Professional Documents
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, you will be introduced to vernier caliper for taking both inside and
outside measurement. It uses the vernier principle of measuring which was named after
its inventor, Pierre Vernier (1588-1637), a french mathematician. The vernier caliper
essentially consists of two steel rules and these can slide along each other.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• use the vernier caliper, and
• read the measurement with vernier caliper.
5
Laboratory-IV 49
Then 1 VSD = Division on main scale,
50
49 1
and LC = 1 − = of MSD
50 50
Figure 1.1 shows the details of a vernier caliper. Figure 1.2 shows 25 divisions of vernier
24 1
coinciding with 24 divisions on main scale giving LC = 1 − = divisions and since
25 25
1
one division of main scale is 0.025 hence LC = of main scale.
1000
Reading of Dia
Fine Adjustment Clamp
2 3 4 5
Vernier Scale
Not Shown Fine Adjustment Screw
Dia
Sliding Member
1.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Study the engineers scale, its main and subsidiary divisions and compare the
scale with a straight edge. Note the length of the scale, its minimum division
and observe the straightness.
(b) Measure sample piece, read and record the reading in the Proforma
suggested.
(c) Study the vernier caliper and its constructional details; Figure 1.1 gives the
important parts of the calipers.
(d) Understand the vernier principle and see how the least count is calculated.
Calculate and check error if any.
(e) Read the instrument for at least three random vernier positions.
(f) Measure the samples at indicated places and record as per standard Proforma
(Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2
6
Reading = 2 + 0.4 + 0.025 + 0.011 Measurement and
Metrology Lab
(2 large division on main scale
+ 4 small division on main scale
+ 1 smallest division on main scale
+ 11 division on vernier scale, each division = 1/1000).
Hence reading = 2.436.
7
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 2 : MEASUREMENT WITH
MICROMETERS – INTERNAL
AND EXTERNAL
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Micrometer is one of the most widely used precision instruments. The instrument was
invented and named by William Gascirgne. The name was derived from Greek work
Mikros that means small. Micrometer is a widely used device in mechanical engineering
for precisely measuring thickness of blocks, outer and inner diameters of shaft and depths
of slots. Micrometers have several advantages over other types of measuring instruments.
They are easy to use and their readouts are consistent. There are three types of
micrometers based on their application :
• External micrometer
• Internal micrometer
• Depth micrometer
It is primarily used to measure external dimension like diameter of shaft, thickness of
parts etc. to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. In this experiment, you will be introduced to the
measurement of internal and external dimensions with the help of micrometer.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• measure internal dimensions with the help of micrometers, and
• measure external dimensions with the help of micrometers.
Frame
0
10
15
Figure 2.3
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Laboratory-IV
2.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Study the main elements of external/internal micrometer : U-frame, barrel,
thimble, locknut, and ratchet.
(b) Calculate the least count and note range of measurement of the instrument.
(c) Read off any three positions of the main and subsidiary scale.
(d) Measure the given piece and record as per standard Proforma.
10
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 : MEASUREMENT WITH Metrology Lab
HEIGHT AND DEPTH GAUGE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Gauges are the tools which are used the checking the size, shape and relative positions of
various parts. Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the impacted dimensions on the
work. Gauges are, therefore, understood to be single-size fixed-type measuring tools. In
this experiment, you will be introduced to the height gauge as well as the depth gauge.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• understand the fundamental of the gauges and their classifications, and
• explain the working principle of height and depth gauge.
11
Laboratory-IV
3.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Study the main elements of depth gauge, base, thimble, lock nut and depth
gauge attachments.
(b) Study the main elements of height gauge, main scale, vernier scale, base,
movable arm, scriber, adjusting scales.
(c) Calculate the least count and maximum range of measurement.
(d) Read off any three positions of the main and subsidiary scale and record the
readings.
(e) Measure the given piece and record as per the standard proforma.
12
(c) The sliding head (with vernier mounted on its auxiliary head) and fine Measurement and
adjustment should be checked for squareness with beam and parallism of Metrology Lab
surface. There should be no nicks, scratches, corrosion or any other damage.
(d) Check for rocking of base on surface plate at various points.
(e) Check the height gauge measuring and marking arm for zero error. The zero
of vernier and main scale should coincide when measuring and marking arm
rests on surface plate.
Depth Gauge
(a) Make sure the reference surface, on which depth gauge is rested is true flat
and square.
(b) Make sure the gauge itself is true and square.
(c) The gauge while measuring should neither be tipped forward nor backward.
In case of tilted instrument, measuring end will not touch squarely on the
surface to be measured and erroneous readings will be observed.
(d) Too much pressure should not be applied on the beam or measuring bar as it
will have lifting tendency on the slide and result in readings different from
actual ones.
(e) In using a depth gauge, press the slide firmly on reference surface by hand
pressure on it. Manipulate the gauge beam to measure depth. Be sure to
apply only standard light measuring pressures of 1/4 kg to 1/2 kg (like
marking a light dot on paper with a pencil) on the beam.
(f) The results are greatly affected by the “feel” of the contact between the tool
and the work. Some practice is required before confidence is developed.
When using long extensions, the heat of hands can be transmitted to
extensions easily and thus result in incorrect reading. Hence longer
extensions should be handled cautiously.
13
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 4 : MEASUREMENT WITH DIAL
INDICATOR USING SURFACE
PLATE AND ACCESSORIES
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Instruments Used
4.3 Working Principle
4.4 Procedure
4.5 Precautions
4.6 Sources of Error
4.7 Limitations
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dial indicators are instruments used for making and checking linear measurements.
These instruments are used for centering the work on machines for checking the
eccentricity and for visual inspection of work.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• acquire skill of measuring with dial indicator.
• know the range and the least count.
• use the indicator in various shop situations with different types of holders.
Figure 4.1
14
Measurement and
4.4 PROCEDURE Metrology Lab
Circle
Dial
Indicator Part
Part
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4.2 : Using Dial Indicator on Round Bar
4.5 PRECAUTIONS
(a) Some initial loading must be given at any given readings.
(b) The plunger should not be allowed to strike the work with force otherwise
the teeth of the gears and rack will be damaged.
(c) The accuracy of the dial indicator may be checked with the help of slip
gauges periodically.
15
Laboratory-IV
4.6 SOURCES OF ERROR
(a) Some variations may be there in the indicator when readings are being
taken. This may be avoided if the pointer movement is damped properly.
(b) The operating pressure required on the measuring head to obtain zero
reading may cause some error if it is not kept constant over the whole range.
(c) The plunger should move only within specified limits, otherwise error will
crop in.
4.7 LIMITATIONS
The instrument may not be usable for a larger range. The main limitation of the
instrument is its comparatively small range of measurement. The minimum reading of
0.01 mm also has its limitation.
16
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 5 : MEASUREMENT WITH Metrology Lab
COMBINATION SET
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the most adaptable and commonly used non-precision instrument to be used in
layout and inspection work. Combination set is used as a rule, a square, a depth gauge, a
height gauge and a level.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• understand the uses of combination set,
• measure angles by using combination set, and
• check the sequences by using combination set.
17
Laboratory-IV
5.4 PROCEDURE
For Measuring Angles
(a) Fix the protractor head on the scale.
(b) Place the scale on one side of the angle to be measured.
(c) Adjust the protractor by rotation, so that its working surface should touch
the adjacent side of the angle to be measured.
(d) Lock the protractor.
(e) Read the angle on the scale.
For Checking Squareness
(a) Fix the square head on the scale.
(b) Check the spirit level for parallelism.
(c) Check the surfaces for squareness by placing the job on the surface plate.
For Marking Centre
(a) Fix the centre head on the scale.
(b) Hold the bar stock beneath the scale.
(c) See that the sides of centre head are touching the bar stock.
(d) Scribe a line along the scale in each position and rotate the bar stock for
three positions.
(e) The centre of the triangle formed will be the centre of the job.
18
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 6 : MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES Metrology Lab
WITH BEVEL PROTRACTOR
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.1 INTRODUCTION
It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles between two faces. It consists of two
arms and an engraved circular scale. The two arms can be set along the faces between
which the angles to be measured. The level protractor can measure angles to five minutes
of a degree. In this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of angles with
bevel protractor.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• acquire the skill of measuring angles with the bevel protractor, and
• know the range of measurement and to calculate the least count of the bevel
protractor.
Blade Locking
Scale Nut
Blade
Stock
Working Edge
60 50 40 30
70 20
80 10
90 0
80
10
0
07
20 3
0 40 50 6
0 40 50 60
20 3
70
10
80
0
90
80
70
6.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Study the bevel protractor and identify its main parts.
(b) Introduce the adjustable blade in the slot of body and clamp it with the help
of knob in the convenient position.
(c) Place the working edge of the stock on one surface of the job and rotate the
turret holding the blade so that the working edge of the blade coincides with
another surface of the job. Fix the turret and read the angle.
20
(d) Measure the angles of the sample pieces with the bevel protractor and record Measurement and
the reading in the proforma suggested. Metrology Lab
21
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 7 : STUDY AND USE OF SLIP
GAUGES
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Slip gauges are measuring bodies of hardened steel. These gauges are of rectangular
form, and are made of a high steel, hardened throughout and stabilised by means of a
suitable heat treatment. It is economical to have slip-gauges made individually to all sizes
of standard that are likely to be required, and they are normally slipped in carefully
selected sets, the size of any required standard being made up by combining suitable slip
gauges.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• acquire skill in wringing of gauge blocks,
• acquire skill in selecting minimum number of gauges to make up
measurements,
• understand about the care and maintenance of slip gauges, and
• know about the use of slip gauges in conjunction with surface plate.
7.3 DESCRIPTION
Slip gauges are measuring bodies of hardened steel. For measuring and testing they can
be built up to various dimensions. This is accomplished by pressing together the working
faces of two gauge blocks or by wringing the gauges. These are used as standards of
22
measurement. For wringing, the slips are first placed at right angle and then rotated Measurement and
through 90o under pressure of about 5 N/mm2. Metrology Lab
23
Laboratory-IV
25
6
5
1.005
Figure 7.1 : Gauge Blocks
Reading Taken
Building up size combination (sets of 103 pcs)
(a) 2.265 mm (b) 38.015 mm
1st slip 1.005 mm 1st slip gauge 1.005 mm
2nd slip 1.260 mm 2nd slip gauge 1.010 mm
Length 2.265 mm 3rd slip gauge 11.000 mm
4th slip gauge 25.000 mm
Length = 38.015 mm
24
Measurement and
7.5 SOURCES OF ERROR Metrology Lab
25
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 8 : MEASUREMENT OF THREAD
CHARACTERISTICS
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Thread can be defined as a raised, helical rib or ridge around the exterior of a cylindrical
shaped object or the interior of a hole. Threads are found on screws, nuts and bolts. In
this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of thread characteristics.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• know and identify various kinds of threads,
• explain the important thread characteristics,
• acquire the skill of comparing the threads and finding the pitch, and
• acquire the skill of measuring effective thread diameter.
8.4 THEORY
A few types of threads are (Figure 8.1) :
(a) Vee,
(b) Square,
(c) Buttress,
(d) Acme, and
(e) Knuckle.
Common definitions involved in thread characteristics are shown in Figure 8.1 which
show outline of a typical V-type screw thread and other threads.
26 Different characteristics of threads are :
(a) Full diameter (major) or diameter at top of the thread. Measurement and
Metrology Lab
(b) Core diameter (minor) or diameter at bottom of thread.
(c) Effective Diameter (Pitch Diameter) : The length of a line perpendicular
to, and intersecting the axis, between the points where it meets the sloping
flanks of the threads on opposite sides.
(d) Pitch : The distance measured parallel to the axis of the screw, between
corresponding point on consecutive thread contours.
(e) Thread Angle : The angle between thread flanks measured in an axial plane
section.
(f) Radius of crest.
(g) Radius of root.
Pitch, thread angle and effective diameter are some of important parameters to be
measured.
(a) Full Diameter : With ordinary micrometer with anvils sufficient to span
two threads, check first a standard cylinder and then the screw diameter.
(b) Core Diameter : An ordinary micrometer with a pair of special V-pieces
check the diameter over the roots of threads.
(c) Effective Diameter.
Three Wire Method
Checking the effective diameter when a screw is measured over wires
is given below for a general case. Distance over wires:
p L ⎛ L⎞
De = W + cot − ⎜1 + cosec ⎟ d
2 2 ⎝ 2⎠
where De = effective diameter,
d = diameter of wire,
p = pitch,
L = angle of thread,
W = outer diameter of thread with wires, and
D = nominal diameter or major diameter.
D W
De
Figure 8.1
Whitworth Threads
Depth of thread = 0.64 p, L = 55o
De = W – 13.16568 d + 0.96049 p
or D = W + 3.1675 d + 1.6005 p
American Metric Thread
Depth of thread = 0.6495 p, L = 60o
De = W – 3 d + 0.86603 p
or D = W – 3 d + 1.5155 p
[Note : Limiting wire size for thread measurement.]
Thread Form Max. Wire Dia Min Wire Dia
27
Laboratory-IV Whitworth 0.853 p. 0.506 p.
Metric 1.01 p. 0.505 p.
(d) Pitch : The lead or pitch of a single thread screw is the distance measured
with the help of vernier caliper and dividing this distance by number of
threads in between.
Threads can also be checked by screw gauge set (Figures 8.2(a), (b), (c), (d)
and (e)).
PITCH
1/6 D
0
D 55
1/6 D
(a)
½P
(b)
0
45
(c)
0.37P
P
½ P+0.01
0
29
(d)
P
RAD ¼ P
P
1/2
(e)
Figure 8.2
(e) Thread Angle : Measured by (a) Screw pitch gauge approximately and
(b) Toolroom microscope accurately.
28
A glass template is fixed in the microscope. On this template, thread profiles Measurement and
are etched with high accuracy. The individual profile outlines are Metrology Lab
successively brought into the field of view. Thereby, it will be attempted to
bring the outline in question into coincidence with the thread profile of the
work piece and the details of thread characteristics read from the template.
8.5 PRECAUTIONS
(a) When making a test, micrometer must be located at right angles to the axis
of the screw being measured.
(b) Threads must be fixed on the table of the microscope, so that observation is
not disturbed.
(c) Proper lighting of the object will assist in accurate recording of
measurements.
(d) Screw pitch gauge with a stopper must be used especially in case of small
nuts.
29
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 9 : MARKING AND MEASURING
EXERCISE WITH ALL
MEASURING DEVICES
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, you will be introduced to the marking and measuring exercise with all
measuring devices.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• develop skill of reading the drawings from given views, and
• develop skill of transferring the dimensions from the drawing on to the job,
using marking devices and measuring instruments.
30
Measurement and
9.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE Metrology Lab
Marking is based on the principle of transferring the dimensions from the measuring
instruments to the job by means of scriber.
9.5 PROCEDURE
(a) Clean the marking table and marking instruments.
(b) Check mutual perpendicularity of the three machined surfaces of workpiece
with angle plate.
(c) Apply chalk or blue paste on the surfaces to be marked.
(d) Place the workpiece in xy-plane on marking table.
(e) Set the scriber for different dimensions parallel to xy-plane with the help of
height gauge, slip gauge and scribe the respective line on the marking
surface.
(f) Scribe all the lines inclined with the marking table with the help of scale and
scriber.
(g) Make punch marks on the scribed lines.
(h) Repeat marking steps of other reference planes, i.e. yz and xz.
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Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 10 :STUDY OF INSPECTION
GAUGES SUCH AS PLUG,
SNAP, AND THREAD
GAUGES
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Go and No Go Gauging
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design without a scale, which serve to check the
dimension of manufacturing parts. Production gauges are of various types, but the
majority is in the form of limit gauge. These are designed to cover a very wide range of
work. The general form of limit gauge is of the fixed type. That is to say, the gauging
contact elements remain fixed, during the gauging process. Gauging elements may,
however, be provided with the means of size adjustment. Limit gauging is not confined
to the use of simple gauges such as those normally designed to check the size of the
shafts and holes. The progressive need for checking fine tolerances has led to the
introduction of that form of limit gauging in which an instrument, e.g. a comparator,
fitted with an indicator working between specified positions, is used without reference to
the actual sizes of the features being examined.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• understand the fundamental of the gauges and their classifications, and
• explain the working principles of various types of gauges and their
application.
32
Measurement and
Metrology Lab
In the renewable end plug gauge, the ‘GO’ end is renewable as it is subjected to
wear. In order to increase considerably the wearing properties of plug gauges they
are chrome plated. A further advantage of chromium plating is that when, finally,
the surface wears it can readily be renewed by plating and brought to the original
dimensions by grinding and lapping.
Pilot Gauge
The possibility of an operator to insert a plug gauge obliquely into the hole that is
to be checked so that it jams across the hypotenuse of the triangle shown by the
dotted line is avoided altogether in the ‘Pilot’ gauge by machining a groove behind
the front of the gauge as in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4
It will be seen that there is first a small chamfer, then a narrow ring or pilot, the
same diameter as the body of the gauge, after this the groove and finally the main
body of the gauge.
If the gauge is fitted, the pilot or leading portion is of the nature of an ellipse in
respect to the hole so that on entering the hole it touches at two points across the
major axis, which is the diameter of the plug. If the pilot can enter the hole, it is
sufficiently large assuming the hole to be round-for the rest of the gauge to enter.
Thus a ‘Pilot’ will enter a ‘size for size’ hole without jamming.
Snap Gauges
For checking external diameters a ring gauge having two limiting diameters could
be employed in a similar manner, but this type had very largely been superseded
by the snap gauge (Figure 10.6).
This gauge is of flat shape and provided with two jaws of caliper form. One jaw is
usually marked ‘GO’ and corresponds to the maximum allowable diameter or plus
dimension, the other jaw is marked ‘NO GO’ and show the minimum allowable or
minus dimension. This form of gauge and all other two unit gauges are often
termed GO and NO GO or G and NG gauges.
33
Laboratory-IV
(a) Double Snap Gauge, the “No Go” (b) Adjustable Gauge
Check is Made by the Inner Faces
Figure 10.6 : Snap Gauge
A further improvement is to substitute two pairs of contact for the parallel faces of
jaws as indicated. In this way, by making one of each pair of stops adjustable it is
possible to set the gauge to any two limiting dimensions and also later on, to take
up any wear effects on the contacts.
Thread Gauges
During mass production of threaded parts, it is uneconomical to measure each
individual element, since measuring can eventually be more expensive than the
workpiece. Instead, screw thread gauges, which permit a simultaneous testing of
all thread dimensions, will be used.
The external thread is tested with standard ring thread gauge and the inside thread
with the standard plug thread gauge as shown in Figure 10.7. The gauges must fit
in such a way that they can be screwed in or out without any clearance in between.
The smooth cylinder plug gauge is used for testing the core diameter of the internal
thread. The testing depends on the sensitiveness. Moreover a thread, which can be
screwed in with a snug fit, does not yet offer the guarantee that it fits properly. The
flank diameter and the bearing of the flanks cannot be tested accurately with
standard thread gauge, therefore these are seldom used.
l l
GO NO GO
Thread limit gauges are used for fast and accurate testing of all thread dimension.
The same as with all other limit gauges, they have a ‘GO’ and ‘NO GO’ side.
Internal thread is tested with limit screw plug.
Taper Gauges
If tapers and taper holes fit together, they must have the same conicity. Testing the
serviceability of a taper consists mainly in the determination of proper conicity. It
is well known that the dimensions determine conicity of a taper: big diameter D,
small diameter d and length l. The measuring of these sizes is not a simple matter
and it is generally tested at the same time with special taper gauges, which contain
the prescribed dimensions. Standardized tapers (Morse tapers, Metric tapers) are
tested with standard taper gauges. Thus, not only the individual dimensions are
ascertained, but they are also determined. If the taper ring gauge corresponds with
the taper or the taper hole with the taper plug gauge as shown in Figure 10.8, the
diameters of the taper are correct.
34
Measurement and
GO Metrology Lab
NO GO
When the taper diameters vary within certain limits, two tolerance marks
corresponding to the tolerance are engraved on the taper gauge. Before testing the
taper surfaces of the workpiece, the testing instrument must be cleaned thoroughly.
An equal contact of the tapers will be ascertained by means of the frictional
contact method. The surface of the taper (taper plug or workpiece) will, in
direction of the longitudinal axis, be provided with two pencil lines, which are
staggered by 90o. After fitting workpiece and gauge together they are twisted
somehow against each other with slight pressure. The lines must be evenly blurred
out. If this is not the case, the taper has uneven contact and the two tapers are not
identical.
35
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 11 : MEASUREMENT OF TAPERS
(EXTERNAL AND
INTERNAL)
Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of tapers – external and
internal.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• calculate the taper angle both external and internal, and
• understand the function of rollers for calculating the taper angle.
11.4 PROCEDURE
Theory
Taper angles of turned parts of standard taper plug can be checked by measuring
the diameters at two sections and the distance between these sections. Referring to
the Figure 11.1, if D and d are diameters at the section BB and AA respectively and
H is the distance between these diameters, then from the triangle ABC it follows
that
D−d
Tan θ =
2H
This method is applied for measuring the taper angle of a component such as a
taper plug gauge.
For External Taper
(a) Stand the taper plug gauge (job) with its small end on the surface plate.
(b) Select two piles of slip gauges (S1).
(c) Place the roller of diameter (d) on the top of the block of slip gauges (S1).
(d) Standardize the micrometer carefully on a slip gauge with a roller on each
side.
(e) Measure the size of the job or gauge over the rollers.
(f) Select another value of slips (S2) and place the roller over it.
(g) Measure the size over the rollers M2 by micrometer.
For Internal Taper
(a) Hold the ring gauge or job almost horizontal.
(b) Roll the smaller ball gently inside the gauge or job until it rests.
(c) Stand the gauge or job, small end down, on the surface plate.
(d) If the ball protrudes, place the gauge on two equal piles of slips sufficient to
keep the bottom of the ball clear of the surface plate.
(e) Lower the depth attachment with the height gauge until it just touches the
top of the ball.
(f) The height gauge reading is noted and the procedure repeated about three
times to get average value.
(g) Next remove the smaller ball and insert the larger one.
(h) Note the height with the larger ball.
(i) Note the height of the top surface of the gauge (job).
37
Laboratory-IV
11.5 PRECAUTIONS
(a) The taper gauge (or job) should be set up on its small end.
(b) The roller should be of same diameter as small end.
(c) Rollers must not swing under measuring pressure.
(d) Check the zero error of the measuring instruments.
(e) Check that the balls used for internal taper have true spherical surface.
38
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 12 :MEASUREMENT OF SPUR Metrology Lab
GEAR CHARACTERISTICS
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Spur gears are straight-toothed gears with radial teeth that transmit power and motion
between parallel axes. They are widely used for speed reduction or increases, torque
multiplication, resolution, and accuracy enhancement for positioning systems. In this
experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of spur gear characteristics.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• know and identify the principle characteristics of a spur gear, and
• acquire the skill of measuring characteristics of a gear with gear tooth
vernier.
39
Laboratory-IV (a) Diagram of gear tooth vernier (Figure 12.1).
(b) Spur gear tooth profile for different nomenclature (Figure 12.2).
12.4 PROCEDURE
For Finding PCD, Module, Addendum, Dedendum and Clearance
(a) First find the blank diameter OD by a vernier caliper and also count the
number of teeth T of the spur gear.
OD
(b) Next calculate pitch circle diameter D = .
⎛ 2⎞
⎜1 + T ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(c) Find addendum, clearance, pitch, module and dedendum as per formulae
given in the theory.
For Chordal Tooth Thickness (Using Gear Tooth Caliper) (Figure 12.3)
(a) Set the chordal depth (addendum) on the vertical side of gear tooth vernier
and then insert the jaws of the instrument on the tooth to be measured.
(b) Adjust the horizontal vernier slide by the fine adjusting screw so that the
jaws just touch the tooth.
(c) Read the horizontal vernier slide and note the reading. It gives the chordal
thickness of tooth.
(d) Repeat the observations for different teeth.
(e) Compare the values of different characteristics with the standard value and
set the percentage error.
Figure 12.3 : Measuring Gear-tooth Thickness and Profile with (a) A Gear-tooth Caliper and
(b) Pins for Balls and a Micrometer
(Source : American Gear Manufacturers Association)
41
Laboratory-IV
12.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Zero error horizontal vernier slide =
Zero error of vertical vernier slide =
No. of teeth on the spur gear
Pitch circle diameter D =
Module m = D/T mm
Addendum = One module = m
Dedendum = Addendum + Clearance
= m + 0.157 m
= 1.157 m (1.25 m)
Clearance = 0.157 m (m is module of teeth)
Circular Pitch P = π m
Tooth thickness of gear tooth = t
Standard value of tooth thickness
(Chordal) t′ = D sin (90/T)
% age error =
42
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 13 :MEASUREMENT OF BORE Metrology Lab
WITH CYLINDER DIAL
GAUGE FOR SIZE, TAPER
AND OVALTY
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The cylinder dial gauge has to have three contact points along the cylinder walls, such
that spindle contact is at 90o to the centre line of the bore and the reading taken is correct.
To ensure this position, the dial gauge is provided with a slider plate. In case dial gauge
is not positioned correctly, this slider plate will go out of contact and will serve as a
warning to the dial gauge user to position the dial gauge correctly in the bore.
The cylinder bores, which are measured, are used in I.C Engines, hence we have to be
very careful while taking reading for taper and ovalty especially.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• familiarise with the use of different accessories of the gauge,
• know its dial reading + and – pre loading and zeroing of the dial,
• measure the size of the bore, its taper and ovalty, and
• decide suitability of the bore as per given specifications.
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Laboratory-IV
13.5 PROCEDURE
(a) Hold dial gauge vertical and put it into the cylinder such that spindle and
slider plate touch the cylinder walls.
(b) Slightly move the gauge vertically to and fro and note for mean positions of
the dial needle and the contact of slider plate and spindle.
44
(c) In this position rotate the dial and fix its ‘0’ position. Measurement and
Metrology Lab
(d) The portion of the bore at which the dial gauge is ‘0’ is the ridge portion,
where piston has never worked; as such the size of the bore is the original
size, standard size or zero size. Take out the dial gauge, and put in its,
distance piece holder and fix only those distance pieces, such that needle
reads ‘0’. Now this size indicated by distance pieces is the size of the bore.
(e) Measure taper of the bore by taking one reading at the top of the bore, below
ridge portion.
(f) Put the gauge further down in the bore and take another reading.
(g) The difference between the readings at (e) and (f) has a direct bearing on the
taper of the bore.
(h) For measuring ovalty of the bore, put dial gauge in the bore, just above its
middle point on non-thrust side and take the reading.
(i) Put dial gauge as at (h) at ‘0’ but on thrust side of the bore and take a
reading. The difference between the readings at (g) and (i) is the ovalty of
the bore.
13.6 PRECAUTIONS
(a) Dial gauge tips and bore should be cleaned before reading is taken.
(b) Make sure that slider plate always remains in contact with cylinder wall.
(c) Do not tilt the dial gauge.
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Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 14 : MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
WITH SINE BAR AND
HEIGHT GAUGE
Structure
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The sine bar is one of the most widely used instruments for precision measurement of
angles. It consists of a rectangular section bar of suitable grade steel having accurately
ground pins of equal diameter, one at each end and lying on a line parallel to the axis of
the bar. The distance between the centers of these pins is arranged to be a standard, either
5″, 10″ or 15″ or 125 mm, 200 mm, 500 mm etc.
The sine bar is based on the principle that in a right angled triangle the length of
hypotenuse is kept constant. The sine of different angles can be obtained simply by
varying the length of the perpendicular as shown in Figure 14.1.
h
sin θ =
l
A sine bar is made up of a hardened steel beam having a flat upper surface. The bar is
mounted on two cylindrical rollers. These rollers are located in cylindrical grooves
specially provided for the purpose. The axes of the two rollers are parallel to each other.
They are also parallel to the upper flat surface at an equal distance from its. In this
experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of angles with sine bar.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• develop skill to use sine bar for measuring the external taper angles
accurately (by using a single trigonometrical parameter, i.e. sine of an
angle), and
• develop skill for setting the job and instruments and observing the readings
correctly.
Steel Beam h
d
L Rolle
Sine Bar
h
Gauge h
θ
Blocks
14.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Clean the surface plate.
(b) Clean the sine bar.
(c) Clean the workpiece, and ensure that there are no damages and burrs on the
surfaces of workpiece.
(d) If there are any burrs remove them by means of oilstone.
(e) Place the workpiece on surface plate with taper surface facing the surface
plate.
(f) Place the sine bar on tapered surface of workpiece with the rollers of sine
bar in upward direction.
(g) Clean the base of height gauge properly.
(h) Mount the dial indicator on the height gauge.
(i) Set the dial indicator on the highest point of one of the sine bar roller and
put some pressure on dial indicator.
(j) Note the reading of dial indicator and height gauge scale.
(k) Set the dial indicator on second roller of sine bar.
(l) Bring the same reading on dial indicator by adjusting the height gauge.
(m) Note the reading of height gauge at the highest point of both the rollers of
sine bar.
(n) Calculate the difference of two height gauge readings, which will give the
height (h) of one roller with respect to other.
(o) The centre distance between the two rollers is known for a standard sine bar.
47
Laboratory-IV (p) Divide the height in step (n) by centre distance between two rollers. This
h
will give the sine of taper angle sin θ = .
l
(q) Using sine tables the value of taper angle can be calculated.
14.6 PRECAUTIONS
(a) All the instruments should be cleaned properly.
(b) Any burrs and damage on workpiece surfaces should be rectified.
(c) Zero error in any instrument likely to be checked and if so correct it.
(d) In case of circular workpiece sine bar should be clamped firmly with the
angle plate.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Tool angles are specified for machining of jobs. Tool angles depend on job material,
operation, cutting tool material and volume of material removed/minute. The tool after
grinding and regrinding is checked by a template, having angle grooves of standard
profiles for accuracy of grinding. The tool angles are cut as V grooves in a sheet metal of
12-16 gauge steel as a fitting job and the angles are marked by punch marks.
These templates are projected on a screen and the profile is compared with an accurately
drawn profile on a transparency (or on a sheet on which the profile is projected).
Thus, a template can be checked for accuracy so that it can be used in machine shop for
checking the tool angles after grinding.
In this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement for checking the angles of
template gauge for lathe tool/drill bit angles made in fitting shop.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• develop skill in finding accuracy of angles of template by comparison
through magnification.
15.3 PROCEDURE
(a) Place the template in position.
(b) Switch on the projector.
(c) Adjust the position of template to a convenient position.
(d) Focus the shadow on the screen.
(e) Make sure that the shadow is not distorted.
(f) Make the outlines with pencil taking due care.
49
Laboratory-IV (g) Remove the sheet and measure angles using vernier bevel protractor and
check by using trigonometric functions.
Reading Taken
Drill point angle depends on material to be drilled.
MS/CI 118o
Aluminum 140o
15.4 CONCLUSION
It is necessary for any template to be checked for accuracy, and the inaccuracies in
grinding tool will result in an inefficient operation in production.
15.5 EVALUATION
How accurate is the comparison of angle on drawing sheet with projected image of
template.
50
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 16 :MEASUREMENT OF WORN Metrology Lab
OUT IC ENGINE PISTONS
Structure
16.1 Introduction
Objectives
16.2 Instruments Used and Specifications
16.3 Devices and Accessories Required
16.4 Procedure
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Piston in automobile engines are to seal the gases on top of cylinder and partition the
cylinder in two portions for different functions in various strokes. It means that it has to
work like a plug with a minimum running clearance between it and the cylinder, so that
the expansion due to heat generated during firing stroke of the engine is accommodated
in the clearance. Normally this clearance between piston and cylinder is 0.075 mm or
0.003″ for aluminum alloy pistons and cast iron pistons. It means that the piston has to be
of the same size as that of cylinder. During the process of engine overhaul, we have to
ascertain whether same old piston can work in the cylinder, that is why the worn out
piston is to be measured for its serviceability. The simplest method of measuring a piston
is with the help of an ottometer. The ottometer measures pistons, rings and gudgeon pins
within a shortest possible time without much adjustment in it. Minimum reading in this
gauge is 50 mm and it can be zeroed with a nut provided.
In this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of worn out pistons.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• measure a worn out piston with the help of ottometer.
16.4 PROCEDURE
(a) Place the ottometer in a suitable place and see that its knobs and measuring
band is working. Also see that its scale has been perfectly zeroed.
(b) Place worn out piston in the space within the measuring band.
(c) Rotate band knob, such that measuring band tightens around piston.
(d) Lock the band knob.
(e) Peep through magnifying glass window and note the reading. This is the size
of the piston. Compare with the specification given.
(f) Insert 0.15 mm feeler gauge in the top rings land with a new ring. It should
not go.
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Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 17 :MEASUREMENT OF
CLEARANCE BETWEEN
BORE AND SHAFT WITH
THE HELP OF
PLASTIGAUGE AND FLAT
GAUGES
Structure
17.1 Introduction
Objectives
17.1 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, you will be introduced to the measurement of clearance between bore
and shaft with the help of plastigauge and flat gauges.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• measure clearance between two mating surfaces (crank shaft and main
bearing), and
• know precise use of plastigauge and flat gauge.
Flat Gauge
(a) Wipe and clean both the surfaces of crankshaft and main bearing.
(b) If the specified clearance between crankshaft and main bearing is 0.002″
take a flat gauge of 0.002″.
(c) Put this flat gauge between the crankshaft and main bearing.
(d) Tighten the nuts of the bearing one after the other slowly and gradually, till
these are tightened to the specified torque.
(e) Try to rotate crankshaft either side.
(f) If the crankshaft rotates with a slight drag and a normal manual force, the
clearance is correct to 0.002″. If it does not rotate at all, the clearance is less
than two thousandth of an inch. If it rotates more freely, the clearance is
more than 0.002″.
(g) If it is required to know the exact clearance try for other sizes of flat gauges
and repeat the process as mentioned in (d), (e) and (f) above.
Plastigauge
(a) Put a suitable plastigauge in between crankshaft and main bearing.
(b) The size of the plastigauge should be little less say 2 to 3 mm than the
bearing width.
(c) Tighten bearing nuts one after the other slowly and gradually till specified
torque is reached in the nuts.
(d) Now loosen the nuts, take out pressed plastigauge.
(e) Measure the thickness of plastigauge on the markings given on plastigauge
packet.
(f) If the thickness coincides with the clearance specified, it is correct, if less or
more, still the clearance can be known from the width of the plastigauge
where it coincides.
53
Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 18 :ALIGNMENT TESTS OF
LATHE
Structure
18.1 Introduction
Objectives
18.1 INTRODUCTION
For metrology purposes, the term alignment refers to two axes merging in each other or
one axis extending beyond the other.
Two lines of axes are said to be in alignment when their distance apart at several points
over a given length is measured and this distance does not exceed a given standard
tolerance.
The dimensions of a gauge, its surface finish, geometry and accurate production of
components/parts depend upon the inherent quality and accuracy of the machine tools
used for its manufacture. Therefore for maintaining the accuracy of the components
within prescribed limits, the machines should be properly aligned as the quality of
workpieces depend upon :
(a) Stiffness and rigidity of the machine tool and its component parts.
(b) The alignment of various machine parts in relation to each other. This is
very important because the geometry of various shapes is based on the
relative motions between various machine parts and hence on alignment of
various parts.
(c) The quality and accuracy of the control devices and driving mechanism.
In most cases the machining of a given geometric surface is achieved through a
combination of work tool movements and the accuracy of the surfaces generated depends
on the accuracy of the mating elements present in the machine tool. The various tests
applied to any machine tool could be grouped below :
(a) Tests for the level of installation of machine in horizontal and vertical
planes.
(b) Tests for flatness of machine bed and for straightness and parallelism of bed
ways or bearing surfaces.
(c) Tests for perpendicularity of guide ways to other guide ways or bearing
surfaces, which support motion in cross direction.
(d) Tests for true running of the main spindle and its axial movements.
(e) Tests for parallelism of spindle axis to guideways or bearing surfaces.
(f) Tests for the line of movement of various members, e.g. saddle and table
cross slides etc. along their ways.
(g) Practical tests in which some test pieces are machined and their accuracy
and finish is checked.
54
Objectives Measurement and
Metrology Lab
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• develop skill for performing alignment tests on various machine tools,
• impart an up-to-date knowledge of need of alignment in machine tools,
• explain the relationship of controlled movement of any component with
respect to some other component, and
• understand the effects of misalignment of any component on the
performance of the machine.
55
Laboratory-IV
18.3 PROCEDURE
(a) Clean all surfaces perfectly on which alignment tests are to be performed.
(b) Level the bed of lathe for longitudinal as well as cross directions.
(c) Follow the test chart for performing different alignment tests.
Figure 18.2 : The Test for Parallelism of Spindle with Bed, using a
Mandrel Inserted in the Centre Hole
Figure 18.3 : Testing for Capability of a Lathe to Turn Parallel; an Accurate Mandrel being Placed
between Centres and a Dial Indicator Run Along by the Slide Rest
56
Measurement and
EXPERIMENT NO. 19 :STUDY AND USE OF Metrology Lab
COMPARATORS
Structure
19.1 Introduction
Objectives
19.2 Instruments Used and Specifications
19.3 Working Principle
19.4 Procedure
19.5 Conclusion
19.6 Precautions
19.7 Sources of Error
19.1 INTRODUCTION
In various production and other situations for assembly, matching of parts etc., it is not
necessary to know the exact absolute dimensions of a job. If it is known what deviation
of measurement is there from a standard, we may decide whether the sample is
acceptable for selective assembly or interchangeable assembly.
The comparator is a device, which takes a dimension of standard job as reference
dimension, and gives a reading through a pointer on a scale, which is the variation in
such dimension of the job.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• use comparators and develop skill in using them.
F E
G H
C
K J
A
B
Scale
Reeds R2
Movable Reeds R1
Member
Fixed
A B Member
x (Input Displacement)
Component
58
Measurement and
19.4 PROCEDURE Metrology Lab
19.5 CONCLUSION
Instead of making absolute measurement we can easily know whether job is within two
limits to classify the sample and give code symbol for selective assembly or reject it.
19.6 PRECAUTIONS
(a) Cleanliness of measuring instrument and job.
(b) Zero error (w.r.t. std. job).
(c) Friction in mechanism not permitting anvil in contact with job.
(d) Calibrations of the comparator.
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Laboratory-IV
EXPERIMENT NO. 20 : STUDY AND USE OF TOOL
ROOM MICROSCOPE
Structure
20.1 Introduction
Objectives
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering microscopes designed to satisfy various measuring needs of toolmaker’s are
known as toolmaker’s microscopes. A plain toolmaker’s microscope is primarily
intended for a particular application. On the other hand, universal toolmaker’s
microscope is adaptable to an uncommonly wide range of measuring tasks. A
toolmaker’s microscope is designed for measurements of parts of complex forms, e.g.
profile of external threads, tools, templates and gauges. It can also be used for measuring
centre-to-centre distance of holes in any planes, as well as the co-ordinate of the outline
of a complex template gauges.
Objectives
After performing this experiment, you should be able to
• appreciate the importance of precision measurement,
• know how precise measurements can be taken with this instrument,
• explain the field of application/working of this instrument, and
• understand the principle of working of tool room microscope.
Optical Head
Table
Cross Slide
Micrometer
Front Slide
Micrometer
Cross lines are engraved on the glass screen, which can be rotated through 360o, and
these lines make the measurements. The angle of rotation of screen can be read on the
optical head. The eyepiece field of view contains an illuminated circular scale with a
division value of one minute. Adjusting optical head tube performs focussing.
20.4 PROCEDURE
(a) The relative positions of two or more points on a workpiece are determined
by measuring the travel of the work table necessary to transfer a second
point to the position previously occupied by the first and so on.
(b) Angles are measured by successively setting fiducially situated line in the
focal plane of the eyepiece along with arm of the image of the angle, or
through points indicating the angle and noting from a protractor scale the
angle through which the fiducial line has turned.
(c) The thread forms can be compared with the outline on a glass template
situated at the focal plane of microscope eyepiece. Measurement of
discrepancies can be made from the projected thread form and template.
(d) Comparison of the enlarged projected image with a tracing drawn on exact
number of times full size and affixed to the projection screen.
20.5 PRECAUTIONS
(a) To avoid backlash error the table screws must be moved in one direction
only while measuring.
(b) Fiducial line must be set parallel with the axis of movement of table, before
measurements.
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Laboratory-IV
FORMAT OF THE COVER PAGE
By
(1) Name :
(2) Name :
(3) Name :
Date :
62
Measurement and
LABORATORY REPORT FORMAT Metrology Lab
63
Laboratory-IV
FURTHER READINGS
Thomas G. Beckwith and John H. Lien Lard, Mechanical Measurement, 2nd Edition,
John Willey and inc. Co., Singapore.
Holman J. P., Experiment Methods for Engineer. 10th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New
Delhi.
Raghuwashi B. S., Workshop Technology, 15th Edition, Dhanphat Rai and Co., New
Delhi.
Hazra and Choudhary, Workshop Technology, Volume I, Media Promoters and
Publication Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai.
Jain R. K., Engineering Metrology, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
Kapoor A. C., Workshop Practical Manual, Dhanpat Rai and Co., New Delhi.
Shawne A. K., Mechanical Measurement and Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai and Co. (P)
Ltd.
Krar Steve F, Technology of Machine Tools, McGraw-Hill International.
Francis T. Farago, Mark A. Kartis, Handbook of Dimensional Measurement, Industrial
Press Inc.
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Measurement and
Metrology Lab
LABORATORY-IV
In the field of engineering and technology, Laboratories play a very important role to
understand the complex natural phenomena and very often are the only source of
scientific knowledge in solving complex practical problems. For clear and better
65
Laboratory-IV understanding of the theory, the laboratory practice occupies very important status in the
engineering curriculum. With the advancement in instrumentation, the laboratory practice
has become more sophisticated and specialized. Thus, Laboratory forms an integral part
of the basic courses. A proper training in the science of measurement and use of
measuring instruments is essential for students of engineering and technology.
Laboratory experiments create a physical contact with the various types of behaviour of
nature and help to understand its working.
This block on Laboratory-IV consists of twenty experiments. All these experiments are
based on the topic of Metrology and Instrumentation. This block has been designed to
give a complete understanding of experimental methods of Metrology and
Instrumentation.
Description of each experiment includes the objectives, theory, a brief description of the
experimental setup, procedure for conducting the experiment and the tables for
observations and computations.
General guidelines are included for the benefit of the learners. They are advised to refer
to the relevant text before performing the experiments and to make the best use of the
time allocated for the laboratory.
Engineering metrology is defined as the measurement of dimensions : length, thickness,
diameter, taper, angle, flatness, profiles and others. As an example, consider the part
shown in figure below.
l1
r
α l3
l2
The dimensions that are measured are marked as l1, l2, l3 (length), α (angle) and
r (radius).
The newer trend in measurement is to measure dimensions “on line”, during
manufacturing or in process. An important feature of metrology in process of
manufacturing is to check dimensional tolerances, i.e. permissible variation in
dimensions of part. Tolerances play important role in assembly, interchangeability of
parts and functioning of machines and products. They also have visible impact on
economy or manufacturing costs. The smaller tolerances lead to higher manufacturing
costs. The linear dimensions are crudely measured by ruler scale which carries lines (or
divisions) at certain distance apart. But various instruments have now been developed
which increase the accuracy, sensitivity (resolution) and precision of measurement.
Sensitivity or resolution is defined as the smallest difference in dimensions that the
instrument can detect or measure.
Precision is defined as the degree to which the repeated results are obtained on the same
dimensions by the instrument. The instrument parts may be affected by such variables as
temperature whereby the precision may be affected.
Accuracy is the difference between the measured and actual value of a dimension. The
smaller this difference, higher is the accuracy. Accuracy and sensitivity are not to be
confused.
68