Department of Electrical Technology

Basic Mechanical Technology Lab

Author: Abdul Latif (M.S and B.S GIK Insitute Pakistan)

This is the first version of MEL-IV lab manual and is in the process of further improvement (01-
2-2019)

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 Health & Safety Regulations
Users of any Laboratory must comply with the following safety instructions. At the beginning of
the course the instructor should brief the students about health and safety. The students should
know where the fire exits, fire extinguisher, fire alarm and the assembly point are in case of
emergency such as fire or earthquake etc.
• No experiments should be conducted without the presence of Lab engineer and technician.
• Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the Lab.
• Always wear trousers, overall and safety shoes when you operate any machine and perform
any experiment.
• There should be no over-crowding. Only one person should operate one machine. In case,
the experiment needs more than one person for the operation, other group mates would
join.
• Watch for over-head hanging hoists and cranes.
• Make sure that you stay away from hot exhaust lines and moving Parts of machines.
• Before operating any machine, you must be aware of the following:
a. Location of fire extinguishers, fire blanket and the outside exits.
b. How the machine operates. Read instructions or manual of the machine before operating it.
c. How to turn off the machine in case of damages.

• When you hear or see a danger alarm from the machine that you using, stop the machine right
away.
• Make sure that there is no fuel or oil spill on the floor.
• Do not run inside the lab and concentrate on the present task.
• When moving heavy equipment or gas cylinders, use carts.
• Always use the right tools for the given task.
• Handle the tools and equipment with extreme care and return the tools to their proper places.

• For cleaning tools or equipment, use only the proper cleaner. Never use fuels such as gasoline or
diesel for cleaning.
• Handle fuels with extreme caution.
• Use the designated area for this purpose.

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• Use the proper containers (safety cans) to carry fuels.
• Make sure there is no electric spark present.
• Do not leave fuels in open containers.
Please leave the Lab clean and tidy at end of experiment.

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 Pre mid Term Course Content
The following experiments will be performed before Mid Term Exam:

1. Vernier Calliper
2. Screw Gauge
3. Verification of Condition of Equilibrium
4. Determination of Forces acting on a Truss
5. Determination of Centroid of regular shapes
6. Universal Testing Machine
7. Verification of Hook’s Law and determination of Modulus of Elasticity

Mid Term Exam will be conducted in 8th week of the semester. Course content will be above
mentioned experiments

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 Post mid Term Course Content
The following experiments will be performed after Mid Term Exam:

1. Friction on inclined plane

2. Determination of moment of inertia of flywheel
3. Jib Crane experiment
4. Reaction beam experiment for determination of joint forces
5. Determination of mechanical advantage of toggle joint apparatus

Final Exam will be conducted in 15th week of the semester. Final exam course content will include
the above mentioned experiments as well as Pre Mid Term content

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Experiment 1
Vernier Calliper
1.1 Aim
To learn to use a Vernier Calliper and to find the dimensions of various regular materials given.
1.2 Apparatus
Vernier Calliper, steel ball, copper and aluminum plates.
1.3 Theory
Vernier Calliper, an instrument for making very accurate linear measurements was introduced in
1631 by Pierre Vernier of France. Vernier Calliper are widely used in scientific laboratories and
in manufacturing for quality control measurements.
Vernier Callipers are used to measure
(1) The length of a rod or any object
(2) The diameter of a sphere
(3) The internal and external diameter of a hollow cylinder
(4) The depth of a small beaker

Figure 1: Vernier Calliper

1. Outside Jaws: used to measure external dimension of objects
2. Inside Jaws: Used to measure internal dimension of objects
3. Depth Probe: Used to measure the depth of objects
4. Main Scale (cm)
5. Main Scale (inch)
6. Vernier (cm)
7. Vernier (inch)
8. Retainer: Used to block moveable part 6
1.3.1 Terminologies
Least Count (LC) or Vernier Constant
The smallest division on main scale (1mm) divide by total division on vernier scale is called least
count or vernier constant.

Mathematically

LC = (Smallest division on main scale (1mm) / (Total number of division on vernier

scale)………(I)

Zero error
No error
When two jaws are closed, 0th mark on the Vernier scale is aligned with the 0th mark on the main
scale as shown in the Figure 2(a) then there will be no zero error.
Measurement= Main Scale + (LC)x( coincident division of vernier scale on main scale)…….(II)

Positive zero error (PER)

When two jaws are closed, 0th mark of the Vernier scale is on right side of 0th mark of the main
scale it is called positive zero error as shown in the Figure 2(b). Positive zero error is subtracted
from the final value.

Final Value (FV) = Main Scale Reading (MSR) + (LC) x (coincident division of vernier scale on
main scale)-PER……… (III)

Negative zero error (NER)

When two jaws are closed, 0th mark of the Vernier scale is on left side of 0th mark of the main
scale it is called negative zero error as shown in the Figure 2(c). Negative zero error is added to
the final value.

Final Value= Main scale reading+ (LC) x (coincident division of vernier scale on main scale)
+NER………. (IV)

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(a) No zero error (b) Positive zero error (c) Negative zero error
Figure 2: Zero error of Vernier Calliper

1.4 Procedure
(1) Find the Least count (LC)/vernier constant of the given vernier calipers.
(2) Determine its zero error if any.

(3) Place the cylinder length-wise between the two jaws. Read the main scale division just to the
left of the zero of the vernier.
(4) Locate the number of vernier divisions coinciding with any main scale division.
Note these readings thrice.
(5) Complete the table up to the last column.
(6) In the same way find the diameter of the cylinder from different positions.
Taking two reading at right angles on each position.
(7) Calculate mean values of the length and the diameter and find the radius of the cylinder.
(8) Find out the volume of the cylinder from the formula.

Table 1: Measurement on Vernier Calliper

S # Object Main scale reading Vernier scale Zero Final Value( 𝑭𝒗 )

(MSR) reading (VSR) Error 𝑭𝒗 =MSR+(LC)x(VSR)
(E) +/- Error

1
2
3
4
5

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Experiment 2
Screw Gauge
2.1 Aim
To learn to use a Screw Gauge and to find the dimensions of various regular materials given.
2.2 Apparatus
Given a Screw Gauge, cylindrical glass rod and a cylindrical wire.
2.3 Theory
The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter of a thin wire or the
thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle which
is attached to a thimble. Parallel to the axis of the thimble, a scale graduated in mm is engraved.
This is called pitch scale. A sleeve is attached to the head of the screw.The head of the screw has
a ratchet which avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the thimble there is a circular scale known
as head scale which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. When the screw is worked, the sleeve
moves over the pitch scale. A stud with a plane end surface called the anvil is fixed on the ‘U’
frame exactly opposite to the tip of the screw. When the tip of the screw is in contact with the
anvil, usually, the zero of the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale (Main scale).

Figure 3: Screw Guage

2.3.1 Pitch of the Screw Gauge

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To find this, the distance
advanced by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite number of complete rotation of the
screw is determined.

Mathematically
Pitch = Distance moove by a screw/ number of full rotation ……….(I)

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2.3.2 Least Count of the Screw Gauge
The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the screw is turned
through 1 division of the head scale.

Mathematically
Lease Count (LC)= Pich/ Total number of division on circular scale ……….(II)

2.3.3 Zero Error

No error
When the zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line as shown in the Figure 4(a)
then there will be no zero error.

Final Value= Main scale reading (MSR) + (LC) x (Coincident division of circular scale on main
scale)………..(III)

Positive zero error (PER)

When the zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not cross it.
In this case, the zero error is positive as shown in the Figure 4 (b). Positive zero error is subtracted
from the final value

Final Value= Main Scale + (LC) x (Coincident division of circular scale on main scale)-PER……
(IV)

Negative zero error (NER)

When the zero mark of the circular scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero error is
negative as shown in the Figure 4(c). Negative zero error is added to the final value.

Final Value= Main scale reading (MSR) + (LC) x (Coincident division of circular scale on main
scale) + NER ………… (V)

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 (a) No error (b) Positive error (c) Negative error
Figure 4: Zero error of screw gauge
2.4 Procedure
1. Find the Pitch of the screw.
2.Calculate the value of least count.
3.Calcuate the zero error if any.
4.Hold an object between the screw and the stud.
5.Note the main scale reading immediately before the round edge of the circular scale.
6.Find the circular scale division that is best fit to concide with reference line.
7.Use the equation ( III or IV or V) to calculate final value.

Table 2:Measurement on Vernier Calliper

S# Object Main scale Circular Zero Error Final Value( 𝑭𝒗 )

reading scale (E) 𝑭𝒗 =MSR+(LC)x(CSR)
(MSR) reading +/- Error
(VSR)

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Experiment 3
Mass-Spring System
3.1 Objective
1) To verify Hook’s law i.e. to draw graph between force and displacement).
2) To find spring constant “k” i.e. to take slope of force-displacement graph).
3.2 Apparatus
A spring, hook, fixed support, pointer, meter stick, stop watch and masses.
3.3 Theory
In mass spring system a spring is attached to a fix support and a known mass is applied to the
spring through a hook as shown in Figure 5. The weight of the applied mass stretches the spring.
According to Newton’s third law of motion a restoring force generates which is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the applied load. Applied force is actually weight of the applied mass
while stretching in spring is called displacement. By increasing the magnitude of the applied force
the displacement also increases proportionally (linearly) up to a limit. This linear relationship
(direct relation) between restoring force and displacement is called Hook’s law.
Mathematically
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥…………… (I)
The restoring force (F) is opposite in direction to the displacement (x) and always towards the
mean position. The constant 𝑘 is known as the force constant. Physically it means that, the higher
the value of K, the harder will be the spring. Furthermore, if we have two springs such that K1 >
K2 and same mass is attached to both mass-spring systems. Physically it will be noticed that spring
system with spring constant “K1” will have quicker vibration, smaller time period and higher
frequency than the system with spring constant” K2”.

Figure 5: Mass-spring system

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3.4 Procedure
1. Set up the spring as Figure 5.
2. Measure the initial position (xi) of pointer on meter stick.
3. Hang a m1 on first spring and record the final position (xf).
4. Repeat the step 3 for different masses (m2, m3, m4).
5. Repeat the steps 3 and 4 for second spring.
6. Calculate the applied force for different masses and spring.
7. Calculate 𝑘 using F and X
Table 3: Calculation of spring constant for mass-spring system 1
S Applied Weight of Initial Final Displacement Slope=k=F/X
# mass applied displacement displacement X=xf-xi (N/cm)
M (kg) mass F (N) xi (cm) xf (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Table 4: Calculation of spring constant for mass-spring system 2

S# Applied Weight Initial Final Displacement Slope=k=F/X
mass of displacement displacement X=xf-xi (N/cm)
M (kg) applied xi (cm) xf (cm) (cm)
mass F
(N)
1
2
3
4
5

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Force
(N)

Displacement (cm)

Note: Take suitable scale to draw force-displacement curve

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Experiment 4
Tensile testing in Universal Testing Machine

4.1 Objective
To determine the yield strength 𝜎𝑦 , proportional limit, modulus of elasticity (E), and ultimate
Strength 𝜎𝑢 , ductility, and toughness for each metal.
4.2 Apparatus
Structural steel and commercial copper samples, Vernier Caliper, and Universal testing machine
(UTM).
4.3 Theory
Universal testing machine is used to find material properties such as yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength modulus of elasticity, ductility and toughness. A sample is prepared according American
Society of Testing and Material (ASTM).For structural steel and other metals usually this samples
is a cylindrical in the shape of dog bone as shown in Figure 6.The sample is then gripped in the
upper and lower seat jaws of UTM (Figure 7). Upper seat jaw is attached to fix upper cross head
while lower seat jaw is attached to movable lower cross head. Pressing on switch button UTM
machine becomes active and movable cross head stretch the sample. Require parameters such as
applied force, change in length, stress and strain value display on computer screen. Finally a stress-
strain graph (Figure 8) is printed out and proceeded for further analysis.

Figure 6: Tensile sample

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 Fix upper
Upper jaw cross head
seat

Printer
Movable
Lower lower cross
Jaw seat head Computer system

Screw
Compression
plate
Base

Figure 7: Universal testing machine (UTM)

4.3.1 Temnilogy
Engineering Stress
Force per unit original area is called engineering stress
Mathematically

Stress (σ) = Force (F) /Original area (𝐴𝑜 )

Strain
Change in length per unit original length is called strain.
Mathematically

Strain (ϵ) = Change in length (∆L)/Original length (𝐿𝑜 )

Elastic Region
Elastic region has two parts linear and nonlinear parts.
Linear elastic region

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The region in stress-strain curve where the relation between stress and strain is directly
proportional (Hook’s law obeys). Within the proportional limit material behaves elasticity and will
not undergo permanent deformation.
Nonlinear elastic region
The region in stress-strain curve where Hook’s law is not applicable but still material behaves
elastically and will not undergo permanent deformation. This region starts from the point where
linearity stop up to yield point.
Yield point
The point at which material starts plastic behavior. The strength at this point is called yield
strength. For design purpose it is recommended that applied load should be less than yield point
while in manufacturing applied load should be greater than yield strength. When yield point is not
clearly visible from stress-strain curve then it is suggested to take offset of 0.2 % to linear region.
Plastic Region
The region after yield point is called plastic region. This region consists of two portions, strain
hardening and necking zone, are separated by a peak point. The strength at the peak point is called
ultimate tensile strength.
Strain hardening zone
This zone is between yield point and peak point. Physically material becomes strong in strain
hardening zone.
Necking zone
This zone is also called plastic instability and it starts after the peak point. Physically deformation
localized in a specific location of the material and thickness of material reduces. Finally material
breaks at a point and separated in to two parts. The strength at breaking point is called fracture
strength.
Ultimate tensile strength
The strength at peak point of stress-strain curve is called ultimate tensile strength. It shows the
maximum strength that a material can endure.
Fracture Strength
It is the stress at which material fails via fracture.
Elasticity and Young modulus of elasticity
Elasticity is the property of a body to come its original shape after deformation. While modulus of
elasticity (E) is the slope linear elastic region in stress-strain curve. Physically it quantifies that
higher the value of Young modulus of elasticity, higher stress will be needed to deform a body.

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Mathematically
Young modulus of elasticity (E) = (a value of stress (σ) at a point in linear elastic region) / (value
of strain (ϵ) at that point)
E=σ/ϵ
Ductility
It is the ability of a body to plasticity deform up to the rapture. It can be represented percent
elongation in length or percent reduction in cross section.
Mathematically

Ductility= (∆L/L) x100 or (∆A)/ 𝐴𝑜 ) x100

Toughness
It is the amount of energy per unit volume absorb by a body due to mechanical deformation prior
to fracture. Physically toughness is the resistance of a material to fracture when the body is
subjected to plastic deformation. Toughness can be calculated by finding area under stress-strain
curve.
Mathematically
𝜖𝑓
Toughness=∫ 𝜎𝑑𝜖 𝜖𝑓 : Strain at fracture point
𝑜

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 E
Elastic Region
A=Proportional Limit
C D B=Elastic Limit
B Necking F
C=Upper Yield Point
A Strain Hardening
D=Lower Yield Point
Stress σ

E=Ultimate Tensile Strength

F=Fracture Point

Plastic Region

0.2 % offset Strain ϵ

Figure 8: Stress-strain curve
4.4 Procedure
1. Measure all the require dimensions of the sample by Vernier Calliper
2. Mount the sample properly in the jaws of UTM
3. Specify suitable value for strain rate (1.5 to 2.5)
4. Switch on the UTM and observe value for stress and strain
5. Print out the stress-strain curve
6. Find require parameters such as yield strength, ductility, fracture strength from the graph.

4.5 Assignments
Q1: Find the modulus of elasticity, yield strength (by 0.2 % offset method), ultimate tensile
strength, fracture strength, ductility and toughness for the following graphs.

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 Shear Stress -Strain Curve
25 Al-Al Lap Joint through FSW
20

Shear Stress (MPa) 15

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
-5
Strain

Stress-strain Curve of Cu-Cu Lap Joint

through FSW
35

30

25

20
Stress (MPa)

15

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-5
Strain

Figure 9: Stress-strain curve for Al and Cu lap joint

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Experiment 5
Force Balance

5.1 Aim
To verify two conditions of equilibrium.

1) Sum of all forces=0 ∑ F=0

2) Sum of all moment=0 ∑M=0

5.2 Apparatus
Force Table, including central ring and retaining pin, angle indicator three pulleys, string/chord,
three hanging masses, and bubble level.
5.3 Theory
For a body to be in fully equilibrium condition it is necessary that value of net force and net
moment acting on the body are zero. Here in the case of force table net moment is zero because all
forces are coincident and their lines of action have intersecting point at pin of the force table. While
magnitude of hanging masses and angle at which the weight of these masses acting are varied until
the body comes to complete equilibrium condition.

Bubble level

Angle indicator
Adjustable
screw

Figure 10: Force Table

5.4 Procedure
1. Level the force table and put one of the pulleys at the angle 0°.
2. Put the slot weights in the holders such that each one has a total mass of 200 g.

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3. Arrange the other two pulleys such that the ring connecting the different strings remains fixed
at the exact center of the table. Tap the table to make sure that it remains fixed. At this point the
ring is at equilibrium.
4. Record as F1, F2 , and F3 , the tensions in each of the strings.
5. Record as Ɵ1, Ɵ2, Ɵ3 the respective angular positions of the pulleys.
6. Find the x and y components of each of the tensions. Record these as F1x , F1y, etcetera.
7. Now find the resultant force vector by adding the respective components of the individual string
forces.
8. Now follow same steps for other masses
8. Repeat the steps 1, 8 for given masses but change the angle.
Table 5: Verification of condition of equilibrium
Quantity Change Masses Change Angles
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4
Mass m1
Mass m2
Mass m3
Force F1
Force F2
Force F3
Angle Ɵ1
Angle Ɵ2
Angle Ɵ3
F1x
F2x
F3x
∑Fx
F1y
F2Y
F3y
∑Fy

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Experiment 6
Roof Truss
6.1 Aim
To investigate the relationship between the measured forces in a loaded frame experimentally and
theoretically.
6.2 Apparatus
Loads, dial gauge, and roof truss apparatus.
6.3 Theory
A truss is a useful structure in construction consisting of elements that takes only tension (T) or
compression (C) and no bending is induced what so ever. The members are connected with a gusset
joint that is either riveted, bolted or welded in such a way that has only axial forces are induced in
the structure. The reason behind axial forces is the reason that the external loads are applied in
such a way that their effects are in the form of forces applying only on joints. When designing and
analyzing a truss structure that is to be subjected to a given load the forces that each member and
joint of the structure will undergo under the application of the load, must first be determined.
Each truss member acts as a two force member and therefore the forces at the ends of the member
must be directed along the axis of the member. If the force tends to pull away from the ends of the
member it is a tensile force (T), meaning it undergoes tension. If the force tends to push into the
member it is compressive force (C), meaning it undergoes compression. Compression members
must be made thicker than tension members because of the buckling of column effect that occurs
when a member is in compression. This experiment will determining the forces possess of each
member of the simple truss structure by applying the forces downward at joint C. After that, the
reading from the dial gauge will be applied for determining the force at the joints respectively by
multiplying the calibration.

Pin
Joint
Dial
Gauge

Slider Fixed
Joint Load Joint

Figure 11: Roof Truss Apparatus

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6.4 Procedure
1. Place the 10N to the load hanger (W) and record the loaded reading using dial gauge.
2. Increase the load gradually each time, by adding 10 N to the load hanger and record the readings
until the maximum load 40N.
3. Calculate both the experimental and theoretical values of the forces in the members and tabulate
the result.
Table 6: Comparison b/w experimental and theoretical members force acting on roof truss
Applie Experime Theoretical Experimen Theoretical Experimen Theoretical
d Load ntally 𝑭𝑨𝑩 ly 𝑭𝑨𝑩 tally 𝑭𝑩𝑪 ly 𝑭𝑩𝑪 tally 𝑭𝑪𝑨 ly 𝑭𝑪𝑨

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Experiment 7
Centroid of Regular and Irregular Objects
7.1 Aim
To determine the position of the centroids of different regular and irregular shaped objects.

7.2 Apparatus
Several regularly and irregular shaped object, plumb bob and pins.

7.3 Theory
The weight of an object is considered to act on a point (inside/outside).This imaginary point is
called center of gravity. It depends on the value of gravitational acceleration i.e. upon changing
the value of gravitational acceleration (g) the position of center of gravity changes. On other hand,
when the value gravitational acceleration is constant then center of mass is coincident with center
of gravity. Interestingly, all three points i.e. center of gravity and center of mass and geometrical
center (centroid) are coincident when both gravitational acceleration and density are constant as
summarized in Table 3. Theoretically centroid is calculated by balancing method while plumb line
method is used to experimentally locate centroid of a body.

Table 3: Cases for gravitational,mass and geomertical centers

Quantity Constant Centres

g≠variable , ρ≠constant -
g=constant Centre of gravity=Centre of
mass
g=constant, ρ=constant Centre of mass=centre of
gravity=Centriod

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 Right angled
traingle
Figure 5:Centriod of different object

a) Suspend object on b) Hang plumb line c) Intersection of plumb lines

cardbord
Figure 6: Experimental Procedure to Find Centriod of liminar bodies

7.4 Procedure
1. Hang the object through a point on the nail of the cardboard
2. Attach a plumb line to the nail.
3. Mark position plumb line thread on the cardboard with the help of a rule or a straight edge
4. Repeat steps 1,2 and 3 for the remaining holes, marking the positions of the plumb-lines
Carefully.
5. Locate the intersection of the three lines drawn; this indicates the centre of gravity of the
object.
6. For regular bodies varify the results theoritical as well

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Experiment 8
Static Coefficient of Friction of an Inclined Plane
8.1 Aim
To measure the coefficients of static and kinetic friction between different metal blocks and a metal
plane.
8.2 Apparatus
Inclined plane, three different blocks of Al, Cu and steel, circular scale (in degree).
8.3 Theory
Friction is the force that resists the relative motion of two contacted surfaces. There are two types
of friction i.e static and kinetic. Normally, the kinetic frictional force is less than the maximum
value of the static frictional force. The maximum value of static frictional force is given by
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
While the kinetic frictional force is given by
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

Where µs is the coefficient of static friction, µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the
normal force. If 𝑓𝑘 versus N is graphed, the slope of the line is µk for the system. Similarly, if
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 versus N is graphed, the slope of the line is µs . The angle of repose is defined as the angle
at which an object just starts to slide down an inclined plane. If Ɵ is the angle of repose, it can be
shown that µs = tanƟ . We will call this method to determine the static coefficient of friction the
angle of repose method. It can also be shown that when an object slides down an incline at constant
velocity, µk = tanƟ . In this experiment, the frictional force between a metal block and the metal
surface of a horizontal and inclined plane will be measured, and from these plotted data, the
coefficients of static and kinetic friction will be obtained. The angle of repose method will also be
used to determine the coefficient of static friction. Lastly, the coefficient of kinetic friction will be
determined by a second method (called constant velocity method) by noting the angle Ɵ that the
block slides down an incline without accelerating and then using µk = tanƟ
8.4 Procedure

1. Measure the mass of the metal block with the Triple-Beam balance and calculate its weight in
newtons.
2. Keep the metal block on the horizontal surface of metal plane.

3. Increase the angle of metal plane and carefully note angle till metal block just start motion on
surface of metal plane.

27
4. Then note down that angle and repeat steps 1-3 and take average of angle for better accuracy
that will be the required angle of repose Ɵ.
5. Finally take tanƟ to find static coefficient of friction.
6. Plot the graph between friction force and angle.

Figure: Friction of Inclined Plane Apparatus

Maximum force
Friction force (N)

Body in motion
Body in rest

Applied force (N)

Figure: Friction Force-Applied Force Curve

28
Experiment 9
Determination of Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel
9.1 Aim
To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel.

9.2 Apparatus
Flywheel, weight hanger, slotted weights, stop watch, meter scale.
9.3 Theory
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy. Its
applications are extended to engine, toys and sewing machines. Flywheels resist changes in
rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is
proportional to the square of its rotational speed. Since flywheels act as mechanical energy storage
devices, they are the kinetic-energy-storage analogue to electrical capacitors, for example, which
are a type of accumulator. Flywheel consists of a heavy circular disc/massive wheel fitted with a
strong axle projecting on either side. The axle is mounted on ball bearings on two fixed supports.
There is a small peg on the axle. One end of a cord is loosely looped around the peg and its other
end carries the weight-hanger. Let "m" be the mass of the weight hanger and hanging rings (weight
assembly).When the mass "m" descends through a height "h", the loss in potential energy is
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠=𝑚𝑔ℎ

The resulting gain of kinetic energy in the rotating flywheel assembly (flywheel and axle) is

𝑊𝑓=𝑛𝑤𝑓
Where
n - Number of times the cord is wrapped around the axle

𝑤𝑓 - Work done to overcome the frictional torque in rotating the flywheel assembly completely
once
Therefore from the law of conservation of energy we get
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠=𝐾.𝐸𝑓𝑙𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 +𝐾.𝐸𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 +𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝜔 2 𝐼𝑟 2 𝜔2 𝑛𝐼𝜔 2
Or 𝑚𝑔ℎ = + +
2 2 2𝑁
𝑁𝑚 2𝑔ℎ
Or I=𝑁+𝑛 ( 𝜔2 − 𝑟 2)

9.4 Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the axle with vernier calipers at different points and find the mean.
2. Attach the mass with string.
3. Wrap the string or thread axle of flywheel for allotted number of turns (n1=4 or 6 or 8).

29
4. Allow to fall the mass.
5. After fall of the mass, note the number of oscillation of flywheel (n2) and corresponding time
(t2) till the flywheel stopped.
6. Repeat procedure from 2-5 at fixed n1 for different masses (e.g. m=100, 150, 200, 250, 300gm)

S Mass, Height String turn Rotation Time, Angular Moment of interia

4𝜋𝑁 𝑁𝑚 2𝑔ℎ
# m (kg) h(m) n of t(sec) velocity,ω=( 𝑡 ) I=𝑁+𝑛 ( 𝜔2 − 𝑟 2)
wheel, N
1
2
3
4

n, Number
of turn wrap

Figure:Flywheel

30
Experiment 10
Jib Crane Apparatus
10.1 Aim
To verify the forces in different members of jib crane apparatus.
10.2 Apparatus
Eib crane apparatus, weights, thread, meter scale etc

10.3 Theory
Lami’s Theorem:

If three forces are acting on a system & if it is Equilibrium, then these forces can be represented
by three sides of triangle & each force is proportional to.
𝑊 𝐽 𝑇
= =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑊𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑊𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼
Then theoritically 𝐽 = and 𝑇 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽

Figure: Jib Crane Apparatus

Procedure10.4
1) Carefully study the working of apparatus.
2) Note down the error, if any on the spring balance.
3) Apply weights at the apex points using a hanger frame.
4) Note-down the readings on the spring balance.
5) Note down the length of vertical part, tie & jib as well as
horizontal balance.

31
6) Draw the space diagram of jib crane using suitable scale.
7) Measure the angles at the apex point from the diagram.

8) Using Lamin’s theorem find the forces in the jib & tie.

9) Draw the triangle of forces to suitable scale.

10) Find the forces in the jib & tie from the triangle of
forces by graphical method.

S# Experimental Value Theoritical Error in Jib Error in Tie

force force
Force at Jib Force at Force at Jib Force at
Tie Tie

32
Experiment 11
Reaction Beam Apparatus
11.1 Aim
To find the forces at the joints of the simple supported beam.

11.2 Apparatus
A beam with hole at regular distance, two force balance connect to the end of the beam, meter rod.

11.3 Theory
For complete equilibrium condition, a body need to satisfy the two condition of equilibrium: sum
of all forces and sum of all moment acting in the body are equal to zero. Mathematically this
relation can be represented as
∑F=0 Sum of all forces are equal to zero
∑M=0 Sum of all moments are equal to zero
11.4 Procedure
1. Attached the force balance at specific distance and measure the length of the beam
2. Make sure that beam is in the horizental position
3. Note the intial reading of the two force balances
3. Attached a known mass with help of mass hanger at known distance from an end of the joint.
4. Now observe the final reading of the force balances.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 by attaching masses at different location.

Applied Location of Experimental Value Theoritical Error in Error in

Mass Applied mass Joint A Joint B
from Joint A force force

Force at Force at Joint B Force at Force at

Join A Joint A Joint B

33
Force Balance at Force Balance at
Joint A Joint B

Mass ‘m’

Figure: Reaction Beam Apparatus

34
Experiment 12
Mechanical Advantage of Toggle Joint Apparatus
12.1 Aim
To find the mechanical advantage of toggle joint apparatus
12.2 Apparatus
Toggle joint apparatus, hanger, different mass, tape measure
12.3 Theory
Mechanical advantage show the efficiency of a machine. It is defined as the ratio of the work done
by the machine to the work done on the machine. Mathematically it can be represented as.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
12.4 Procedure
1. By means of a measuring tape, measure the vertical height (h) of the apparatus and the horizontal
length (D) with no loads attached (as a reference).
2. Now add a known weight to the hanger. This is the effort P.
3. Note down the reading from the spring balance. This is the load P.
4. By means of measuring tape, measure and note down D and h.

5. The actual value of Mechanical Advantage is calculated by dividing effort (P) by Load (F)
whereas the theoretical value is given by D/4h.
6. The experiment is repeated for different values of P.

S# Load Effort Height Length Mechanical %age

F P h D Advantage errror
(N) (N) (mm) (mm) Experimental Theoratical
(F/P) (D/4h)
1
2
3

35
 Fix member

Height “H”
Fix member Hanger

Mass

Variable length member

Length “D”
Figure: Toggle Joint Apparatus

36
Experiment 13
Impact test
13.1 Aim
To find the impact resistance and toughness of a material under impact load
13.2 Apparatus
Impact testing machine, samples of U , V and key notch notch.
13.3 Theory
Charpy and Izod, are designed and used extensively to measure the impact energy, Charpy v-
notched impact tests are more common in practice. The load is applied as an impact blow from a
weighted pendulum hammer that is released from a position at a fixed height h. The specimen is
positioned at the base and with the release of pendulum, which has a knife edge, strikes and
fractures the specimen at the notch. The pendulum continues its swing, rising a maximum height
h ' which should be lower than h naturally. The energy absorbed at fracture E can be obtained by
simply calculating the difference in potential energy of the pendulum before and after the test such
as,
E=m.g(h- h ') where m is the mass of the pendulum hammer , g is gravitational acceleration and h
is the initial height before hammer is hit where h ' is the final height after hammer is hit.

Impact testing machine

37
 V-notch U-notch
Keyhole-notch
Impact testing samples

Izod Impact Test

Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact resistance of materials.
A pivoting arm is raised to a specific height (constant potential energy) and then released. The arm
swings down hitting a notched sample, breaking the specimen. The energy absorbed by the sample
is calculated from the height the arm swings to after hitting the sample. A notched sample is
generally used to determine impact energy and notch sensitivity.

Izod impact testing sample

Charpy Impact Test

During Charpy impact test the sample is held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to
a three-point bending configuration as shown in the following figure. The disadvantage of the Izod
test over Charpy test is that every sample is needed to be clamped. Also U notch has longer life
than V notch sample.

38
 Charpy impact test sample

13.4 Procedure
1. Clamp the sample
2. Set the hammer at required position.
3. Note the initial height h of the hammer
4.Release the hammer and note the final height h ' after striking the sample.
S# Intial height , h Final height, h ' Change in height Toghneess engery
∆h= h- h ' E=m.g. ∆h

39
Experiment 14
Fatigue Testing
14.1 Aim
To find the strength of a material under cyclic loading
14.2 Apparatus
Fatigue testing machine, fatigue sample and various load
14.3 Theory
Fatigue failure accounts for the majority of mechanical failure of metallic materials subjected to
cyclic loads. Fatigue failures result from repeated applications of stress which is usually well below
the static yield stress. Fatigue cycles are often completely reversed state of stress, i.e. tension and
compression in a rotating beam but can also be tension-tension. In all cases the number of cycles
to produce failure increases with the lowering of the stress leve1. There are different types of
fatigue testing machines. The modem fatigue test frames are servo-controlled electro-hydraulic or
electro-mechanical devices, Rotary bending fatigue testing machines are simple and low-cost
practical machines which are used since 1850.

Each point on the surface of the rotating specimen will go trough the points 1, 2, 3, etc. and will
be subjected to a dynamic stress. The stress - time curve is a sinusoidal curve with the amplitude
a . The load F can be adjusted by positioning the sliding piece with the weight G. The number of
rotations is determined by a counter and the machine is stopped at failure. The "stress amplitude -
number of cycles" curve can be determined by repeatingthe test at different stress levels.

Fatigue testing setup Sinosadal load

40
Experiment 15
Hardness Test
15.1 Aim
To know the principles of indentation hardness testing
15.2 Apparatus
Rockwell hardness tester , Brinell hardness tester, Microhardness (Vickers) tester, various test
specimens
15.3 Theory
Hardness is generally considered as resistance to penetration. The harder the materials, the greater
the resistance to penetration. Hardness is directly related to the mechanical properties of the
material. Factors influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain hardening, etc.
Generally as hardness increases so does yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS), thus
specifications often require the results of hardness tests rather than tensile tests. The most popular
methods are Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness tests for metals and alloys.
Brinell Test
In a standard Brinell test 10 mm diameter hardened steel ball is forced to penetrate the material by
3000 kgf for steels and cast irons. The load and ball diameter selection is important depending on
the hardness of materials and 500 kgf is used for softer materials with the same ball diameter.
Keeping the ratio of load P to the square of diameter D constant (30 for steels and cast irons and 5
for soft metals and alloys), different load and ball diameter combinations can be selected and used
in Brinell hardness testing. The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is obtained by dividing the
applied force P, in kgf; by the curved surface area of the indentation, which is actually a segment
of sphere. The geometry of indentation is given in Figure-1, and the hardness is determined
according to the relationship,
2𝑃
𝐵𝐻𝑁 =
𝜋𝐷[𝐷 − (𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )]2
where D is the diameter of the indenter ball and d is the average diameter of the indentation, both
in mm.

41
Vickers Test
The Vickers hardness test is based on the same principle as the Brinell test, except the indenter is
a diamond pyramid with square base. The angle between the faces of pyramid is 1360 as shown in
Figure-2. The Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) of materials is obtained by dividing the applied
force P, in kgf, by the surface of the pyramidal depression yielding the relationship,
1.8544𝑃
𝑉𝐻𝑁 =
𝑑2

(in some sources VHN is cited as DPH)

where d is the average length of diagonals in mm. Due to the shape and hardness of indenter the
method is applicable to metals and alloys with wide variety of hardness. Test load is selected
between 1 and 120 kgf depending on the hardness of materials. It is also possible to apply micro
hardness testing by keeping the force between 5 grf and 2 kgf in Vickers scale.
Rockwell Test
In the Rockwell test, a diamond cone or a hard steel ball is employed as the indenter depending on
the hardness of materials. Diamond cone or Brale indenter with cone angle of 1200 is used to test
hard materials and the balls of sizes between 1.6 mm (1/16") and 12.7 mm (1/2") are used in testing
softer materials. Rockwell tests differ from other indentation hardness tests in that the depth of
indentation determines the hardness rather than the indentation size (see Figure- 3). Therefore,
surface condition of specimens is very important in Rockwell testing because of its high
dependency on the accuracy in indentation depth measurements. In order to establish a reference
position a minor load of 10 kgf. is first applied, and the major load is then applied. Additional
penetration due to major load is measured and readings are obtained from a calibrated scale (dial)
directly, which has a maximum value of 100, depending on the depth of penetration. Most
commonly used Rockwell hardness scales are given in Table-l with typical applications. The
hardness numbers are designated HRX, where X indicates the scale used (i.e. 50 HRC for 50 points

42
on the C scale of dial). It should be noted that a Rockwell hardness number is meaningless unless
the scale is not specified.
HR=E-e

Increasing depth of peneration in Rockwell test

Commonly used Rockwell Table

Since the deformations caused by an indenter are of similar magnitude to those occurring at the
ultimate tensile strength in a tension test, some empirical relationships have been established
between hardness and engineering ultimate tensile strength of metals and alloys. For example, for
steels UTS can be roughly estimated from Brinell hardness as follows:
UTS (in MPa) = 3.45 x BHN

15.3 Procedure
1. Determine the proper Rockwell hardness scale,
2. Calibrate the Rockwell hardness tester
3. Take five readings per specimen

43
4. Perform Brinell hardness measurements on designated specimens (3 readings)
5. Using microhardness tester, determine the VHN at 0.20 mm distances from the surface to the
center of case carburized specimen, until the hardness remains unchanged
6. Determine the core hardness of the carburized steel.

44
 Experiment 16
Torsion Test
16.1 Aim
To perform torsion test and find modulus of rigidity, shear strength, shear strain and ductility in
torsion
16.2 Apparatus
Torsion test device, mild steel and cast iron specimens
16.3 Theory
Shear Modulus
It is the ratio of shear stress and shear strain of the material.
Shear Stress τ
G= =
Shear Strain γ

This formula only work when the material is stressed in its elastic region
Shear strain is calculated by using the following formula
CƟ
γ=
L
Where C is the maximum radius of the shaft, Ɵ is the angle of the twist and L is the length where
interested to find the shear strain.

Specimens after torsoin test

Note: Fracture in torsion for ductile materials generally occur in the plane of maximum shear
stress perpendicular to the axis of bar where as for the brittle material failure occurs along 45°
helix to the axis of bar due to tensile stress across that plane.

45
Torsion stress
When a torque is applied to a member such as shaft fix at one end, it twist the shaft then the stress
created is called torsion stress.
Mathematically torsion stress is calculate as
𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐺𝐽
Where G is modulus of rigidity, r is the radius of the shaft, J is polar moment of inertia and T is
the applied torque
Torque=T= Force applied x moment arm
𝜋𝐷 4
Polar moment of inertia= J= 16

Torsion Test Devices

16.4 Procedure
1. Note the dimensions and draw the shape of the specimen.
(Note effective length, total length, diameter etc.)
2. Fix specimen into 10 Ton Buckton UTM.
3. Use twist control method (other one is torsional strain control method)

46
4. To apply the twist to the sample, rotate the handle counter clock wise for required degree of
twist. Machine’s one complete cycle will give 4° of twist.
5. Balance arm of the machine will get disturbed again. Try to balance it with the help of concerned
handle and note down the value of balancing load.
6. Repeat the same procedure with increasing value of twist until the member fails.
7. Examine the failure pattern of the specimen and draw sketch after failure. (same for cast iron )

Comparison between shear stress-strain and normal stress-strain curve

Angle of Twist
(Radyan) Torque (N.m) Shear Stress Shear strain
0 0 0 0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03

47
 Experiment 17
Metallographic Lab
17.1 Aim
To study the structural characteristics or constitution of a metal or an alloy in relation to its physical
and mechanical properties.
17.2 Apparatus
Silicon carbide sand paper, polishing cloth, lubricant, etching reagent, optical microscope
17.3 Theory
There are two examination methods in metallography:
Macroscopy
In macroscopy the examination of the structural characteristics or chemical characteristics of a
metal or an alloy is done by the unaided eye or with the aid of a low-power microscope or
binocular, usually under l0x
Microscopy
In microscopy similar examination is done with the prepared metal specimens, employing
magnifications with the optical microscope of from 100x to as high as 2000x.
Grinding
A small piece of specimen is cut by a metal-cutting-saw. After cutting operation, burrs on the
edges of the specimen should be carefully removed by a fine file or coarse grinding paper. The
silicon carbide grinding papers are held flat in a unit containing water facility for lubrication
purpose. Each unit contains four grades of papers, starting with grade 400 (coarse) and finishing
with grade 1200 (fine). Grinding of the work piece is done by starting with the coarse papers and
then continuing with the fine papers. In each stage, grinding is done by rubbing the specimen
backwards and forwards on the grinding paper in one direction only, until the surface is completely
ground, that is, until only grinding marks due to this particular paper can be seen to cover the
whole surface. The specimen is washed thoroughly to remove coarse silicon carbide particles
before proceeding to a finer paper. The direction of grinding is changed from paper to paper, so
that the removal of previous grinding marks is easily observed. The extra time spent on each paper
should be increased as the finer papers are used. At the end of the grinding sequence, the specimen
is washed thoroughly and dried. Now, the specimen is ready for polishing.
Polishing
The polishing is done on rotating wheels covered by a special cloth. Alumina is employed as
polishing agent. The 1-micron size is commonly used, but the total polishing time shortened by
starting on the 7 or 3 micron grade. The pad should be kept well supplied with lubricant. The
specimen should be held firmly in contact with the polishing wheel, but excessive pressure should
be avoided. During polishing the specimen should be rotated or moved around the wheel so as to
give an even polish. The specimen should be thoroughly cleaned and dried between each wheel.

48
Etching
Before etching, it is essential to ensure that the polished surface is grease and smear free. If the
final polishing has involved the use of magnesia ( in the form of an aqueous paste of fine magnesia)
or alumina (in the form of an aqueous suspension of fine alumina), then thorough washing followed
by drying off with acetone or alcohol will give a suitable surface, although it must not be fingered
afterwards. Etching is generally done by swabbing. Etching times will vary from specimen to
specimen, however, a good general, procedure is to observe the surface during etching, and to
remove the specimen when evidence of the grains first appears. Microscopical examination will
then reveal whether the degree of etching is sufficient. Further etching can then follow to
strengthen up the details as required.
After each etching, the specimen should be thoroughly washed in running water, followed by
drying off with acetone or alcohol.
* As a guide the following etchants are commonly used:
Alcoholic Ferric Chloride -copper alloys
Mixed Acids -aluminum alloys
Nital (ethyl alcohol+ 2% HN03) -iron and steel
Dilute HCI -zinc alloy
Microscopial Examination
The microstructural study of a material can provide information regarding the morphology and
distribution of constituent phases as well as the nature and pattern of certain crystal imperfections.
Optical metallography is a basic tool of material scientists, since the equipment is relatively
inexpensive and the images can be obtained and interpreted easily. Distribution and morphology
of the phases can be studied and, if their properties are known, a quantitative analysis of the
micrographs provides some information about the bulk properties of the specimen. A limited study
of line and surface informations is also possible with the optical microscope. In order to obtain
reproducible results, with good contrast in the image, the specimen surface is polished and
subsequently etched with appropriate reagents before microscopic examination. In a polished
specimen, the etching not only delineates grain boundaries, but also allows the different phases to
be distinguished by differences in brightness, shape, and color of the grain. Differences in contrast
may result from differences in light absorption characteristics of the phases. Etching results in
preferential attack or preferential colouring of the surface. The preferential attack is
electrochemical corrosion; it is well known that different materials corrode at different rates. Grain
boundaries are often anodic to the bulk metal in the interior of the grain and so are etched away
preferentially and delineated. Staining is produced by the deposition of solid etch product on the
specimen surface. This is formed by chemical reaction between the etchant and the specimen.
Under favorable conditions the use of a proper etchant enables the identification of constituents.
Failure analysis depends a great deal on metallographic examination.
Microstructural examination can provide quantitative information about the following parameters:
1) The grain size of specimens

49
2) The amount of interfacial area per unit volume
3) The dimensions of constituent phases
4) The amount and distribution of phases.
Magnifications up to 1000x can be obtained with a resolution of 2 Vm. For grain size
measurements, the grains along a line, circle, or within a known area are counted. It would be
useful to obtain an average value of grain diameter from a microstructural section. In linear
intercept method, the grains intercepted by a theoretical line on the specimen surface are counted
(Fig. 1). The number of grain boundaries intersected per unit length of a test line (nL) can be noted.
The average grain size is indicated by the inverse of nL, corrected for the magnification, M, of the
micrograph. In general, then, the average grain diameter, d, is given by
𝐶
𝑑=
𝑛𝐿 𝑀
where C is some constant greater than 1 ( Typically, a value of C=1.5 is adequate).

Linear intercept method for grain size determination

17.4 Procedure
1. Prepare sample according to require dimension using cutting machine.
2. Mount the sample and the grind the sample to remove the burrs by rotating wheel with assistance
of coolant.
3. Polish the sample to increase surface properties by using lubricant.
4. Apply required etching reagent
5. Fix the sample to glass slide through plasticine and examine the sample under optical
microscope

50