Abstract

Headlights of vehicles pose a great danger during night driving. The drivers of most vehicles use
high, bright beam while driving at night. This causes a discomfort to the person travelling from
the opposite direction. He experiences a sudden glare for a short period of time. This is caused
due to the high intense headlight beam from the other vehicle coming towards him from the
opposite direction. We are expected to minimize the headlight by increasing street light intensity
to avoid this glare. This glare causes a temporary blindness to a person resulting in road
accidents during the night. To avoid such incidents, we would like to do project on automatic
vehicle headlight dimmer. This automatically switches the high beam into low beam thus
reducing the glare effect by sensing the approaching vehicle.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Back ground to introduction
The fatal crash rate for night time driving is three to four times that of daytime, even though the
traffic volume is substantially less. In order to be warned early about hazards, drivers need to
look far ahead to see traffic signs, road geometry, other vehicles, pedestrians, etc. However, this
task is difficult at night because vision is severely limited: drivers lose the advantage of color and
contrast that is available during the day, and depth perception and peripheral vision are also
diminished. Accordingly, the headlight system of a vehicle has the aim of providing a safe
illumination for driving. this has a control room in which all the lights of certain area are
controlled using microcontroller in which program is dumped. On roads street poles and IR
sensors are placed. For every street pole a couple of IR sensors are related. Advantage related to
IR sensors is they can be operated both in day and night. As said regular HID lights are replaced
with LED’s because it offers more advantages like saving power due to high current luminous
efficiency. This type of system can also be termed as other generation lighting system and can be
implemented all around the world and even at remote places.
So when the bright light from the headlight of a vehicle coming from the opposite direction falls
on a person, it glares him for a certain amount of time. This causes disorientation to that driver.
This discomfort will result in involuntary closing of the driver’s eyes momentarily. This fraction
of distraction is the prime cause of many road accidents.
In order to address this problem, we must start by selecting the proper sensor technology. Notice
that, to avoid dazzling other drivers, oncoming vehicles must be detected up to at least 600 m
ahead and preceding ones up to at least 400 m. Such challenging distances rule out active sensors
as radar.
Fortunately, vehicle detection at night time can be based on vision sensors, which have the
additional advantage of being passive and cheaper. In fact, we can already find monocular
camera based system in the market that, according to the presence or not of other vehicles, is
able to switch between low and high beams automatically. However, in order to detect vehicles
this system relies on a highly specialized vision sensor which makes it difficult to use it for other
driving assistance tasks requiring lane markings detection, traffic sign recognition, etc.
The system is designed to detect vehicle movements on road and to increase the intensity of
lights ahead of it and reduce to the threshold value of the trailing lights to save energy present
street lights uses high pressure discharge lamps, sodium lamps or mercury vapor lamps, these are
replaced with led’s which are highly efficient than regular ones which uses less power and gives
high illumination. This system is automated using ARM7 microcontroller. IR sensors are used
for vehicle or pedestrian detection, additionally rain drop sensor is also used in this system for if
any climatic changes.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Drivers face a huge problem due to high beam light which falls directly onto their eyes when
driving at night or during foggy conditions. There is medical effect associated with these
phenomena. This effect includes temporary blindness, glare, fading effect of image and
sometimes causing accident leading to loss of many lives. This effect contributes to a
terminology known as Troxler Effect. Trifler effect is used to describe a kind of temporary
blindness. It is otherwise known as the ‘fading effect. Therefore, the proposed project will
alleviate this problem by increasing street light intensity when vehicle is coming.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of this project is to design and simulate microcontroller based street light
intensity controller based on vehicle movement

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this project are
 To minimize car accident due to glare effect
 Reduction in night accidents, attendant human misery, and economic loss;
 To design and simulate automatic street light intensity controller using proteus software
1.4 Methodology
The street light control system adopts a dynamic control methodology.
 Collecting of reference books and project papers relevant to our project
 Drawing a circuit diagram by using proteus software
 Writing a simulation program in mikroC pro software
 Running the project simulation using proteus software
 microcontroller programming device will be used to upload the software into the
microcontroller IC
In order to achieve the main aim of the project there are various procedure tasks followed by the
author. The first method toward of the processing the work is started with the reviewing different
literatures where all the theoretical information regarding to automatic street light intensity
controller based on vehicle movement to minimize car accident at night and compare the
proposed system with the existing system in our country. This followed by understanding the
working principle of automatic street light intensity controller based on vehicle movement and
testing the proposed system using proteus software. Finally, we will analyses the simulation
result.

1.5 Scope of the project

In this project we will develop a simulation program for street light intensity controller based on
vehicle movement in order to minimize car accident, minimize the power consumption. detection
along the road in order to minimize the power consumption using infra-red sensor, LDR sensor,
rain drop sensor.
1.6 Project outlines
This project is organized in six chapters. The first chapter “introduction” presents the
introduction on the project, the problem statement, objectives, methodology and project outline.
The second chapter “background” deals with Details of relevant theory, Review of past/reported
work and Brief introduction of the proposed work/solution. The third chapter “street lighting
system” gives highlight information about street, the different types of streets light used in the
history and nowadays, brief introduction on led street lighting system comparison between led
and conventional street light and giving a brief information on its operating principle.
The fourth chapter “program development and software simulation” describes the software that
is used to write the program that will be loaded into microcontroller; it also gives highlight
information on the program software used to design the circuit diagram for the project
simulation.
The fifth chapter “result and discussion” discusses the result of the project software simulation
and implementation and the problems encountered during the project work. The six chapter
“conclusion and recommendation for future work” gives a conclusion for the project outcome
and recommendation as well as scope for future work.

1.7 Principal operation of the system

Block diagram of proposed

 Chapter two
Background
2.1 Detailed relevant of theory

In recent years, environmental issues have gained widespread international attention, resulting in
the development of automatic street light intensity controller based on vehicle movement
technologies aimed at reducing car accidents. One aspect of this evolving situation is an
increasing demand for a reduction in the amount glare used for illumination. In particular, energy
conservation for large scale illumination tasks such as street lighting is gaining considerable
importance. Therefore, minimizing car accident are of utmost importance today. The goal is
therefore, the reduction of car accidents in the road and operating prices of street lighting with
the creation of a system characterized by straight forward installation and low power
consumption. Most outdoor illumination sources, such as street lights, use High intensity
discharge (HID) Lamps as light sources. Global concerns have been raised regarding the amount
of power consumed by HID lamps and by extension, the amount of atmospheric co 2 released due
to such power consumption. Because of this, White Light Emitting Diode LED array
illumination has received attention recently as an energy reducing light source. LED road
illumination requires about one third to one half of the electric power needed for HID lighting.

2.2. Review of past or reported related works

In the past, Street lights control system based on vehicle movement detection were presented.
These systems included a time cut-out function and an automatic control pattern for electricity
conservation. These designs can save from a great amount of danger compared to street lamps
that keep alight during nights.

Hengyu Wu, Minli Tang, IEEE, 2010, [1] “Design of Multi-Functional Street Light intensity
Control System Based on AT89S52 Single-chip Microcomputer” propose about the core
technology of the street light control system is an AT89S52 Single-chip microcomputer. It
integrates a power circuit, a photosensitive detection circuit, an infrared detect circuit, a street
light control circuit and so on. This system can automatically turn on or off the lights and
controls the switches according to traffic flow. Main weakness is that they didn’t say about the
working principle behind the system.

This paper is and theoretic proof and shows only simulation result but not as a real time set up
experiments. The focus of this paper to build a way for the framework which may leads to many
follow up research activities in the Low-rate and also plan to investigate the applicability of this
proposal to detect performance.

Gong Siliang, 2010, [2] “A New Streetlight Monitoring System Based on Wireless Sensor
Networks” describes a remote streetlight monitoring system based on wireless sensor network.
The system can be set to run in automatic mode, which control streetlight according to Sunrise
and Sunset Algorithm and light intensity. This control can make a reasonable adjustment
according to the latitude, longitude and seasonal variation. Also this system can run in controlled
mode. In this mode, we can take the initiative to control streetlights through PC monitor
terminal. In addition, the system integrates a digital temperature-humidity sensor, not only
monitoring the streetlight Real-time but also temperature and humidity. The system is equipped
with the high-power relay output and can be widely applied in all places which need timely
control such as streets, stations, mining, schools, and electricity sectors and so on. Prototypes
have been built using costly hardware.

Gustavo W. Denardin, (ICCCE 2012), 12 & 13 April, 2012, [3] “Automatic Street Light
Intensity Control and Road Safety Module Using Embedded System” deals about a control
network for a LED street lighting system. The use of LEDs is being considered promising
solution to modern street lighting systems, due to their longer lifetime, higher luminous
efficiency. The proposed control network enables disconnection of the street lighting system
from the mains during peak load time, reducing its impact in the distributed power system
automatically consumption, decrease the management cost and monitor the status information of
each street lighting unit. In order to meet the system requirements, a wireless sensor network
based on IEEE 802.15.4TM standard is employed. The obtained experimental results show that
the proposed control network is able to meet the requirements of a LED street lighting system. It
mainly deals about safer roadways with intelligent light system to reduce power consumption.
Somchai Hiranvarodom, March. 2013, [4] “Intelligent Street Lighting System Using Gsm”
describes a comparative analysis of photovoltaic (PV) street lighting system in three different
lamps. Namely, a low pressure sodium lamp, a high pressure sodium lamp and a fluorescent
lamp have been used for installation in each mast to determine the suitable system to install in a
typical rural area of Thailand. All three systems have been mounted with the same module type
and wattage in different places within the Rajamangala Institute of Technology, Thanyaburi
district, and Pathumthani province of Thailand. Nevertheless, the aim of this work is to
determine the appropriate system to install in a typical rural area or a typical rural village of
Thailand when the cost of lamps and system performance and possibility for purchasing the
components of the system are compared while considering in other areas it is difficult.

Brief introduction of the proposed work/solution

Automation street lighting systems are being developed day to day in automation sector yet this
automatic system is combined with power saving concept. The system is designed to detect
vehicle movements on road and to increase the intensity of lights ahead of it and to dim the
trailing lights to save energy present street lights uses high pressure discharge lamps, sodium
lamps or mercury vapor lamps, these are replaced with led’s which are highly efficient than
regular ones which uses less power and gives high illumination. This system is automated using
ARM7 microcontroller. IR sensors are used for vehicle or pedestrian detection, additionally
raindrop sensor is also used in this system for if any climatic changes [2]. Present street lights are
manually controlled around the world, even though technology developing a lot still all remain
using old way this should be changed in a good way using automated street lighting system On
roads street poles and IR sensors are placed. For every street pole a couple of IR sensors are
related. Advantage related to IR sensors is they can be operated both in day and night [3]. As
said regular HID lights are replaced with LED’s because it offers more advantages like saving
power due to high current luminous efficiency. This type of system can also be termed as other
generation lighting system and can be implemented all around the world and even at remote
places.
CHAPTER THREE

STREET LIGHTING SYSTEM

The purpose of this chapter is: Raise awareness of the importance of street lighting intensity in
the creation of safe, quality places.
The key recommendations of this chapter are:
 Lighting must be planned as an integral part of the initial layout.
 Adequate lighting should be provided in all parts of the layout to enhance safety and
security for pedestrians, cyclists and drivers.
 Lighting should be wall mounted or suspended from cross wiring wherever possible to
reduce street clutter.
 The height of lighting columns should relate to context.
 White lighting is more appropriate in residential areas.

3.1 Introduction to street lights

Street lighting is a key public service provided by public authorities at the local and municipal
level. Good lighting is essential for road safety, personal safety and urban ambience. Increasing
Street lighting intensity ensures visibility when vehicle is coming in the dark for motorists,
cyclists and pedestrians, thereby reducing road accidents. Street lighting also indirectly facilitates
crime prevention by increasing the sense of personal safety, as well as the security of adjacent
public and private properties. Street lighting effects can also boost the appeal of cities, towns and
communities as commercial and cultural centers by high lighting attractive local land marks or
accentuating the atmosphere during important public events. Street lighting is as common place
as roads themselves. Street lighting is used extensively in urban settings, along small town
downtown main streets, in residential neighborhoods, in commercial districts, in industrial parks,
at interstate highway interchanges, and rural intersections. While most people take street lighting
for granted, good street lighting contributes to the safe movement of vehicles and pedestrians, the
aesthetics of an area, and the ability of commerce to extend into the evening and nighttime hours.
According to the American National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting, street lighting
provides four main functions:
 Reduction in night accidents, attendant human misery, and economic loss;
 Aid to police protection and enhanced sense of personal security;
 Facilitation of traffic flow;
 Promotion of business and the use of public facilities during the night hours.
Different areas of a community have different requirements for street lighting. Along a
downtown main street with businesses operating in the evening, top safety concerns may include
sidewalks, street-side parking, intersections, and crosswalks. The area will need to be lighted to
provide safety for the pedestrians, vehicles traveling down the street, and vehicles entering and
exiting parking spaces. If the community wants to create an inviting atmosphere, the aesthetics of
the lighting come into play. The area may need to be lit to a higher level than necessary for
safety, and specialty decorative luminaires may be used. Along major roadways through the
community, safety for vehicles and pedestrians may be the main concern. On local roads in
residential areas, with limited traffic and pedestrian usage at night, lower light levels may be
sufficient for safety and a sense of security.
Street Lighting Components
Studies done on Street Lighting consider that the most predominantly used lamps in street
lighting is high-intensity discharge lamps (HID), examples of which include:
 High-pressure sodium lamps
 Metal halide lamps with quartz arc tube
 Metal halide lamps with ceramic arc tube
 Low-pressure sodium lamps
 High-pressure mercury lamps
Of these the mercury and sodium variants are the most commonly used in street lighting,
although mercury lamps are generally less efficient in their energy use than sodium, or even
metal halide “Fixed lighting installation intended to provide good visibility to users of outdoor
public traffic areas during the hours of darkness to support traffic safety, traffic flow and public
security”. In addition to HID lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) do find some use for
street lighting. However as stated above, HID lamps are considered to be the most predominately
used lamp types in street lighting applications and CFLs are not used to the same levels as HID.
CFLs are more commonly used in domestic and office lighting applications. LEDs are another
type of lamp that may be suitable for use in street lighting. LEDs are developing rapidly and
improving in efficacy and color while reducing in cost. Currently LEDs have lower luminous
efficacy than HID lamps, but the directional nature of LEDs means that LED luminaires are
generally more efficient and can in principle direct the light very precisely to where it is
required. Retrofit LED street lighting solutions replacing HID lamps already exist on the market.
Even if this does not cover all street lighting applications, it is often considered a valuable and
cheaper alternative to replacing the full lighting system. A typical luminaire includes an array of
LEDs so if one LED fails the area still remains lit. LEDs can also be dimmed readily. Although
the use of LEDs is increasing, there is a limited requirement for replacement lamps, partly
because there are fewer LED systems but also because of the longer lifetime of LEDs. In
addition to the product based approach identified above, the wider installation aspects of street
lighting are important in terms of key environmental aspects, such as energy consumption by the
whole lighting system. Based on street lighting market research and system modeling for new
street lighting systems were developed taking into account reference values for energy efficiency
introduced by other methodologies, for example the Dutch street lighting energy efficiency
criterion (SLEEC) developed on a whole system approach.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Street Lighting

(LED) Street Lighting.

LED street lighting is a technology that continues to evolve and develop and the way we light
roadways today could be very different than a decade from now. However, for those
communities who invest now, there are many tools available to assure they select the appropriate
fixture for their applications. These communities then have the ability to take the savings and
invest in other services, such as police and fire. Historically LED roadway lighting has been
more expensive than other standard options, like High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lighting, leading
to uncertainty about whether the energy and maintenance savings from an LED retrofit will be
worth the effort. In different cities many municipal utilities replaced their existing streetlights
with Light Emitting Diode (LED) streetlights between 2010 and 2012. These communities
turned their attention to energy efficiency in street lighting in part because street lighting energy
consumption has been a significant part of a city’s energy use. A street lighting project remains
one of the most visible energy efficiency projects a small community can undertake, and,
because streetlight expenses are borne by the whole community, efficiency improvements
similarly benefit the entire community.
 LED lighting is one type of solid state lighting (SSL), that produces visible light through
electroluminescence, rather than by heating up a metal filament (incandescent lighting),
exciting a gas (fluorescent lighting), or creating an arc that produces a plasma (high
intensity discharge lighting such as high pressure sodium or metal halide).
 Funded by the American Public Power Association DEED program and the State of
Iowa
Community Grants program
 “Luminaire” – a complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the
parts designed to distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps and to connect the
lamps to the power supply. Sometimes includes ballasts and photocells.

Advantages of LED Street Lighting

How LED lighting is different from other street lighting technologies such as high pressure
sodium, metal halide or mercury vapor lamps. Since High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps are
high-intensity near-point sources, the optical design for these luminaires can cause the area
directly below the luminaire to have a much higher illuminance than areas farther away from the
luminaire (hot spots). In contrast, the smaller, multiple point-source and directional
characteristics of LEDs can allow better control of the distribution with a resulting improvement
in uniformity.

LED street lighting will improve the lighting quality

Any street lighting project should seek to maintain or enhance the ability of the lighting to
perform the four functions given above. A primary consideration should be how the street
lighting system illuminates the target area. LED street lighting offers several advantages over
traditional technology that may improve overall lighting quality:

Uniformity

LED luminaires consist of arrays of many LED chips, with each chip producing a point source of
light. These many small sources of light allow the optics of an LED luminaire to distribute the
light more effectively than luminaires using HID lamps bulbs. This can result in the illumination
levels being more uniform—there is less difference between the minimum and maximum light
illumination levels.

Correlated Color Temperature

The color of the light produced by a light source is quantified as the correlated color temperature
(CCT). HPS lamps produce light with a CCT of around 2,000 Kelvin, while the most efficient
LED luminaires produce light with a CCT of 4,000 K or higher. HPS light is yellow orange,
while LED light is bright white to bluish-white. Growing evidence is showing that the higher
blue light content of LEDs contributes to visibility at the light levels associated with street
lighting.

Color Rendering Index

The ability of a light source to show the color of objects is called the color rendering index
(CRI). HPS lamps have a very poor CRI of around 22. Under lights with poor CRI, there is little
contrast between colors, and visual performance is decreased. Research has found that visual
performance improves under LED lighting compared to HPS lighting.

LED street lighting will save energy

One of the most touted benefits of LED street lighting is their lower energy use compared to
standard street lighting technologies such as HPS. In most applications, LED street lights do save
energy. As documented in the Iowa community case studies, LED street lighting has reduced
energy consumption of the retrofitted luminaires between 29% and 63%.

The energy savings for a specific project depend on many factors, including existing lighting
technology, new lighting technology, control strategies, and whether or not the illumination level
is changed during the retrofit. The efficiency of a light source in producing light is measured as
light output (lumens) per power input (watts), and is referred to as luminous efficacy (lumens per
watt). Traditionally HPS lamps have been used because of their high efficacy. However, the
efficacy of an HPS luminaire depends not only on the efficacy of the HPS lamp but also on how
well the optics get the light out of the luminaire and deliver to the area to be illuminated. Over
the past several years’ great progress has been made in improving the efficacy of LED street
light luminaires, such that they are now comparable to HPS luminaires. LED luminaires are also
better at directing the light where it is needed, and thus they waste less of the light output of the
luminaire. HPS and metal halide lamps are high intensity near point sources of light. The optics
of near point source light often causes the area directly below the luminaire to be over lit, while
areas farther away from the luminaire are under lit. The over lit area under the luminaire can
represent wasted light and wasted energy. In contrast, the many small LED light sources in an
LED luminaire allow the luminaire optics to direct the light to where it is needed. This results in
a much more even illumination, without the bright spot beneath the luminaire. A well designed
LED street lighting layout should be able to have a more uniform distribution of light with lower
maximum illuminance values and lower energy consumption than traditional street lighting
technology. Computer modeling using photometric files or installing several test luminaires is
very helpful in determining if LED luminaires will provide adequate visual acceptability.

LED street lights last longer than HID lighting

A well designed LED street luminaire should have a longer useful life than a HPS or metal
halide lamp. As with HID luminaires, an LED luminaire is made up of many components, and
the failure of any individual component could be the end of the LED luminaire’s life. LED chips
don’t typically fail by “burning out” as traditional HPS or metal halide lamps do. Rather, LED
chips gradually get dimmer over a long period of time. Therefore, an LED luminaire will need to
be replaced when the light output has diminished to point where it is not providing adequate
illumination.

LED street light will reduce energy costs

Because good LED luminaires have a much longer life than HPS or metal halide lamps, they
have the potential to lower maintenance costs. Whether a community performs group relamping
or performs maintenance on an as needed basis as lights burn out, LED luminaires should reduce
the frequency and cost of repairs. Maintenance crews will then have more time for other work.
When installing long life LED luminaires, it is important to think about the other components
that could also fail. If other components consistently fail before the luminaires, then the full
maintenance savings will not be realized. For example, if the street lights are controlled by photo
controls, long life photo controls should be installed along with the LED luminaires. Common,
low cost photo controls may not last as long as an LED luminaire, and early failure will mean
emergency maintenance to replace just the photo controls.

Comparison of led and conventional street lights

Light Average Lamp Lumens per Consideration

Technology Life in Hours Watt

Incandescent 1000-5000 11-15 Very inefficient and short life time.
Mercury 12000-24000 13-48 Very inefficient, Ultraviolet
radiation and Contains mercury.
Vapor
Metal halide 10000-15000 60-100 High maintenance UV radiation
Contains mercury and lead, risk of
bursting at the end of life
High Pressure 12000-24000 45-130 Contains

Sodium mercury and lead

Low Pressure 10000-18000 80-180 Contains mercury and lead.
Sodium
 LED 50000-100000 70-150 Relatively higher initial cost.

Comparison of led and other conventional street lights

CHAPTER FOUR

HARWARE DESCRIPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Introduction

The proposed system consists of step-down transformer, rectifier, voltage regulator, LEDS used
as streets, crystal oscillator, capacitors, light Microcontroller, microcontroller developing board,
Infra-Red sensors, light dependent resistor (LDR) sensor, switch transistors, resistors and printed
circuit board. Street lights are switched on depending on the intensity of the Sun light on LDR. If
the intensity of Sunlight on light dependent resistor is low, its resistance value is high. This value
increases and becomes high when it is completely in dark. This resistance value decides when
the street lights are required to switch on. Whenever IR sensor is detected it just indicates the
microcontroller to switch on the street lights. Then lights are switched on for 1 to2 minutes and
turn to threshold value automatically.

Block Diagram of Automatic Street Lights Intensity Control

description and specification of required hardware component

transformer

general information

A Transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by
electromagnetic induction without the change in frequency. Electrical Power Transformer is a
static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another without any direct
electrical connection and with the help of mutual induction between two windings. It transforms
power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency but may be in different voltage
level. The transformer, which can link circuits with different voltages, has been instrumental in
enabling universal use of the alternating current system for transmission and distribution of
electrical energy. As the transmission voltages are increased to higher levels in some part of the
power system, transformers again play a key role in interconnection of systems at different
voltage levels. Transformers occupy prominent positions in the power system, being the vital
links between generating stations and points of utilization. A transformer is termed as either a
step-up or step-down transformer depending upon whether the secondary voltage is higher or
lower than the primary voltage, respectively. Transformers can be used to either step-up or step-
down voltage depending upon the need and application; hence their windings are referred as
high-voltage/low-voltage or high-tension/low-tension windings in place of primary/secondary
windings. In this project a step down transformer of 230volts to 12volts will be used.

4.3.1.2. Working principle of a transformer

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The alternating
current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux that
surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously
some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF induced in the
second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be an electric current flowing
through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is the most basic of
working principle of transformer. The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is
generally known as primary winding of transformer. Here in our above example it is first
winding.

The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer,
is commonly known as secondary winding of transformer.

Main Constructional Parts of Transformer

The three main parts of a transformer are,

1. Primary winding of transformer - which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to
electrical source.
2. Magnetic Core of transformer - the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, that will
pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and create a closed
magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary Winding of transformer - the flux, produced by primary winding, passes through
the core, will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds on the same core and
gives the desired output of the transformer.
 Principles of Transformer

A two winding ideal transformer is assumed to have

 An infinite permeable core with no losses

 Lossless electrical windings and
 No leakage fluxes

bridge rectifier
Introduction
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When
used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and
weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-
tapped secondary winding.
The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same
regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit was invented by Polish
electro technician Karol Pollack and patented on 14 Jan, 1896.

Basic operation
According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin
Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current is defined to be positive
when it flows through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In
actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the
positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of
current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is
retained. In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the
diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows
from the upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output,
and returns to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.
When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the right
corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along the red
(positive) path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue (negative)
path.

Full wave bridge rectifier

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this
is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an AC
inputit can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits
normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when batteries have been installed backwards, or
when the leads (wires) from a DC power source have been reversed, and protects the equipment
from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

voltage regulator

An integrated circuit voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage

regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the
design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators
are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used
by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station
generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power
distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines
so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the
line.