THE HUMAN ORGANISM

Prepared by
Prof. Elizabeth D. Cruz, RN, MAN

DEFINITION

ANATOMY
 is the study of body structure of the body parts and physical relationship among body
parts
 Means dissect or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study.

SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
1. GROSS OR MACROSCOPIC
 parts visible to naked eyes
 E.g. regional, surface, systemic

2. MICROSCOPIC
 Cytology: study of cells
 Histology: study of tissues

3. DEVELOPMENTAL
 eg. Embryology- study changes that occur before birth

TYPES OF ANATOMY STUDY

1. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
 Is the study of body by organ systems
 e.g. circulatory, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems
2. REGIONAL ANATOMY
 Is the study of organization of the body by areas
 e.g. head, abdomen, or arm
3. SURFACE ANATOMY
 Is the study of external features

DEFINITION

PHYSIOLOGY
 is the study of function and how organisms perform vital functions
 Complex and more difficult to examine than anatomical structures
 Focuses on functional properties
PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY ARE CLOSELY INTERRELATED IN THEORY
AND IN PRACTICE
 One cannot be fully understood without the other
 Anatomical details have an effect on function
 Physiological mechanisms are understood in terms of underlying structural relationships
 “Structure dictates function”
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ARE INTERRELATED

Example
 The elbow joint is an example of interrelationship between structure and function at the
gross anatomy level
 Functions like a hinge
 Allows movement in one plane
- Forearm moves toward or away
from shoulder, but does not twist
 Anatomical structures impose functional limits

TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGY STUDY

 The organisms involved
 Levels of organization within a given organism
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
 Is the study of specific organism, human
 Cellular and systemic physiology are examples of physiology that emphasize
specific organizational levels.
MAJOR GOALS OF PHYSIOLOGY
1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli
2. To understand how the body maintains conditions

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
 Atoms(smallest stable units of matter) combine to form molecules
 Functional properties of molecule determined by shape and atomic components
2. CELL LEVEL
 Cells are the smallest living units in the body
 Functions depend on organelles(composed of molecules)
 Each organelle has a specific function
 Example: a mitochondrion provides energy for heart muscle cell contraction.
 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
3. TISSUE LEVEL
 A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform specific functions
 Example: heart muscle cells form cardiac muscle tissue
4. ORGAN LEVEL
 An organ is composed of two or more tissues working together to perform specific
functions
 Example: layers of cardiac muscle tissue along with connective tissue form the heart

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
 Organ systems is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common
function or set of functions
 consist of interacting organs
 Functional unit composed of more than one tissue type
 Function determined and limited by specific combination and organization of tissues
within it
 For example:
 Organ with flattened shape could function well in protection (skin)
 Organ with three-dimensional shape could house other structures (liver)
 Example: the heart works with blood vessels and blood to form the cardiovascular
system

- The heart has cardiac muscle, epithelial tissue, connective tissue, and neural tissue,
which all work together as a pump.
 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION
6. ORGANISM LEVEL
 An organism is the highest level of organization
 Any living thing considered as a whole
 Collection of organ systems working together to maintain life and health
 Consists of organs that interact to perform a specific range of functions, often in
coordinated fashion
 Eleven organ systems in the human body
 None of these systems function in isolation
 All are interdependent on each other

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. ORGANIZATION
 Is the condition in which the parts of an organism have specific relationships to each
other
2. METABOLISM
 Is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions
3. RESPONSIVENESS
 Is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment
4. GROWTH
 Is an increase in size of all or part of the organism
5. DEVELOPMENT
 Includes the changes an organism undergoes through time
6. REPRODUCTION
 Is the formation of new cells

HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS (HOMEO, THE SAME + STASIS, STANDING)
 Presence of stable internal environment
 Failure to maintain homeostasis leads to illness or death

HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION
 Physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable environments
COMPONENTS OF A HOMEOSTATIC REGULATORY MECHANISM
 RECEPTOR(SENSOR)
- Sensitive to environmental change
 CONTROL CENTER (INTEGRATION CENTER)
- Processes information from the receptor and sends out commands
 EFFECTOR
- Responds to commands opposing stimulus

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL IS NOT PRECISE

 Maintains a normal range around the setpoint
 Actual value oscillates
For example:
–House thermostat set at 72ºF
–Actual temperature in the house ranges a few degrees above and below that set point

FEEDBACK
 Stimulation of a receptor triggers response that changes environment at that receptor
Negative feedback
 Effector opposes or negates the original stimulus
 Minimizes change
 Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation in the body
 Dynamic process
- Set point varies with varying environments and activity levels

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK OF TEMPERATURE REGULATION

 NEGATIVE VERSUS POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 Over time in a warm environment, the body temperature can decline past the set point,
due to sweat that has been secreted evaporating.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK ACCELERATES A PROCESS TO COMPLETION

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 Stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change (rather
than opposing it)
 Tends to produce extreme responses
 Does not restore homeostasis
POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
 Escalating cycle
 Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed
quickly before the body can restore homeostasis

BLOOD CLOTTING IS POSITIVE FEEDBACK

TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

DIRECTIONAL TERMS
 Used to describe specific points of reference
 All directions utilize anatomical position as standard point of reference
MANY DIFFERENT TERMS, OFTEN INTERCHANGEABLE

 Anterior or ventral
 Posterior or dorsal
OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS:
 Superficial—near the surface
 Deep—toward interior of body

DIRECTIONAL TERMS ARE IN RELATION TO A PERSON IN THE

ANATOMIC POSITION

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS

 The body can be divided into the limbs, heads, neck, and trunk.
 The abdomen can be divided superficially into 4 quadrants or 9 regions that are
useful for locating internal organs. or describing the location of a pain

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN

 PLANES/SECTIONS
PLANES- is a imaginary flat surfaces passing through it
▹ A sagittal plane divides the body into left and right parts.
▹ A transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
▹ A frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
SECTIONS – is a way to “look inside” and observe the body’s structures.

PLANES/SECTIONS
Frontal or coronal plane
▹ Oriented parallel to long axis
▹ Divides anterior from posterior

PLANES/SECTIONS
Sagittal Plane
▹ Runs vertically through the body parts
▹ Divides right from left parts
▹ The word sagittal literally means the flight of an arrow and refers to the way the body
would be split by an arrow passing
▹ Midsagittal (midline) and parasagittal (off midline)

PLANES/SECTIONS
Transverse or Horizontal plane
▹ Runs parallel to the surface of the ground
▹ Divides body into superior from inferior parts

ORGANS
 Are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure
 Longitudinal Section is a cut through the long axis of the organ
  Transverse or Cross section is a cut at a right angle to the long axis
 Oblique section is a cut made across the long axis at other than a right angle

BODY CAVITIES
-protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
▹ Interior of the body is subdivided into regions established by the body wall
▹ Many organs within these regions suspended in closed fluid-filled chambers called body
cavities
▹ From common embryological origin
▹ Covered by serous membrane
TWO ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
▹ 1.Protect organs from shocks and impacts
▹ 2.Permit changes in size and shape of organs

BODY CAVITIES
 BODY CAVITIES
BODY CAVITIES OF THE TRUNK
 Subdivided into two major cavities
THORACIC CAVITY
 everything deep to the chest
ABDOMINO PELVIC CAVITY
 All structures deep to abdominal and pelvic walls
 These two cavities are separated by the diaphragm
 Contains many digestive glands and organs
PELVIC CAVITY
 Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and last portion of the digestive tract

BODY CAVITIES
THORACIC CAVITY
•Everything deep to the chest wall
•Three subdivisions
TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES
–Lined by pleura
Contain the lungs
MEDIASTINUM
–Contains connective tissue and the pericardial cavity containing the heart

SEROUS MEMBRANES
- Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities
PARIETAL MEMBRANE lines the wall of the cavity
VISCERAL MEMBRANE: is in contact with the internal organs
SEROUS FLUID: secreted by the serous membrane and protects organs against friction

SEROUS MEMBRANE