental
and Social Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bloom Benjamin S. and David R. Krathwohl, (1956).
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of
Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university
examiners. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York:
Longman, Green.
Brehm, J. & Cohen, A. (1962). Explorations in Cognitive
Dissonance. New York: Wiley.
Brown, J.S. & VanLehn, K. (1980). Repair theory: A
generative theory of bugs in procedural skills. Cognitive Science,
4, 379-426.
Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1999). The Complete Guide to the
Learning Strategies Inservice System. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ellis, W.D. (1938). A Source Book of Gestalt
Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
English, R.E. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). Formative
research on sequencing instruction with the elaboration theory.
Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(1), 23-42.
92
Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive

Consquences of Forced Compliance. Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 58, 203-210.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Glynn, S.M. & DiVesta, F.J. (1977). Outline and
hierarchical organization for study and retrieval. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 69(1), 69-95.
Gronlund, Norman E. (1970). Stating Behavioral
Objectives for Classroom Instruction. New York: Macmillan.
H.F. O'Neil & C. Spielberger (1979). Cognitive and
Affective Learning Strategies. New York: Academic Press.
H.F. O'Neil (1978). Learning strategies. New York:
Academic Press.
Harrow, A. (1972). A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor
Domain. A guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives. New
York: McKay.
Hull, C. (1933). Hypnosis and Suggestability: An
Experimental Approach. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Hull, C. et al. (1940). Mathematico-Deductive Theory of
Rote Learning. New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Krathwohl, David R., Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram
B. Masia. (1964). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective
Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
Lewis, F. M. and Daltroy, L. H. (1990). "How Causal
Explanations Influence Health Behavior: Attribution Theory." In
Glanz, K., Lewis, F.M. and Rimer, B.K. (eds.) Health Education
and Health Behavior: Theory , Research. and Practice. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, Inc
Lorch, R.F. Jr., & Lorch, E.P. (1985). Topic structure
representation and text recall. Journal of Educational Psychology,
77(2), 137-148.
Mandler, J. (1984). Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects
of Schema Theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Messick, S. (1976). Individuality in Learning. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
93
Miller, N. & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and

Imitation. New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press.
Norman, D.A. (1981). Categorization of action slips.
Psychological Review, 88, 1-15.
Quinn, N. & Holland, D. (1987). Cultural Models of
Language and Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Reigeluth, C. & Stein, F. (1983). The elaboration theory
of instruction. In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories
and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Reigeluth, C. (1992). Elaborating the elaboration theory.
Educational Technology Research & Development, 40(3), 80-86.
Rothkopf, E. (1970). The concept of mathemagenic
behavior. Review of Educational Research, 40, 325-336.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks
of cognition. In R.J. Spiro, B.Bruce, & W.F. Brewer (eds.),
Theoretical Issues in Reading and Comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Schmeck, R.R. (1986). Learning Styles and Learning
Strategies. NY: Plenum.
Sternberg, Robert (1997). Thinking Styles. Boston:
Cambridge University Press.
Thorndike, E. (1913). Educational Psychology: The
Psychology of Learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. (1932). The Fundamentals of Learning.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. at al. (1927). The Measurement of
Intelligence. New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. et al. (1928), Adult Learning. New York:
Macmillan
VanLehn, K. (1990). Mind Bugs. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement motivation and
attribution theory. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press.
Weiner, B. (1980). Human Motivation. NY: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation
and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Weinstein, C.S. (1991). The classroom as a social
context for learning. Annual Review of Psychology, (42), 493-
525.
94
Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive Thinking (Enlarged

Ed.). New York:Harper & Row.
Wickland, R. & Brehm, J. (1976). Perspectives on
Cognitive Dissonance. NY: Halsted Press.
Witkin, H.A. & Goodenough, D.R. (1981). Cognitive
Styles: Essence and Origins. NY: International Universities Press.
95
6840 Vol.V (2011), No.2 pp.7-22
Formation through Practice in the Field of

Social Assistance
A. Costin
Alina COSTIN
„Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad
Abstract: More than any other areas of activity, social

assistance is a practical area exercised in direct contact
with the beneficiary, i.e. with person in difficulty. It is true
that interventions in practice assistance involve a
knowledge of theories and principles which will be
applied in the field work. The professionalism in the area
of social affairs will be able to form having specialist
knowledge, respecting the values and rules typical to the
profession but, most of all, by learning to apply all these "
in the field".
Key words: practice, social assistance, professional

formation, skills.
Social assistance, considered to be a response to the
problematic groups of risk (Rădulescu, 2010, p. 53) means the
area of activity oriented toward supporting categories of persons
96
Formation through Practice in the Field of Social Assistance
or groups that fail to adapt successfully to social lives or who are

facing problems of integration. According to Smale, Tuson
(Statham, 2000, p. 86) "social assistance is not only a promoter of
resources in the situations of crisis, but is also involved in the
whole process of assisting and social developement of
persons/vulnerable groups to adapt to the changes required by the
social development.
From this perspective, social assistants "make efforts in
order to arrange and create new opportunities for people in a
world of more complex; The profession of social assistant
involves the responsibility of promoting optimal human
functionality and to shape a company receptive and correct"
(Krogsrudddd, 2006, p. 21). Child Protection represents an area of
maximum relevance for social security in the field, and students
which are formed as assistants have the opportunity to follow and
to observe the features of interventions addressed to children who
are in different situations of difficulty (abandonment, abuse,
defying carelessness about, traffic etc) and then to be involved in
carrying out of investigations, the application of any interviews or
participation with the specialists in the development of the
intervention plans.
Formation through practice: why?
97
A.Costin
More than any other areas of activity, social assistance is a

practical area exercised in direct contact with the beneficiary, i.e.
with person in difficulty. It is true that interventions in practice
assistance involve a knowledge of theories and principles which
will be applied in the field work. Intimacy with the system
customer, knowing the environment of life, its responses to the
aid are a few of the things that argues the need of formation
through practical work of the future social assistant. The
professionalism in the area of social affairs will be able to form
having specialist knowledge, respecting the values and rules
typical to the profession but, most of all, by learning to apply all
these " in the field".
How is the speciality practice organized?
The speciality practice is organized in accordance with the
law of Education no. 84/1995, Law no. 258/2007 and Regulation
on organization and conduct specialist practice in acdrul programs
of license. Practical vocational discipline is compulsory and has
allocated 90 hours designed to familiarise students with practice
in actual social environment. The speciality practice proposes to
form practical skills, abilities and skills to enable student to
activate successfully in the fields of social assistance.
Practice objectives:
1. Training and develop the capacity in the design,
organization, execution, evaluation and adjustment assistance
social activities in the field;
98
2. Component Development bridging - enter and bring

people together, with a view to suitability outline professional
particularities variability asistenţiale activity;
3. Stimulating creativity and learning through the type
formative psychological suitability of the intervention process
to customers' needs in order to maximize potential of
individual needs;
4. Adaptability to change; Acquisition of psychic
mechanisms to achieve mastery of self and behavioral balance
in all situations;
5. The motivation toward professional development should
continue.
Specific objectives:
1. Knowledge of the organizational structure of the services
of the social assistance granted to the level of our county.
2. Knowledge, understanding and proper use of basics
specific social assistance
3. Familiarizing yourself with the institution of social
assistance in carrying out practical vocational
4. Knowledge of the institution's mission of the social
assistance and the types of work carried out
5. Explanation and interpretation of social phenomena
identified in practical activity
6. Knowledge of distinctive institution and the social
problems affected
99
A.Costin
7. Exploiting the potential of optimal and creative activities

in their own practical activities
8. Identification and critical analysis of the instruments used
by assistants social intervention activitatae
The practice takes place in institutions of the social
assistance in Satu Mare county on the basis of contracts of
collaboration with General directions of the social assistance and
the protection of children, public services of the social assistance
or other public or private organizations which provides the
services of the social assistance.
Regardless of the location, students will see gradually the
following aspects:
With regard to the scope of activity of the institution of the
social assistance:
- Familiarising with the institution of social assistance (the
child protection);
- The presentation of coordination/subordination reports with
other institutions
− Information on the mission agency (purposes, objectives
and main areas of activity)
- The analysis of the connections between the purposes,
objectives, policies, strategies and practices in the services.
General data on the activities of the social assistance from

the institution of social assistance
100
- Categories of beneficiaries;
- Legislative framework in which the activity is carried out by
the asistential activity in the institution (acts of regulations,
the documents of the authorization, SMO);
- Aspects of professional ethics.
Work tools used by social assistants in the institutions of

social assistance of the children
- The presentation of the evaluation and intervention tools
used by social assistants to investigate cases;
- The presentation of tools can be made in the form of
exposure, demonstration or practical example;
-Observation of activities in which one of these tools are used.
The speciality practice offers students an opportunity to form
these types of skills:
• To know how to listen carefully and to understand the
message; To transmit heat human and empathy for; To
explain patiently using an adequate language
(communication skills); To correctly identify needs,
resources, risks and alternatives in a given case; To draw
up realistic plans (skills assessment and planning);
• To knows how to interview, to advise ( skills
intervention);
• To value the data and the findings obtained by
investigation in the field, describes the main roles of social
101
A.Costin
assistant identified in practice, (intermediary, educator,

lawyer, counselor, administrator (cognitive skills);
• To draw up materials, records, reports, oriented to the
person in difficulty to the services which can offer support
(administrative skills).
The actors involved in the practical training of the students are:
• The practice supervisor: Selects the institutions of
practice and places students on the units of time.
• Tutor: It is the specialist who works in institutions
designated as places of practice.
His role is to use active methods of training and
involvement of students in the process of social assistance, to
facilitate the integration and adaptation as a collective student and
to guide the student in the work of the drafting of documents
make with regard to: Punctuality student, the number of hours
carried out, the degree of increasing awareness of practical
knowledge. Therefore, students are organized by coordinating

professors and are trained with respect to the objectives set out for
the day to be hired by his mentor of practice, concerned by a
social worker assigned to familiarise themselves with the scope of
activity in center/service.
The responsability of students at the hours of practice: the
speciality practice is a discipline laid down in the plan of
education starting with the year II of the study, having allocated 3
102
hours per week. As I mentioned, students begin practice noting

and observing the comments which they make. These notices will
be contained in the Practice Notebook.
The skills which they should acquire are only possible through:
• Achievement of a direct contact with the
institutions/organizations of the social assistance and by
default with the beneficiaries of social services.
• Knowledge of the legal framework for the conduct of
social activity of the agency, as well as interior and the
regulations and standards of specific quality.
• Direct involvement in the process of guidance and
implementation of the social policy.
The field work made by the student during the specialized
practice involves the confrontation with the social problems
facing the future with which social assistant: poverty,
disintegrated families, abandoned children, the increase in the
number of prisoners, the alarming increase of the use of drugs, the
decrease of the security of the citizen, the increase in violence,
people traffic, economic/sexual exploitation, the increase of the
phoenomenon of street children, people without shelter, the
increase of the incidence of diseases: CGT, HIV/AIDS.
The categories of persons, beneficiaries of social services
with which students will encounter at the hours of practice are
very poor families, people without shelter, young transgressors,
women/children who were harmed, people with lack of
103
A.Costin
discernment, the unemployed, prisoners, etc (sometimes in a state

of moral degradation or with a low level of education). Here are
some of the social assistant's atributes which students must
capture during the hours of practice:
• To avoid emergency situations by removing from the
crisis;
• Mobilizing resources and energies for exceeding
customer's moment of dificulate (in situations of poverty);
• Identification of families with risk accented and start
prevention (advice, material support - referring to local
public services) (disintegrated families/abandoned
children);
• psycho-social support and legal advice of the victim;
• Assisting therapeutic groups of support or mutual support;
• Assist materialy, psycho-socialy and spiritualy the persons
who have committed criminal offenses and families
Generally, performance in any field of activity involves a
chain of factors: experience, perseverance, determination. To
become a good social assistant means it is compulsory to develop
inner qualities such as:
• Self-confidence: is able to demonstrate effective firm
conviction by presenting orally or in writing, in any
situation, environment;
104
• Worthy of confidence: It is capable to demonstrate self-

discipline in the fulfilment of the commitments and in
effective use of time;
• Flexibility: possesses the ability to respond and to adapt
to changing situations foreseen or unforeseen.
• Team Collaboration: Works well with colleagues and
contribute to the effectiveness group;
• Communication: demonstrates the ability to listen,
assimilate and transmits the information; possesses clarity
in thought and ability to express their points of view;
Self-awareness: Understands how his own behavior effects
on other people, so that it is able to act effectively in all
situations;
Integrity: Operates open and honest, while maintaining
confidentiality.
Initiative: May give evidence of ability to innovate and be
creative and to put in practice such a flair;
Involvement: Demonstrates mobility, energy and
determination/ firmness in addressing work;
Determination.
Also through practical work, the student or the future
social assistant may be able to discover qualities which are
necessary for different environments of activity; This may better
orient him to the area in which may be performance.
Thus, field work requires:
105
A.Costin
• Active, dynamic, practical people;

• Interact easily;
• Firm capacity to control the situation;
• Good, objective observer;
• Equipped with free will, powerful, energetic;
• Does not discourage easily.
Desk job:
• Organized, meticulous, intense people;
• High resistance to stress and routine;
• Good administrator, balanced, patiently, quietly, calmly
The most important role in the formation of skills of a social
worker isn’t possessed by rhe tutor, nor the supervisor, but by the
student who is expected to be involved, to want to learn, and to
insist!
Bibliography:
[1] Cojocaru, S., (2005), Metode apreciative în asistenţa socială.

Ancheta, supervizarea şi managementul de caz, Editura
Polirom, Iaşi
[2] Cojocaru, S., (2006), Proiectul de intervenţie în asistenţa
socială. De la propunerea de finanţare la proiectele
individualizate de intervenţie, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
106
[3] Goian, C., (2005), Practici în asistenţa socială, Editura

Universităţii De Vest, Timişoara
[4] Krogsrud, M.,(2006), Practica asistenţei sociale, Editura
Polirom, Iaşi
[5] Muntean, A., Sagebiel, J., (2007), Practici în asistenţa
socială, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
[6] Neamţu, G., Stan, D., (coord.), (2008), Asistenţa socială.
Studii şi aplicaţii, Editura Polirom, Iaşi
[7] Sandu, A., (2002), Asistenţă şi intervenţie socială, Editura
Lumen, Bucureşti[7] ***, (2006), Manual de bune practici
în asistenţa socială comunitară (Material elaborat de către
World Vision România - Biroul Iaşi în cadrul proiectului “
Formarea lucrătorilor sociali din mediul rural
107
View publication stats

Agora 2012 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agora 2012 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Learning Theories - A Psychological Overview

Article · March 2012

Keeping Youth Safe from Cyberbullying View project

Keeping Youth Safe from Cyberbullying View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Associate Editor- in -Chief

Associate executive Editor

A Sociological Approach of Communication in Groups

Pragmatic Relativism and Its Implications........................

Parents Self Informing Actions on

Public Diplomacy - Foreign Policy Instrument...............

Learning Theories - A Psychological Overview ................

Formation through Practice in the Field of

A Sociological Approach of Communication

Abstract: This paper is trying to structure the points of view

Key words: relationship, group influence, group

Two perspectives on the dynamics of social groups

relating to the structure of the relations of communication, the types of

• Communication and decision, - in which individuals come to a stage of

Fig. 1. Chart: Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing

• Storming, - is characterized by organization, program and rules, by the

Fig. 2. The succession of the evolution stages of the group

Creating communication networks

In close connection with aspects discussed above, the process of

Organizational communication and culture

The author’s conclusion is that, more important than this enumeration is

Fig. 3. The “power” type of organizational culture

Fig. 4. Cultura organizaţională de „tip rol”.

This type of organizational culture is teaming up with the following more

Fig. 5. The “task” type of organizational culture

The main characteristic of this type of organizational culture consists on

Fig. 6. The “person” type of organizational culture

It should be noted that this form of organizational culture is encountered

Unlike the formal communication, informal communication is carried out

employees or in counteracting harmful rumors to the activity of the

Finally, a problem that must be mentioned refers to the organizational

[4] Bavelas, Al., (1950), Communications patterns in task oriented groups, in

7] Vlăsceanu, M., (2003), Organizaţii şi comportament organizaţional, Iaşi,

Pragmatic relativism and its Implications

Abstract: The paper approaches what, in the most recent

Key words: relativism, rationality, truth, pragmatism,

scheme that incorporates the diverse cultural forms

relativism.’ (1998, p.17) which offers a novel understanding of

functioning? Finally, is it still possible to treat the ideal of

Social practice and truth

By this remark, Rorty is pointing to the fact that the ultimate

our attention not towards the correspondence of our cognitive

contends that we should not stir philosophical debates around

Objectivity and human solidarity

Rorty develops a series of themes discussed so far in a

distilled through a pragmatist critique is understood by the author

of the dialogical horizon of interpretation, and of the maximum

which stands the need to do with the illusion of the certainty of

for the interpretation of one and the same organising concept of

Leaving aside these too conservative types of critique

which are multiple, and depend on assumptions; there is no

[10] Neculau, R., (2001), Filozofii terapeutice ale modernitãţii

PARENTS SELF INFORMING ACTIONS

Abstract: This article shows ways in which the parents

Key words: parents, leisure time, information, source of

Behavior scientists exclude as a point of interest in studying a

2. Objectives and hypotheses