Signals and Spectra

Chapter – 3
 Signals and spectra in electrical system
• Signals in electrical systems
– Voltage and current waveform
– Defined frequency content

• EM field/wave is defined in terms of frequency,

amplitude and space

• Design of EMC circuits

– requires knowledge of signals in electrical systems, and
their frequency content as high frequency signals are often
present in a system
 Recap of signals in electrical systems
• Signals – voltage or current waveforms
Energy

Power

Signal
classification Deterministic

Non-
deterministic

Periodic

Non-periodic
 Signal classification
• Energy signals – possess finite energy over infinite
time interval i.e., (t1:-; t2: +)

• Power signals – possess finite average power

• Deterministic signals – precise time behavior is

known; can be expressed mathematically. E.g.
sinusoid, clock

• Non-deterministic signals – random nature; only

signal statistics is known. E.g. digital data signals
• Periodic signals – repetitive time domain signals
– g(t) = g(t  nT); t: time, T: period, n=1,2,3,…, f=1/T
– Periodic signals are power signals
– E.g. sinusoids, digital clock
g(t) = A cos(2ft+); A: amplitude, : phase

• A-periodic/non-periodic signals – do not have

periodic behavior
– Non-periodic signals are energy signals
 Signals and spectra in electrical system
• Signal types encountered in electrical systems
– narrowband continuous wave (E.g. sinusoid)
– repetitive broadband signals (E.g. digital clock)
– single event broadband signals (E.g. spark discharges,
switching)

• Relationship between rise time and wave shape, and

their spectra is essential for EMC circuit design
 Signal representation
• Series expansions and basis functions
– Linear combination of simple signals known as basis
functions
• Periodic signal, g(t) with period T expressed as,
g(t)

where cn :expansion coefficients; n(t): periodic orthogonal

basis function with period T satisfying the condition,
• Expansion coefficients are as follows:

• Thus, system response to a complex periodic signal

can be determined by finding the linear superposition
of the responses for simple inputs
• Choice of basis function is important

• E.g. digital clock with period T is composed of

several sinusoids oscillating at some integer multiple
of f
Illustration of signal representation as summation of fundamental
and integer harmonics
 Fourier series
• Most common representation of periodic signals
• Signal must satisfy the following conditions for the
series to converge
1. Function/signal f(t) must be absolutely integrable over a
period

2. f(t) is finite for all t in a period, T

3. f(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima over T
4. f(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in a period, T
 Trignometric Fourier series
• Periodic signal f(t) can be represented as

where

• The terms an and bn are found using orthogonal

properties of the basis functions
 Complex exponential Fourier series
• More common and useful representation
• Basis function, with
orthogonality property,
• Fourier series expansion:
with expansion coefficients,

; c-n= cn*
• Relationship with trignometric Fourier Series
coefficients
 Justification for using
• Let Sn(t) be a Fourier series representation with 2n+1
terms,

• The number n is selected such that error,

is minimized in mean square terms, i.e.,
 Fourier series properties
• Linearity
If waveform is a linear sum of more functions,
Then f(t) can be written as linear combination of the sum of the Fourier
series.

• Time shifting
If a waveform is shifted in time by , the Fourier series representation of the
signal is obtained by scaling the series expansion coefficients by exp(jn0)
• Unit impulse function is defined as,
or
• Thus,

• Let us consider a periodic train of impulses,

• Fourier coefficient of an impulse,

Differentiation property
• Consider the signal,
• Taking derivation w.r.t time, we get

• Taking ith derivative w.r.t time we get,

• The Fourier coeff of the ith derivative is related to

Fourier coeff of f(t) by,
 Assignment
• Calculate the Fourier series coeff. of rectangular
pulse train:
 Unit impulse representation of pulse train
• Cn of pulse train can be computed in terms of Cn1 i.e.
derivative of f(x),

• Using, we have
 Trapezoidal waveforms
• Finite rise and fall times, pulse width, 

• Cn of x(t) can be represented in terms of its

derivatives Cn(2)
If then,
Upon simplifying,

Using property,
Spectral content and EMI sources
 Envelope of trapezoidal waveform

Envelope:

Slope of 0dB/decade for,

Second term is 20 dB/decade till f=1/pitau_r

 Spectra of a-periodic signals
• Fourier transform,

where

• Frequency content of short pulse created due to ESD, an

EM pulse, glitch in IC, or lightning event can be
examined using Fourier transform, random data signals

• Satisfies linearity, superposition, differentiation, time

shifting, impulse function property
 Eg. 1. Short rectangular pulse

Pulse width governs the spectrum

• Fourier transform,
 E.g. 2. Gaussian Pulse
Let the short pulse be represented by, x(t)=e-at^2then X(f) is given by,

a=4

• Larger a ==> broader spectrum

Pulse spread governs the spectrum
 E.g. 3. Random data signals
• Frequency content is represented by power spectral
density,
Rx(t): auto correlation function,
overbar indicates statistical average of the signal
• Let x(t) represent the random signal that transitions
between 0 and X0. Then, and m(t) is
random variable that varies between +1 and −1 with
equal prob. in bit interval: nT to (n+1)T, T: bit rate
• PSD of random data signal,

• Average power, Note:

T: bit rate governs the spectral
content of random data signals
like the rise time in periodic
signals