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Chemistry
The Molecular Nature of
Matter and Change
Fifth Edition
Martin S. Silberberg
2-1
Matter
• Matter is any substance that has mass and
occupies volume.
• Matter exists in one of three physical states:
1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
Figure 2.1
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Compound - a substance
composed of two or more elements
which are chemically combined.
Figure 2.1
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Pure Substances
• There are two types of pure substances:
1. Compounds
2. Elements
• Compounds can be chemically separated into
individual elements.
– Water is a compound that can be separated into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• An element cannot be broken down further by
chemical reactions.
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PLAN: Samples that contain one type of matter are either an element or a
compound. An element contains only one type of particle and a
compound contains two or more. Mixtures contain more than one
type of matter.
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Names of the Elements
• Each element has a unique name.
• Names have several origins:
– Hydrogen is derived from Greek.
– Carbon is derived from Latin.
– Scandium is named for Scandinavia.
– Curium is named for Marie Curie.
– Nobelium is named for Alfred Nobel.
Silver – Ag Antimony – Sb
Copper – Cu Tin – Sn
Mercury – Hg Iron – Fe
Potassium – K Zinc– Zn
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 3
Critical Thinking: Aluminum or Aluminium?
• Most metals have names that end in –ium.
• However, element #13 is called aluminum in the
USA and Canada, and aluminium in the rest of the
world.
• The different spelling is believed to be from a
spelling error which caught on in the USA and
Canada.
• The official IUPAC name is “aluminium”;
however, in 1993, IUPAC recognized the alternate
spelling “aluminum.”
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 3
Chemical Formulas
• A unit of matter composed of two or more
nonmetal atoms is a molecule.
• A chemical formula is an expression of the
number of atoms of each element in a compound.
• The chemical formula of
sulfuric acid is H2SO4.
C6H6N2O
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Conservation of Mass Example
• If 1.0 gram of hydrogen combines with 8.0 grams
of oxygen, 9.0 grams of water is produced.
• Consequently, 3.0 grams of hydrogen combine
with 24.0 grams of oxygen to produce 27.0 grams
of water.
• If 50.0 grams of water decompose to produce
45.0 grams of oxygen, how many grams of
hydrogen are produced?
50.0 g water – 45.0 g oxygen = 5.0 g hydrogen
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Law of Conservation of Energy
• Just like matter, energy cannot be created or destroyed,
but it can be converted from one form to another.
• This is the law of conservation of energy.
• There are six forms of energy:
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Chemical
4. Electrical
5. Mechanical
6. Nuclear
Figure 2.3
Calcium carbonate
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Law of Definite Composition
• The law of definite composition states that
“Compounds always contain the same elements in
a constant proportion by mass.”
• Water is always 11.2% hydrogen and 88.8%
oxygen by mass, no matter what its source.
71.4 kg uranium
= 102 kg pitchblende x = 86.5 kg
84.2 kg pitchblende uranium
1000 g
86.5 kg uranium x = 8.65 x 104 g uranium
kg
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gO 57.1
= = 1.33
gC 42.9
gO 72.7
= = 2.66
gC 27.3
2.66 g O/g C in II 2
=
1.33 g O/g C in I 1
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https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dalton/media/1/150287/164616
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Mass conservation
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed postulate 1
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Definite composition
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Multiple proportions
Atoms of an element have the same mass postulate 3
and atoms are indivisible. postulate 1
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1. All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is the smallest body that
retains the unique identity of the element.
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PLAN: Mass conservation illustrated if number of each atom before and after
reaction remains constant. Definite composition illustrated by formation
of compounds that always have the same atom ratio. Different
compounds made of same elements have small whole number ratios of
those elements illustrates multiple proportions.
SOLUTION: Seven purple and nine green atoms in each circle, mass conserved.
One compound formed has one purple and two green, definite
composition. Law of multiple proportions does not apply.
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2-48
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Figure 2.4
Experiments to determine the properties of cathode rays.
Observation Conclusion
Ray bends in magnetic field Consists of charged particles
Ray bends toward positive plate in Consists of negative particles
electric field
Ray is identical for any cathode Particles found in ALL matter
2-49
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Figure 2.5
Millikan’s oil-drop experiment
for measuring an electron’s charge.
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= 9.109x10-31 kg = 9.109x10-28 g
2-51
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Figure 2.6
Rutherford’s a-scattering experiment
and discovery of the atomic nucleus.
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2-53
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Charge Mass
Location
Name(Symbol) Relative Absolute(C)* Relative(amu)† Absolute(g) in the Atom
Outside
Electron (e-) 1- -1.60218x10-19 0.00054858 9.10939x10-28 Nucleus
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ATOM
consists of
ELECTRON NUCLEUS
consists of
PROTON NEUTRON
contributes together account for
very little to most of
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The Periodic Table
A
Z
X = The symbol of the atom or isotope
A = mass number; A = Z + N
Z = atomic number
(the number of protons in the nucleus)
N = number of neutrons in the nucleus
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Isotopes
• All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons.
• Most elements occur naturally with varying
numbers of neutrons.
• Atoms of the same element that have a different
number of neutrons in the nucleus are called
isotopes.
• Isotopes have the same atomic number, but
different mass numbers.
PROBLEM: Silicon (Si) has three naturally occurring isotopes: 28Si, 29Si,
and 30Si. Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in each silicon isotope.
PLAN: Mass number (A), protons + neutrons, is given for the listed
isotopes. Atomic number (Z), number of protons, for each element
is given in the periodic table and equal to the number of electrons.
Number of neutrons is determined using equation 2.2.
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Simple and Weighted Averages
• A simple average assumes the same number of
each object.
• A weighted average takes into account the fact that
we do not have equal numbers of all the objects.
• A weighted average is calculated by multiplying
the percentage of the object (as a decimal number)
by its mass for each object and adding the numbers
together.
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Chemistry Connection: Heavy Water
• Heavy water still has the formula H2O, but the
hydrogen atoms are the isotope hydrogen-2.
• Hydrogen-2 is often referred to as deuterium, and
is given the symbol D.
• Heavy water (D2O) is slightly more dense than
light water (H2O), and has slightly higher melting
and boiling points.
• Heavy water is used in nuclear reactors to slow
down neutrons released during the fission process.
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Metals, Nonmetals, and Semimetals
• Metals are on the left side of the periodic table,
nonmetals are on the right side, and the semimetals
are in between.
Chromium Bismuth
Arsenic
Silicon Antimony Chlorine Bromine
Sulfur
Iodine
Carbon
(graphite)
Boron Tellurium
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Types of Elements
• Elements can be divided into three classes:
1. Metals
2. Nonmetals
3. Semimetals or metalloids
• Semimetals have properties midway between
those of metals and nonmetals.
Figure 2.11
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PLAN: Use Z to find the element. Find its relationship to the nearest
noble gas. Elements occurring before the noble gas gain
electrons and elements following lose electrons.
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2-81
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1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
(1) (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)
H2
N2 O2 F2
P4 S8 Cl2
Se8 Br2
I2
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Figure 2.16
A polyatomic ion
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2-84
Elements in the Human Body
• Oxygen is the most common element in Earth’s
crust and in the human body.
• While silicon is the second most abundant element
in Earth’s crust, carbon is the second most
abundant in the body.
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Mg2+ magnesium
O2- oxide
Ca2+ calcium
S2- sulfide
+2 Sr2+ strontium -2
Ba2+ barium
Zn2+ zinc
Cd2+ cadmium
The name of the cation is written first, followed by that of the anion.
The name of the cation is the same as the name of the metal.
The name of the anion takes the root of the nonmetal name
and adds the suffix -ide.
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PROBLEM: Name the ionic compound formed from the following pairs of
elements:
(a) magnesium and nitrogen (b) iodine and cadmium
PLAN: Use the periodic table to decide which element is the metal and
which the nonmetal. The metal (cation) is named first and we
use the -ide suffix on the nonmetal name root.
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(b) Cd2+ and I-; one Cd2+(2+) and two I-(2-); CdI2
(c) Sr2+ and F-; one Sr2+(2+) and two F-(2-); SrF2
(d) Cs+ and S2-; two Cs+(2+) and one S2- (2-); Cs2S
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Table 2.4 Some Metals That Form More Than One Monatomic Ion
Co+2 cobalt(II)
Cobalt
Co+3 cobalt (III)
Copper Cu+1 copper(I) cuprous
Cu+2 copper(II) cupric
Fe+2 iron(II) ferrous
Iron Fe+3 iron(III) ferric
Pb+2 lead(II)
Lead
Pb+4 lead(IV)
Sn+2 tin(II) stannous
Tin
Sn+4 tin(IV) stannic
(partial table)
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SOLUTION: (a) Tin (II) is Sn2+; fluoride is F-; so the formula is SnF2.
(b) The anion I- is iodide(I-); 3I- means that Cr(chromium) is +3.
CrI3 is chromium(III) iodide.
(c) Ferric is a common name for Fe3+; oxide is O2-, therefore the
formula is Fe2O3.
(d) Co is cobalt; the anion S2- is sulfide(S2-); the compound is
cobalt (II) sulfide.
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Cations
NH4+ ammonium H3O+ hydronium
Common Anions
MnO4- permanganate
(partial table)
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Table 2.6 Numerical Prefixes for Hydrates and Binary Covalent Compounds
PROBLEM: Give the systematic names or the formula or the formulas for the
names of the following compounds:
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Naming Acids
1) Binary acids solutions form when certain gaseous compounds
dissolve in water.
For example, when gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolves in
water, it forms a solution called hydrochloric acid.
Prefix hydro- + anion nonmetal root + suffix -ic + the word acid -
hydro + chlor + ic + acid
hydrochloric acid
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PROBLEM: Name the following anions and give the names and formulas of
the acids derived from them:
(a) Br - (b) IO3 - (c) CN - (d) SO4 2- (e) NO2 -
SOLUTION:
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PROBLEM: Explain what is wrong with the name of formula in the second
part of each statement and correct it:
(a) SF4 is monosulfur pentafluoride.
(b) Dichlorine heptaoxide is Cl2O6.
SOLUTION: (a) The prefix mono- is not needed for one atom; the prefix for
four is tetra-. So the name is sulfur tetrafluoride.
(b) Hepta- means 7; the formula should be Cl2O7.
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PROBLEM: Using the data in the periodic table, calculate the molecular (or
formula) mass of:
(a) tetraphosphorous trisulfide (b) ammonium nitrate
PLAN: Write the formula and then multiply the number of atoms by the
respective atomic masses. Add the masses for the compound.
(b) NH4NO3
molecular mass = (2 x atomic mass of N) + (4 x atomic mass of H) +
(3 x atomic mass of O)
= (2 x 14.01 amu) + (4 x 1.008 amu) + (3 x 16.00 amu)
= 80.05 amu
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PLAN: Each compound contains only two elements. Find simplest whole number
ratio of one atom to the other to determine formula, name, and mass.
SOLUTION:
(a) There is 1 sodium (brown) for every fluorine (green), so the formula is NaF.
formula mass = (1x atomic mass of Na) + (1x atomic mass of F)
= 22.99 amu + 19.00 amu = 41.99 amu
(b) There are 3 fluorines (green) for every nitrogen (blue), so the formula is NF 3.
molecular mass = (3x atomic mass of F) + (1x atomic mass of N)
= (3x 19.00 amu) + 14.01 amu = 71.01 amu
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S2-
Fe2+
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Mixtures
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Figure B2.5
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Figure B2.6
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Figure B2.7
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