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NSQF JOB ROLE:

ASSISTANT
FASHION DESIGNER
(I Year Vocational Theory - Focus Area Based
Notes)

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NSQF JOB ROLE: ASSISTANT FASHION DESIGNER

FIRST YEAR FOCUS AREAS FOR THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21
VOCATIONALSKILL
SL.
NAME OF UNIT AND FOCUSAREAS
NO.

UNIT 1: PLANNING AND DESIGNING OF GARMENT COLLECTION FOR

A SEASON
1.1. Garment Industry – Different departments and Functions
1.2. Tools & Equipment Used for Garment Making
1 1.3. Industrial Sewing Machines
1.4. Correct Procedure for taking body measurements
1.5. Textile Fibers – Classification, Identification, Weaving, Knitting & Non-
Woven

UNIT 2: DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

2.1 Design Concepts – Elements of Design, Principles of Design, Colour &
Colour Combinations
2.2. Fashion Terms & Concepts – Fashion Terminology, Fashion Cycle,
Fashion Theories
2 2.3. Fabric Manipulation Techniques – Gathers, Pleats & Tucks
2.4. Imparting Colouration – Printing Methods
2.5. Flat Sketches – Meaning, Importance, & Sketching of garment
components – Pocket, Collar, Skirt
2.6. Pattern Making – Meaning, Methods, Advantages & Disadvantages,
Pattern information, Drafting of Sleeve Block

UNIT 3: DESIGN DEVELOPMENT, TECHPACKS AND SAMPLES

3.1 Design Development
3 3.2. Illustration – 10 Head Fashion Figure
3.3. Teck Packs – Importance, Components & Terminology
3.4. Tech pack-based samples – Importance, types & roles

UNIT 4: HEALTH AND SAFETY RELATED PRACTICES APPLICABLE AT

4 WORKPLACE
4.1. Potential hazards at Work Place -

UNIT 5: LEGAL REGULATORY AND ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS

5 5.1 Policies and Procedures of a company

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UNIT 1
PLANNING AND DESIGNING
OF GARMENT COLLECTION
FOR A SEASON

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1.1. Garment Industry – Different departments and Functions

The apparel industry is very diverse in nature. Garment
manufacturing process includes number of processes from order receiving to dispatching
shipment of the finished garments. Large factories have different departments to carry
out these processes. But some departments are combined together in many small
factories. Based on present apparel industry, garment manufacturing processes are
categorized as:
• Pre-Production Processes - Pre-production process includes sampling, sourcing
of raw materials, Approvals, PP meeting etc.
• Production processes - Production processes are cutting, sewing etc.
• Post production processes - thread trimming, pressing, checking, folding and
packing, shipment inspection etc.
The departments in a garment factory include the pre-
production departments, production departments and post production departments. To
run the factory smoothly, some auxiliary departments are also functioning in a garment
unit.

Functions and Activities of Different Departments of a Garment Factory

1. Merchandising Department: - Merchandising department works as a mediator in
between factory and buyers. This department is considered as the heart and soul of
the company. Merchandising Department Activities:
― Coordinate with buyers
― Review the garment sample
― Product costing
― Product costing
― Preparing Bill of Material (BOM) and fabric indent
― Source raw materials
― Follow up with production
― Providing after sales services

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2. Sampling department: -Sampling department makes all kind of samples that need
to be submitted to the buyer. In small size factories, pattern making, and sampling
is kept in one department. They have common activities. Sampling department’s
activities are:
― Reading garment spec and understanding workmanship of the garment.
― Assisting merchandisers in preparing bill of material for the sample
― Calculating fabric consumption.
― Making garment samples.
― Garment fit checking and correction of patterns.
― Check the quality of the garment samples & prepare quality inspection report.
― Coordinate with production team.
3. Fabric Store and Fabric Sourcing: - Garment manufacturing factories source fabric
for garment sample development and for bulk production. The fabric store is handled
by Fabric in-charge and the in-charge is assisted by a team of helpers for loading
and unloading fabrics and issuing fabric to cutting department. Following are the
major Activities of the fabric store:
― Sourcing of fabrics.
― Checking of greige and finished fabric.
― Prepare shade band for dyed and printed fabrics.
― Basic testing of physical properties of fabrics.
― Fabric Issue for cutting.
― Fabric reconciliation.
― Fabric record keeping.
4. Trims and Accessory Store: - Like fabric store, this store receives all kind of trims
and accessories and store in racks. Small size factories, fabric and trim store are
headed by the same person. And the functions of this department include followings.
― Sourcing trims like sewing thread and packing accessories
― Checking of Trims and accessories for quality and quantity
― Storing trims and inventory maintenance Trim and accessory issue
― Dying of trims like twill tape.
― Arranging trims in racks or bin to get trims easily.
5. Production Planning and Control: - Production Planning Department is
responsible for planning and scheduling orders. This department is known as PPC
department. They execute production and do follow with all production processes.
― Planning and scheduling of tasks.
― Process selection & planning
― Estimating quantity and costs of production.
― Resource planning – man, machine & raw materials.
― Line planning.
― Production follow up and execution.
6. Cutting Department: -This department is responsible for cutting of fabrics and
feeding sewing department with cuttings. Cutting department set up with cutting
masters, cutters, spreaders, quality checkers, and helpers. Activities of the cutting
department is as follows:
― Fabric receiving from the fabric store.
― Fabric spreading or layering on the cutting table
― Marker Planning
― Cutting of fabrics
― Sorting, Bundling and numbering of garment parts.

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― Inspection of cut components

― Sorting of printed and embroidery panels
― Re-cutting of panels
― Fusing Garment Components
7. Sewing Department: - Main jobs of the sewing department are stitching of garment.
Factories either work in an assembly line or group system. Major tasks of this
department are as follows:
― Line setting
― Garment stitching
― Marking parts
― Ironing garment components
― Checking of stitched garments
― Stitching Alteration
― Documentation
8. Embroidery / Printing Department: - It comes into play only when the particular
garment style demands printing or embroidery. It receives the garment panel, style
and the embroidery details from the merchandisers. They will also get a sample of
the garment on which the embroidery has been already done and it will be used as
a reference sample.
9. Garment Washing department: - Sometimes garments need to be washing after
stitching to remove dust, tracing mark and to give a washed look to the garment. This
department washes the garments, cut panels (if required), wash garment samples
as required.
10. Finishing department: - Stitched garments are finished prior to packing. Based on
product categories finishing room activities may vary.
Activities of the finishing department are listed below:
― Thread trimming. Removes extra threads from the garment at the stitched
areas.
― Stain removal from garments
― Checking of garments as per the buyer requirements
― Garment Pressing / Ironing.
11. Packing Department: - Packing department in a factory works side by side of the
finishing department.
― Folding and tagging. Labelling and tagging of products are done.
― The packing is done in the carton boxes.
― Individual packing of garments is done in the poly bag.

12. Quality Control or Quality Assurance Department: - The quality assurance

department in apparel industry divides their work in to different stages of production
like pre-inspection, inline inspection, end line inspection and final inspection
Activities of the Quality control department are as follows:
― Setting up quality standards.
― Quality assurance.
― Inspection of raw materials and ensuring only quality goods are accepted.
― Involvement in product development and sampling stage and take care of
quality aspects of samples.
― Ensure the quality of fabric before cutting.
― Inspection of partially stitched garments as well as finished garments.
― Preparing the audit reports of quality checking.

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13. Machine Maintenance department: -This department repair machines and look
after maintenance of sewing machines. Major activities of the machine maintenance
department are:
― Machine set up
― Repairing sewing machines
― Maintaining inventory of machine parts
― Doing preventive maintenance for machines and equipment
14. Human Resource and Administration: - This department is concern about the
social issue of the employee.
― They look after recruiting and employee welfare.
― This department maintains employee attendance and absent records.
― Handle labour issues
― Factory compliance and social compliance
― New employee orientation.
15. Shipping and Documentation Department: -
― Prepare shipment related documents.
― They communicate with buyers for shipment dispatch and send the shipment
to buyers.
16. Industrial Engineering Department (IE): - Industrial Engineering department
assists production department in setting line, improving production and measuring
production performance. In a typical garment unit, industrial engineering
department handles following activities:
― Estimating the SAM of the garment for a new style for costing.
― Providing operational breakdown with SAM and target for each operation for
an order.
― Selection of machines and work-aids.
― Measure worker and factory performance.
― Line Balancing
― Develop detailed production methods.
― Operator performance improvement & training program
17. EDP (Electronic Data Processing) Department: - Garment factories use many
electronics items such as computers, printer, Barcode systems etc. An EDP
department is necessary for troubleshooting of the computers and software.
The major activities of this department are:
― Purchasing electronic items
― Breakdown maintenance of computers and other hardware.
― Supporting internet and mailing activities.
― Protecting the company’s server from outside bugs and viruses.
― Database maintenance.
― Report generating.
18. Accounting Department: - Manage the accounts of the company.
― Prepare payroll for employees.
― Give payments to workers and write checks for staffs.
― Maintain records of supplier payment and follow up with buyers for pending
payment.
― This department is involved in all kind payment and cash management.

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1.2. Tools & Equipment Used for Garment Making

Tools used in garment making can be listed under following heads.

1. Measuring Tools: - These are the tools used for taking measurements for garment
construction from body or garment and on fabric.

a. Measuring Tape: This is a plastic tape with small metal tips on either end. It is 60”
long, and has 1/8 divisions. It has markings in centimetres and inches. Tape
measure is used to take body measurements, drafting patterns, and measuring
fabrics.

b. Rulers: There are different types of rulers made of fiber wood or metal. Rulers are
used for measuring small distances for tucks, hems, facings etc, and also for taking
measurements in drafting.

2. Drafting Tools: - These are generally used for drafting and transferring the paper
pattern on to the fabric.

a. Pencils and Pen: These are also used for marking on the fabric surface. These
markings can be washed out easily. Pen markings washes out or fade after 48
hours.

b. L – Scale: It is a fibre or wooden scale having L-Shape. These scales are used
for finding and aligning the grain of fabric and also for making perpendicular lines
in pattern drafting.

c. French Curve: This is used to shape the depth of the neck hole and armhole of
the pattern

d. Hip Curve: They are useful for connecting or shaping curve points such as
armhole, hip etc.

e. Notcher: It is a punching tool. It is used to make ‘U’ shaped notch marks which
indicates seam allowance, central lines etc. It looks like a single punch machine.

f. Tailor’s Chalk: It is made of wax or stone chalk. It is used to transfer seam lines
and other pattern details to fabric. It can be brushed out from the surface of the
fabric.

g. Tracing Wheel: This is a sharp toothed wheel used to transfer pattern markings
to cloth. This can be also used to transfer pattern lines to pattern paper during
pattern development.

h. Stiletto: This is a sharp pointed instrument for making small holes in material. It
is used for forming eyelets in belts and for embroidery work.

i. Pins and Pincushions: Pins are used for basting and fixing of pattern pieces on
to fabric. Pin cushion is a small stuffed cushion made of wool or felt, filled with
wool or cotton to hold the pins

j. Dress Forms: It is a standardized duplication of a human form. It is cotton

padded, canvas covered and set on a movable stand. It. is used to take
measurements, develop patterns and fit garment samples.

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3. Cutting Tools: - These tools are used for cutting patterns and fabric during pattern
making and construction.

a. Scissors: They have 5 to 6 inches long and identical blade. They are used for
light cutting, trimming, clipping corners, and cutting curves.
b. Shears: They are 8 to 12 inches long. They are used for cutting all types of
fabrics. Shears differ from scissors in that they have one small ring handle and a
large ring handle.
c. Electric Shears: They are ideal for cutting paper, silk, nylon, and soft, hard-to-
cut fabric. These are light in weight and easy to operate
d. Pinking shears: They have a zigzag shaped blade. They are used to finish the
seam allowances with a zigzag cutting line or scalloped edge.
e. Thread Cutter / Snipers: These clippers are specifically used to cut threads and
they are not designed to cut fabric.
f. Rotary Cutter: It requires more handling skill than shears. It cuts patterns and
samples faster than scissors. Rotary cutters are used in commercial garment
industries.
g. Industrial Cutting Machine: These are large electrical cutters used in industry
for cutting several layers of fabric simultaneously.
h. Seam ripper: This is a handy little tool for taking out seams and removing
stitches. It must be used carefully so as not to cut the fabric.
i. Cutting Table: It is a table of convenient height and size for cutting and
construction of garments.
4. Sewing Tools: - These are various tools used for the stitching of garments.
a. Sewing Machine: It is the machine used to stitch fabric and other materials
together with thread. Various types of sewing machine are used for domestic as
well as industrial purpose.
b. Needle: Needles are found in various sizes. The best quality needles are made
of steel. For hand sewing medium length needles with a short oval eye is selected.
Sharp and short needles are suitable for permanent stitching. Crewel needles
with a long oval eye are designed for embroidery work.
c. Needle Threader: It is a device made of thin wire which aids in threading machine
needles and hand needles.
d. Thimble: Thimble is used to protect the finger from being pricked by the needle
when sewing. They are made of either plastic or metal.
1.3. Industrial Sewing Machines
A sewing machine is a textile machine used to stitch fabric, leather and
other material together with thread. Sewing machines range from most basic type to the
electronic machines that use advanced computer technology. There are different types
of sewing machines available for industrial as well as for home use. Industrial sewing
machines are designed for bulk production and are larger, faster and more complex.
Some common types of sewing machines used in industry are:
1. Single Needle Lock Stitch Machines: - Works with manual as well as electronic
controls. Domestic treadle sewing machines comes under this group. Used for
sewing at home, tailoring shops as well as in industry.
2. High Speed Lockstitch Machines: -These are lock stitch machines used in
industrial purpose hence it is called “Industrial sewing machine”. An industrial sewing
machine is specifically built for long term, professional sewing tasks and is therefore
constructed with superior durability, parts and motors.

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3. Double Needle Machine: - These machines work with electronic controls at a high
speed. Machine consists of two needles which function together. Double row of
stitching can be obtained in a single operation. Used particularly for sewing jeans,
safari suits etc, where double seams are required.
4. Button Sewing Machine: - This is also a high-speed electronic machine used for
attaching buttons on garments. Buttons with 2 or 4 holes or shanks can be sewn on
the same machine by simple adjustments.
5. Buttonhole Sewing Machine: - This is a very expensive machine used for sewing
button holes. The machine automatically slits through the garments and sews round
its edges to prevent fraying and stretching.
6. Zig zag Sewing Machine: These are used to make zig zag stitches, used to finish
the edges of garments.
7. Over lock / Over Edge Sewing Machine: - This machine stitches the edges of a
garment to be finished. It covers rough edges of fabric and gives a clear and neat
appearance where seam edges are visible. It is also used for assembling knitted
articles such as T-Shirts.
8. Blind Stitch Hemming Machine: - This machine is used to make blind hem stitches.
These stiches are not seen on the outer sides of the garments.
9. Bar tacking Machines: - They create bar tack stitches, a series of stitched used to
reinforce the areas of garments subjected to stress.
10. Fusing Machine: - Fusing machine is used for fusing and pressing the inside fabric
and surface material together. It is also used to fuse collars, cuffs and front placket.
There are several kinds of fusing machines are widely used in the industrial sectors.

1.4. Correct Procedure for taking body measurements

The accuracy of any pattern making or garment construction method
depends largely on relevant and correct body measurements. Correct procedure for
taking body measurements is given below.
1. Use the correct type of tape to measure: - When taking body measurements, you
need to use the correct type of tape measure. Use a soft plastic tape measure, do
not use a metal measuring tape.
2. Stand correctly: - Stand straight, tall, and breathe normally when taking
measurements. Do not bend forward or backward.
3. Wear appropriate clothing: - When wearing baggy or thick clothing, the
measurement may not be accurate. So, it is better to wear closely fitted clothes.
4. Measure correctly: - The tape is straight and in line with the appropriate body part.
Get another person to take measurements. Two finger loose or ease allowance
should be given.
5. Measure lengthwise first and then width wise: - Different measurements like
length wise, width wise and circumference measurements are taken correctly as per
requirements.
6. Record the measurements: - Make sure that the measurements are write down
while taking it.
7. Considering Individual Likes & Body Type: - While taking measurements body
type and likes of the person to be considered and changes should be made
accordingly. Try to know the customer’s requirements, regarding the fit, style and
shape of the garment (pockets, collar, buttons, seam, finish etc.) before taking
measurements.

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7.1. Textile Fibers – Classification, Identification, Weaving,

Knitting & Non-Woven
Definition: -
Fibers are the basic visible unit of a fabric. A fiber can be defined as a
pliable hair like filament that is very small in diameter in relation to its length.
E.g.: Cotton, Silk, Polyester etc.
Classification:
Fibers can be classified on the basis of length as staple fibers and
filament fibers.
1. Staple Fibers: - These are short fibers with the length ranging from ¾” to 18”. Staple
fibers are twister together to form continuous long yans.
E.g.: - Cotton, Wool
2. Filament Fibers: - These are long continuous fibers of length more the 18”. Silk is
the only natural filament fiber.
E.g.: - Silk, Polyester, Rayon.

Fibers can be classified on the basis of source as natural fibers and

manmade or artificial fibers.

1. Natural Fibers: - Natural fibers are obtained from natural sources like plants, animals,
minerals etc. Usually, they are found in fibrous form. Natural fibers may be vegetable
fibers, animal fibers or mineral fibers.

a. Vegetable/Plant Fibers: - Vegetable fibres are obtained from different parts of

plants such as seeds, leaves, stem etc. These fibres are also known as natural
cellulose fibres because they contain large amount of cellulose.
E.g.: Seed hair – Cotton
Stem fiber – Linen, Jute
Leaf fiber – Pineapple Fibers, Sisal

b. Animal Fibers: - These are natural fibers obtained from animal source. The main
component of animal fibers is protein; hence they are also known as natural protein
fibers.
E.g.: - Animal Secretions – Silk
Animal fur / hair – Wool, Camel hair, Rabbit hair

c. Mineral Fibers: - These are obtained from mineral source. Mineral fibers are
mainly used in fireproof fabrics. These fibers are used more for industrial purpose
than clothing.
E.g.: - Rock fiber – Asbestos.

2. Manmade Fibers: - These are fibers made by man. They are not found in nature
fibrous form., but are made to fibers by mechanical or chemical processes.

a. Regenerated Fibers: - These are man – made fibers, but the raw materials are
from natural resource like cellulose, protein, mineral etc. The properties of fibers
depend upon the manufacturing processes and source.
E.g.: - Cellulose – Rayon
Modified Cellulose – Acetate,
Protein (Azlon) – Vicara, Caselin
Mineral – Glass, Graphite

b. Synthetic / Thermoplastic Fibers: - These fibers are made by the polymerization

of chemicals. The chemical solutions are forced through spinnerets to form filament

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and is hardened to obtain long continuous strands called filament fibers. The
properties of fibers depend upon their chemical compositions and kinds of
molecular orientation. This group includes three major fibers and several minor
ones.
E.g.: - Nylon (polyamide produced in 1938)
Polyester (produced in 1953)
Acrylic (produced in 1948)
Spandex

Fiber Identification:
Each fibre has its own unique inherited characteristics. Many tests – non
technical or technical – are adopted for the identification of textile fibers.
1. Burning Test: It is a simple but reliable test. It indicates the groups such as protein,
cellulose and manmade fibres.

Sl. Fiber Group/

Flammability Odour Residue
No. Fibers
Burns readily and
Cellulose (Cotton, Burning
1 continuously even when Soft grey ash
Linen, Rayon) paper
removed from flame.
Black
Protein (Silk & Burns slowly and self- Burning
2 crushable
Wool) extinguishes. hair
beads
Synthetic (Nylon, Shrinks and then burns Chemical Hard grey /
3
Polyester) with melting odour black beads

2. Microscopic Tests: A microscopic study is a technical test for fiber identification.

Unravel some fibers from fabric to be tested and mount it on an eye glass. Examine
under microscope for its appearance.

Cotton Linen Wool

Rod shaped with Irregular shaped cells,
Twisted ribbon like slightly overlapping, looks
characteristics markings
appearance like scales of a fish.
called ‘nodes’ at intervals.

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Silk Rayon Acetate

. Cylindrical with Smooth, rounded have Smooth, round and have
smooth shiny marking which vary striations.
surface. according to the process.

Nylon Polyester Acrylic

Very fine, round, Smooth surface and rod-like
Straight, smooth and appearance, have irregularly
smooth and
perfectly round. spaced striations.
translucent.

Weaving: -Weaving is the common method of fabric construction. Two sets of yarns,
warp & weft are used in loom to make to make woven fabrics. Weaving is the interlacing
of warp and weft yarns. Warp yarn is used length wise and weft yarn is used width wise
Woven fabrics are manufactured in a loom. There are two basic types
of loom - hand loom & power loom.
In a loom the warp threads are placed in position while the filling threads
are woven through them. Four major operations are involved in weaving.
― Shedding: Each alternate warp yarn is raised to insert the filling yarn into the warp
to form a shed.
― Picking: As the warp is raised, the filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a
carrier device.
― Beating up (Battening): With each picking operation, the reed pushes or beats each
filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already been formed.
― Taking up and letting off: Winding the finished fabric on the cloth beam and
releasing more of the warp from the warp beam. .
There are different types of woven fabric structures like plain weave,
twill weave, satin weave, basket weave etc. Plain weave is used to make fabrics that are
normally used to make shirts and Kurtis. Twill weave is used to make fabrics that are
normally used to make Jeans.
Types of Weaves: - There are three basic weaves – Plain, Twill and Satin. There are so
many variations of these weaves which creates different appearance of fabric.
a) Plain Weave: - It is the simplest method of fabric construction. It is also termed as
calico weave. In a plain weave, each warp yarn passes alternatively over one weft
and then under the second weft yarn. The fabric looks alike on both sides. Stripes or
checks can be created using different colored yarns in warp and weft direction. The
two main variations of the plain weave are Basket weave, Rib weave.

b) Twill Weave: - Twill weaves can be easily identified by its general characteristic of
diagonal lines in either warp or weft direction. The filling yarn interlace more than one
warp yarns, in a progressively stepped up or stepped down manner. This forms the
diagonal patterns in the fabric. The direction of the twill can be varied to create
interesting effects such as right-hand twill weave, left hand twill weave, broken twill

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weave, pointed twill, herringbone etc. The most commonly known twill is the denim or
jeans fabric. It is a very strong and durable weave.

c) Satin Weave: - Satin weave is characterized by a smooth and shiny fabric surface.
In satin weave, warp yarns floats over the weft yarns., If the weft yarns floats over
warp yarns, then it is known as ‘sateen’. It requires 5-12 harness to make this weave.

Knitting: - Knitted fabrics are made by interloping of yarns. Length wise yarns are called
wales and width wise yarns are called course. Normally there are two types of knitted
fabrics like weft knit and warp knit.

Non-Woven: - Non – woven fabrics are made directly from fibers. They are produced by
bonding or interlocking fibers by mechanical, chemical, thermal, using solvents, or
combinations of these processes. Non-woven fabrics are lighter in weight and weaker
compared to woven or knitted fabrics. Cotton, rayon, polyester etc. fibres are used to
make non-woven fabrics. These are used to make surgical and industrial masks,
bandages, wipes and towels. Sometimes non-woven fabrics are also used to make
packing materials, geo-textiles and roofing products.
Types of Non-woven- Fabrics
a) Felting: - Layers of fibers (wool or wool blends) are laid down with a desired
thickness and run through hot agitating plates that blend the fibers together. Felts
are not as strong as other fabrics and vary in quality depending on the quality of the
fiber used. Felt has many industrial and clothing uses. It is used industrially for
padding, soundproofing, insulation etc. Felt has wide use in such products as hats,
slippers and clothing decorations.
b) Braid: - Braids are narrow fabrics made by interlacing of yarns length wisely. They
have good elongation characteristics. Braids can be flat or round. Braids are used
primarily for trims, shoelaces, cords, ribbons, cord coverings of industrial products
like wires, cables, hoses etc.
c) Net: - Net are open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes. The fibers or yarns are
held together by knots or fusing of thermoplastic fibers. The net mesh can be in
varying shapes and sizes. This process produces tubular nets which are used for
packaging fruit and vegetables, agricultural nets, bird nets, mosquito nets etc.
d) Lace: - Lace is another basic fabric made from yarns. Yarns may be inter looped,
interlaced or knotted to give open-mesh structure. Beautiful decorative designs can
be created through lace making. Laces are very important trimmings that are used
to decorate a garment. Handmade or machine made on special lace machines, laces
are used

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UNIT 2
DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND
METHODS

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2.1. Design Concepts – Elements of Design, Principles of Design,

Colour & Colour Combinations.
Design: - Design is an orderly arrangement of elements like lines, shape, form, texture
etc. in an aesthetic manner.
Elements of Design: - Any design is made by some factors such as lines, colour, texture
etc. These raw materials of which designs are made, are called elements of design. The
basic elements of design are: -
1. Lines: - A line is a series of connected points. It is the basic element of the design. All
lines have direction, width and length. Lines within a garment are created by darts,
seams, and decorative items or details. Since line crates illusion of height, and width,
they can be used in different ways according to the figure type.
There are two types of lines: -
i. Straight Lines – Vertical, Horizontal, Diagonal, Zigzag.
a. Vertical lines: - They generally add height or length to the body. Gives a
feeling of dignity, strength, poise and sophistication.
b. Horizontal lines: - They give the effect of width and shorten the body. Gives
a relaxed and calm feeling, suggests rest and gentleness.
c. Diagonal lines: - They always show a movement or motion.
d. Zigzag lines: - It is a series of connecting diagonal lines. They tend to
increase the size of the area covered by them.

ii. Curved Lines –Ccurved lines are graceful and gives a feminine effect.

2. Shape: - A shape is defined as a two-dimensional area that stands out from the
space. All objects are composed of shapes. Basic shapes are ggeometric shape,
organic shape and inorganic shape.
The overall shape of a garment is its shape or silhouette. Examples for
silhouette of garments are:
a. A-line – An A-line dress will flair out from waist and will have a silhouette like
the letter “A”.
b. Ball gown – Fitted bodies and waist with a maximum flared skirt at hemline.
c. Empire – High waistline under the bust and flares out the skirt.
d. Sheath – Straight cylindrical shape and is achieved by giving the same
measurements to the chest, waist and hem.
e. Mermaid– Fitted from the bust through the length of the knee and then flares
out.
f. Asymmetrical – This garment style does not have a symmetrical form.

3. Form: - It is a three-dimensional object. It can be measured by its height, width,

and depth. Basic forms are the sphere, the cone, the cube, ovals, cylinders and
rectangles.
4. Colour: - Colour plays a large role in the designing of garments. Used in a
planned, controlled arrangement; colours can produce many moods.
5. Texture: -Texture refers to as a material feels when the fingertips are run lightly
along its surface. Soft, shiny, dull, rough, crisp, smooth, sheer is some of the
textures. Shiny and glossy texture reflects light and thus increases the apparent
size of the wearer. Dull fabrics absorb light and thus tend to decrease the size of
the wearer.
6. Light: - Light is another element of design creates many dramatic effects in the
appearance of design. Artificial lights tend to change the colour and appearance
of clothes. Hence the dress to be worn under daylight should be selected in

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natural light. Evening party wears and Night wear dresses should preferably be
selected under artificial light to look attractive.
Principles of Design
Design principles should be regarded as guides rather than rigid rules.
These principles are not actually formulae for creating beauty, but they help one to judge,
the clothing selected is artistically good or bad. The major principles of design are:
1. Balance: - Balance is the principle of design that produces a feeling of rest and
equilibrium. It is attained by groping lines, shapes or colours around a central point in
such a way that the general effect has sense of equilibrium. Balance is of two types.
i. Formal balance (Symmetrical balance): - It is also known as symmetrical
balance. Here objects of equal interests and weight or identical objects are placed
on either side of the imaginary center.
ii. Informal balance (Asymmetrical balance):- Here objects are placed not in equal
distance, but placed such that they appear to be in equilibrium. Lighter or smaller
objects are placed closer to the central point, while heavier and bigger objects are
placed further away.

2. Proportion: -The principle of proportion, also known as the ‘law of relationships. It

refers to how an object, idea or colour is related to other with regard to size, numbers,
quantity etc.
The Greek oblong’ is considered as most appropriate ratio of space
divisions and it is also called as “the golden oblong”. It is recognized standard for
space relationship. This oblong always uses the ratio of 2: 3 or 3: 5 in case of flat
surfaces. For solids it is 5 : 7 : 11.

3. Rhythm: -Rhythm as an art principle is defined as easy, connected path along which
the eye follows a regular arrangement of motifs. Rhythm can be achieved in the
following ways.
i. Rhythm by Repetition: - Rhythm is produced when a line, shape or colour is
repeated at regular intervals.
E.g.: A series of buttons.
ii. Rhythm by Gradation: - Gradation means a sequence or regular progression of
objects in a series.
E.g.: Use of tucks, ruffles of varying width etc.
iii. Rhythm by Radiation: - In this type the eye movement is from the central part of
the design to outer portions.
E.g.: Radiating pleats or tucks.

4. Emphasis: - Emphasis means a center of interest should be related to the total

structure of the garment. This may be a dominating object, dominating colour or

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dominating idea in a design. A centre of interest is created by arranging different

elements of design in a special way. The emphasis can be created through,
a. use of special lines,
b. use of different shapes in a design,
c. leaving sufficient background space around the object,
d. use of contrasting colours,
e. grouping of objects,
f. use of decorations in a design,
g. Use of lights and shades.

5. Harmony: - To be harmony means to be in agreement and to be pleasant. It produces

an impression of unity in design through the selection and arrangement of different
elements of design. There are six aspects of harmony: –
a. Harmony in lines,
b. Harmony in shapes,
c. Harmony in size,
d. Harmony in texture,
e. Harmony in colour and
f. Harmony in texture.

Colour
Colours are often described in three particular terms – hue, value and
intensity. These are called as the qualities of colour or dimensions of colour.
i. Hue: - Hue refers to the name of the colour itself.
ii. Value: - Value of a colour means the lightness and darkness of a hue. Lightest
values of a colour are also called ‘tints’ and darker values are called ‘Shades’.
iii. Intensity / Chroma: - The intensity of a colour refers to the brightness or dullness
of the colour.
Prang Colour System: - Prang colour system explains the primary, secondary and
intermediate colours of pigments.
i. Primary Colours: - Primary colours cannot be made by the combination of other
colours and all other colours are obtained by the combination of these primary colours in
different proportion. Yellow. Blue and Red are the primary colours.
ii. Secondary Colours: - When two primary colours are mixed in equal proportion a
secondary colour is obtained.
Yellow + Blue = Green
Blue + Red = Violet
Red + Yellow = Orange
iii. Intermediate colours: - If a primary colour is combined with an adjacent secondary
colour the resultant colour is called intermediate colour.
Yellow + Green = Yellow – Green
Green + Blue = Blue – Green
Blue + Violet = Blue – Violet
Violet + Red = Red – Violet
Red + Orange = Red – Orange
Orange + Yellow = Yellow – Orange

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iv. Prang Colour Wheel: - Prang Colour Wheel give a clear demonstration of the
primary, secondary and intermediate colours. The colour combinations in designing
are made with the help of prang colour chart.
v. Neutral Colours: - The Black, White and Grey are neutral colours. They are used in
backgrounds.
vi. Warm and Cool Colours: The colour wheel can be divided into warm and cool sides.
The colours on the red side of the wheel are said to be warm colours. Warm colours
are red, orange, and yellow. Orange is the warmest colour. Colours on the side of
green are cool colours. Blue is the coolest colour.
Colour Schemes
Colour schemes or colour harmonies mean the different combinations of
colours in a design in a pleasing way. Colour schemes which are produced through the
aid of a prang colour wheel are of three types:
i. Related Colour Schemes
ii. Contrasting Colour Schemes
iii. Achromatic Colour Schemes

i. Related Colour Schemes: - They are produced by combining colours that lie near
to each other on the prang colour wheel.
E.g. - Monochromatic and Analogous Colour Scheme.

a. Monochromatic Colour Scheme: - It is a one colour scheme (‘mono’

means ‘one’ and ‘chrome’ means ‘colour’). It consists of combining
different values or intensities of the same hue.
E.g.: - Red, Light red and Dark red

b. Analogous Colour Scheme: - An analogous colour scheme is a

combination of two or three neighbouring colours on the colour wheel.
E.g.: - Yellow, Yellow–Green and Green is more pleasing than Yellow–
Green, Green and Blue–green.

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ii. Contrasting Colour Schemes: - These are produced by combining colours that
are far apart on the colour wheel.

a. Direct Complementary Colour Scheme: - Complementary colours are

those which lie direct opposite to each other on the colour wheel. There
are six such pairs,

i. Yellow & Violet

ii. Yellow – Green & Red – Violet
iii. Green & Red
iv. Blue – Green & Red – Orange
v. Blue & Orange
vi. Blue – Violet & Yellow – Orange

b. Split Complementary Colour Scheme: - is obtained by using any one

colour and the two colours that lie on either side of its complementary
colour.
E.g.: - Yellow, Blue–Violet & Red– Violet
c. Double Complementary Colour Scheme: - It is obtained by combining
two adjacent colours and their complementary colours.
E.g.: - Yellow, Yellow – Green, Violet & Red – Violet

d. Triad Colour Scheme: - is one which combines any three colours that
form an equilateral triangle on the colour wheel. There are four such
combinations.
i. Primary triad → Yellow, Blue & Red
ii. Secondary triad → Green, Violet & Orange
iii. Intermediate triad I → Yellow–Orange, Red–Violet & Blue–Green
iv. Intermediate triad II → Yellow – Green, Red – Orange & Blue –
Violet.
iii. Achromatic Colour Schemes: Achromatic colour scheme can be defined as
tints or tones of black or shades of white i.e., black, white and various shades of
gray comprise of achromatic colour scheme.

2.2. Fashion Terms & Concepts – Fashion Terminology, Fashion

Cycle, Fashion Theories

In fashion designing a wide list of terms are used. Besides

familiarity we should be able to distinguish the difference within the terms.
Fashion Terms: -
The following are the most important terms that are greatly used in the
fashion industry: -
1. Style: -
- Style is the distinguishable characteristic of a garment.
- It is a particular look, shape or type of apparel.
- If consumers support a style, it becomes fashion.
- It is always constant whether it is currently accepted or not.
- E.g. – Necklines, Scoop. V-neck, Boat neck, Bermuda, Pinafore

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2. Trend: -
- A fashion trend refers to the movement of fashions in clothing follow.
- It is a popular style for practice, especially in clothing, foot wear, accessories,
make up, or furniture.
- Fashion is often affected by seasonal trends which imply that a particular style,
silhouette, colour, texture etc. may be dominant at a given point of time, leading
to a tendency to wear similar clothes.

3. Fashion:
- It is the particular style that is popular at a given time.
- It is a style that is accepted by a large group of people for a period of time.
- Fashion is also termed as a social process by which newly introduced styles or
trends become popular in a certain time with acceptability by a wider section of
consumers.
- Fashion is always new, even when old styles are reintroduced.

4. Classic: -
- It refers to the style that endures.
- A classic style is one that stays in fashion for a long time.
- A classic is characterised by simplicity of design and its suitability to the clothing
needs of large population.
- It is a long lasting or constant fashion.
- E.g. – Blue jeans, Tailored suits, Kanchipuram sarees.

5. Fad: -
- Fashions popular for short period of time are termed as fad.
- Fads are short lived fashion.
- Fad refers to styles that are extreme and exaggerated in their design.
- Therefore, they suddenly gain high level of popularity and then quickly disappear
from the fashion scene.
- E.g. – Fluorescent-coloured T-shirts, baggy anti-fit jeans etc.

6. Silhouette: -
- It is a shape or outline of a garment or clothing style.
- It is also called as “shape” or “form”.
- It is formed by the width and length of the neckline, sleeves, waistline and parts
or skirt.
- Silhouettes always change in fashion.
- Throughout history there are three basic forms of silhouettes with many variations
were observed - bell, hourglass & tubular.

7. Custom:
- Custom means made for the individual customer.
- Garments are designed and produced with special design, fabric and fit to a
specific person.
- It is also called made-to-order apparel.
- Custom made clothing was produced mostly for women. The garments were also
stitched by hand very meticulously.

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8. Haute Couture: -
- In French, Haute couture refers to high fashion created by designers known as
‘couturiers.
- Couture is unique and exclusive creations of fashion customized for individual
clients, since the design is never duplicated.
- The extremely high prices are due to design exclusivity, high quality of fabric,
skilled labour used for surface design techniques, embroidery, drape,
craftsmanship, garment construction and quality of finish.

9. Prêt a Porter: -
- (French) refers to ready to wear (RTW) clothing derived from the couture
collection.
- It is factory made-clothing, manufactured with high quality standards, at more
affordable prices in multiple sizes in a wider range of colour options.
- Standard patterns, factory equipment, and faster construction techniques are
used for ‘prêt-a-porter’ to keep costs low
- This term is widely used now as the fashion retail sector.

10. Avant garde: -

- They are the designs created with uncommon ideas with a startling look.
- Avant garde clothes are used to draw attention and hence are used in stage
show or for advertisements.
- Avant garde (French) refers to the 'advance guard' or vanguard of art and
culture which differentiates it from the mainstream.
- It aims at expanding the boundaries of existing norms and aesthetics.
- They are experimental and innovative designs.
- These designs are limited in numbers and may not be wearable.

11. Mass / Volume Fashion:

- These are ready-to-wear garments in mass.
- It is available in large quantities with standard measurements and variety of
colours.
- Uses simple production techniques and cheaper fabrics hence to sell at cheaper
rates.
- They are fashion available both in brands and on streets.

12. Collection:
- A collection, also called a range or line, refers to a well-defined and diligently-
edited group of clothing or products for a specific season.
- For example, this could be a range of blouses with a colour coordinated focus on
design variations of details like collars, necklines, silhouettes, lengths etc. for the
ready to wear (RTW) market.

13. Knock – Off:

- Knock – off is the stealing of design ideas, or the use of a design, without the
consent of the originator/ manufacturer.
- Designs are generally copied from higher priced garments.
- They are produced in great volume with lower quality materials and workmanship.

14. Fashion Forecast:

- A prediction of fashion colours, textures, designs, silhouettes and styles that
become popular.

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FASHION CYCLE
Fashion always remains in motion. The changes in fashion
depend on economic, social, and psychological factors. Fashions change with same
series of events. The acceptance and rejection of a particular style is indicated through
the fashion cycle. It is usually depicted as a bell-shaped curve. The five stages of a
fashion cycle are:
Stage1. Introduction Stage
• It is the introduction of a style.
• A fashion is born when it’s worn for the first time. For example, models and
celebrities’ wear.
• New styles are offered to the public by changing elements such as line, shape,
colour, fabric and details.
• The introduced style has usually limited acceptance by consumers.
• Higher prices of products.
• Limited production.
Stage2. Rise in Acceptance / Growth Stage
• When the style gets wider acceptance, the demand rises.
• Fashion followers pick up the trend thus increasing the appeal and popularity of the
style.
• Adaptation and changes are done in style at this stage.
• Price is affordable by using less expensive fabrics and styles.
• Mass production is carried out
• The product is widely available to the public.
Stage3. Peak in Popularity / Maturity Stage
• This stage represents the peak of popularity.
• The style is widely worn in society.
• Majority of consumers demand and accept variations of the style with different price
level.
• Introducing new colour, texture or details in the existing style may keep that style
alive for longer period.
• Lengths at this stage determines if fashion becomes a classic.
• Price is affordable by most of the consumers.
• The style is produced in large quantities.
Stage4. Decline in Popularity / Decline Stage
• This stage indicates the decline in popularity.
• The style has over-exposed or become monotonous.
• Demand for the fashion decreases.
• Fashion has over saturated or flooded at the market.
• Consumers won’t pay high price for the fashion
• Decrease in demand leads to start offering discounts and reduced price.
Stage5. Rejection / Obsolescence
• The style is considered to be outdated and is therefore rejected.
• Consumers are no longer interested.
• Retailers do not restock products
• Production of style has stopped by manufacturers.

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FASHION ADOPTION THEORIES

Fashion is one of the greatest economic forces in the
present-day life. It is important to understand the way the fashion ideas are originated
and disseminated to understand the varied tastes, life styles and economic status of
consumer groups. Fashion theories help us explain phenomenon of fashion. Basically,
there are three theories of the fashion adoption process.
1. Trickle - down theory:
- This is the oldest theory of fashion adoption.
- It says a style must first be adopted by people of the top social level.
- The style then gradually wins acceptance at progressively lower social level.
- Centuries ago, the fashion setters were the royal families.
- The upper class copied the royalty and then the middle class.
- At this time the lower class were prohibited by law from copying the styles.
- In time, royalty was replaced by the families of business-men, who became the
top of the economic and social ladder.
- People at the lower socio-economic level found it safe to copy the fashion leaders
rather than to experiment fashion.
- Thus, fashion trickled down from higher fashion leaders to the lower strata of
people.

2. Trickle-up theory:
- This theory is also called as Reverse adoption theory.
- The bottom-up theory explains that the fashions filter up from youth to aged and
from lower to upper socioeconomic groups.
- It says that young – those from low- & high-income families, adopt new and
different fashions.
- The idea behind this theory is that lower income youth have fewer inhibitions and
are free to create new dress patterns, and upper socio-economic groups are feel
free to adopt new dress patterns.
- Middle groups are often more traditional but can accept clothing styles emerging
from lower and upper socio-economic groups.
- E.g., T-shirts and jeans of the earliest “Hippies”, Denim, glitter tops, metal shine
garments etc.

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3. Trickle-across Theory or Mass Market Theory:

- This is also called as Trickle- Across theory of fashion adoption.
- This theory claims that fashions move horizontally between groups on similar
social levels rather than vertically from one level to another.
- As the twentieth century progressed, fashion no longer was created by any
specific social or economic class.
- Each group or segment of society has its own leader or leaders of fashion.
- The approval of these local leaders is required before a fashion can be adopted
by the group.

2.3. Fabric Manipulation Techniques – Gathers, Pleats & Tucks

Fabric manipulation means the reshaping of the fabric
surface by creating 2D or 3D patterns on the garments. There are several easy methods
to make multi-dimensional patterns on fabric. With the evolution of fashion concepts,
several manipulation and surface effects were developed. Fabric manipulation is mostly
used in fashion design, interior design, and also in textile art.
There are several fabric manipulation techniques are used
by designers like pleating, embroidery, dyeing, printing, weaving, knitting, crocheting,
smocking, gathering etc. Here we are discussing about four common techniques used in
fabric manipulation – gathering, shirring, pleats and tucks
1. Gathering: - It is an effective and decorative way of distributing fullness over a given
area. This method creates tiny irregular pleats by pulling on a thread. A thread is
passed through the fabric (by hand or machine, but with a basting stitch). By pulling
on the thread, the fabric “retracts” and this creates pleats and volume. Gathering can
be done in different ways.
a. Gathering by Hand: - This is a traditional sewing technique. Make two rows
of running stitches about ¼” apart. Pull the threads slowing and secure tightly.
b. Gathering by Machine: -Machine gathering and is one of the fastest and most
widely used methods. For this increase the stich length in sewing machine.
Make two rows of stiches on the right side of the fabric at ½” apart. Pull the
bobbin thread on the wrong side and knot it.
c. Gathering with Elastic: - Sometimes gathering can be done with a single row of
elastic. Flat elastic is used for this technique. Elastic is stitched on the wrong side
of the fabric, in a stretching state. When tension is released after stitching, it makes
gathers.
d. Gathering with Gathering Foot or Ruffler: - Using a gathering foot is an easy
and time-saving way to gather fabric automatically. They are available for
most of sewing machines.
2. Shirring: - Shirring is the method of gathering along multiple parallel rows of straight
stitching. At least 3 stitches are necessary to create shirring. The stitches can be done
with elastic threads to create the gathers. Shirring is usually executed by using elastic
thread in the bobbin to create an elasticated row of stitching. When stitched in
several rows, it creates a band of elastic around a bodice or the top of a skirt.
Shirring is far more comfortable than regular elastic as it is soft and flexible.
3. Pleats: - Pleating involves folding fabric into different shapes creating differences in
the volume and texture of the fabric. Pleats have been used in textiles and fashion
from earlier days. But the style and techniques of pleats have changed a lot with

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technological innovations. They create freedom of movement in clothes, and texture

to any fabric. There are a lot of ways to create pleats with fabrics like stitching, heat
pressing, using chemicals etc. Different types of pleats include:
a. Side pleat: - These are also known as knife pleats. They have one side longer than
the other so that the fabric will lie flat on a surface once it is pleated.
b. Box pleats: -These combine two folds to create the box pleat. There is a left-hand
flat pleat followed by a right-hand flat pleat which together forms box
effect. Inverted box pleats have the "box" on the inside rather than the outside.
c. Accordion pleat: - It looks like an accordion because it is formed by two pleats
which both have the same length. It's a form of tight pleating which allows the
garment to expand its shape when moving.
d. Crystal Pleat: - Crystal pleating is a very small accordion pleat with both sides of
the pleat measuring about 2 to 3mm.
e. Sunray Pleats: - A Sunray pleat is a graduated accordion pleat that is pleated in a
semi-circle. The pleat starts off very small at the hip and gets bigger closer to the
hem.
f. Fancy Pleats: - With new technologies a wide range of fancy pleats are used in
designing.
4. Tucks: - Tucks are similar to pleats. The only difference is that tucks are stitched. A
tuck is a narrow fold stitched on right side of the fabric. Light weight fabrics are best
for sewing pintucks; like organza, taffeta, batiste. The space in between the tucks
depends on the look of garment. Different types of stitches are used for decoration as
well as fullness.
a. Pintuck: - A pintuck is a very narrow tuck made at regular intervals, mostly parallel
to each other. It creates a beautiful texture on fabric and is regularly used to
embellish clothes. These have a width of 1/8 inch from the folded edge of the fabric.
Pintucks are made using a pintuck foot and double needle stitching.
b. Spaced Tucks: - These are tucks which have a width of 1/4 inch from the fabric
folded edge; they are also spaced apart, at least more than the pin tucks. Tucks
are made by folding the fabric and sewing straight stitching lines along the folded
fabric edge. Generally, space tucks are made in 1/4-inch width.
c. Cross Tucks: - These tucks are as the name suggests crossing each other. This
example has tucks going both horizontally and vertically, creating a cross in the
middle. Tucks are first made vertically as usual, then tucks are made horizontally
as well (perpendicular to the straight tucks) at regular intervals.
d. Shell Tucks: - This look like a scalloped edge. Fold the fabric as in space tucks
and sew along the edge. Make centred tucks by pressing open the tuck. Make small
stitches at intervals that looks like scallops.
e. Twisted Tucks / Wavey Tucks: - These are simple tucks sewn across the fabric
and then stitched down in a back-and-forth manner making waves. Sew the
space tucks. Now make a straight stich keeping the folds turned to one side. This
will make one set of twists / waves. Then make the real twists by sewing across
the middle of each column of tucks with the tucked folds twisted down/ opposite
direction.

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2.4. Imparting Colouration – Printing Methods

Printing Methods
Textile printing is the process of applying colour to a fabric
in definite patterns or designs. Textile printing is related to dyeing. In dyeing, process the
whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour. In printing one or more colours are
applied to fabric in certain parts only, to get patterns. Printing can be done in different
ways.
1. Block Printing: - This is one of the oldest and simplest methods of applying designs
on the fabric. In this method wooden or metal blocks with carved design are used. The
material to be printed is spread on a padded table. The designed block is dipped in
the dye paste is stamped on the material and allowed to dry. The process is repeated
over the entire fabric surface which is to be printed.
Advantage: - Simple and easy method. Does not require any expensive materials.
Disadvantage: - It is a time-consuming process and requires skilled craftsman ship.
2. Roller Printing: - Roller printing is machine counterpart of block printing. In roller
printing, engraved copper cylinders or rollers take the place of the hand carved blocks.
The colour is fed on to the designed roller with the help of a colour furnishing roller.
The cloth is passed between designed rollers and smooth cylinder rollers with
rubberized blanket; the design is printed on the surface of the fabric. After this the
cloth is passed through drying and steaming chamber to fix the colour. The number of
rollers used in printing depends on the number of colours used in the design.
Advantage: - It is fast and economical. It can print thousands of meters of fabric in an
hour. Engraved rollers results, clear and sharp designs.
Disadvantage: - When using more than one colour sometimes mismatching of design
occurs.
Printing is done on both sides of the fabric either through
roller printing machines in two operations or a duplex printing machine in a single
operation. Duplex printing machine prints both sides of the fabric simultaneously.
3. Stencil Printing: - Stencils are made by cutting the design in cardboard, thin fiber
sheet, wood or metal. Its use is limited due to high costs involved. Depending upon
the number of colours needed, the required numbers of stencils are used. Place the
fabric on a padded table. The stencil is laid on the fabric at required place. Dip the
sponge on the dye paste and dab on the stencil through open spaces.
Advantage: - Easy and simple method
Disadvantage: - Sharp and detailed designs are difficult to achieve. Not suitable for
large scale production. Stencil making is a time-consuming work.
4. Screen Printing: - Screen printing is an easy and widely used method for printing.
Screen printing is used for large and finer patterns. It is a slow process but can be
effectively used on knitted fabric to produce a large number of designs. It is also known
as silk screen printing because the screens were made of fine, strong silk threads.
Today they are also made of nylon, polyester or metal wires.

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The fabric to be printed is spread smoothly onto the table.

The frame with the screen is then placed on the material. The dye paste is brushed or
poured on the screen. Then dye is forced through its unblocked areas, onto the fabric
with a rubber edged squeegee. Based on the type of screen used it may be – flat
screen printing or rotary screen printing.
Advantage: - Provide flexibility in designing. Large complex designs can be made
easily. Multicolour printing can be done with less number of screens.
Disadvantage: - Screen clogging is common issue. Not suitable for large production
quantity.
5. Digital Printing: - This is the latest printing technology and is improving day by day.
Digital designs and printing is more popular nowadays. This printing allows to achieve
unlimited colour options and design variations.
Advantage: - Photographic image printing with high quality full colour. Suitable for
minimum as well as large production. Accurate printing technique.
Disadvantage: - Difficulty I achieve sharp fine lines.
6. Tie & Dye: - This is a form of resist dyeing. It is simple method and yet many
fascinating designs are produced in the fabric. ‘Bandani’ saris of Gujarat and
Rajasthan are made by this method.
The parts of the fabric or the yarn which are to resist the dye
are tied with strings or narrow strips of cloth according to the design. Marbling,
knotting, spirals, stripes, co-cantered circles are some of the designs produced by
tying the thread differently. The strings or the stripes are waxed to increase the
resistance and so get better results.
Tieng of the fabric can be done according to the design by
any of the following methods.
a. Marbling – Gathers the cloth together into small bundle and warp strings around it
to shape like a ball.
b. Knotting – Hold the cloth on and twist into a rope. Make knots by tying the long rope
shaped cloth.
c. Folding / Stripes – Make small folds vertically or horizontally and tie at intervals.
d. Small dots – Mark small dots on the fabric in a pattern. Tie these marked dots, by
keeping small stones or any such object inside the fabric.
Soak the prepared fabric into the dye bath. Rinse the cloth
under and allow to dry. Cut the strings from cloth or garment.
7. Batik: - Batik is a resist printing process for making beautiful designs on fabric. Wax
is used to prevent dye from penetrating the cloth, leaving blank areas in the dyed
fabric. First, the wax is applied the outline of the pattern. The cloth is then immersed
in the dye bath. The area of the cloth where the wax is applied will remain white. The
unwanted portion absorbs colour which appear in a design form. This art of resist
printing very popular in Indonesia.

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2.5. Flat Sketches – Meaning, Importance, & Sketching of garment

components – Pocket, Collar, Skirt
Flat Sketches: -
A flat sketch or fashion flat refers to two dimensional linear
drawings of the garment, as it is laid flat on a table and drawn from above. Plain and
simple flats serve to show the important details that remain hidden in the artistic
drawing such as hidden zipper or stitches. Flats will have all the design details we want
to be included in the garment.

Importance of Flat Sketches

• Flat sketch is an important part of the garment specification sheet or tech pack,
that goes to the patternmaker and sewing team.
• They give the patternmaker and the sewing teams all the technical components
that make up each garment.
• Essential tool for communicating the specifications – shape, size, fabric, style
lines, details etc.
• Technical Flats act as the master, along with the Tech Pack, behind your
design. When questions arise during the development process, the
development team will always refer back to the Technical Sketch. Therefore,
the sketches act as one of the most important parts of the product development
journey.
• Flats helps to try a number of variations.
• Flats helps the merchandizing team to execute the sample.

Flat Sketching Technique: - Many techniques are used for drawing flats. Drawing
technical flats must follow some rules or guidelines.
• Flats are drawn symmetrically. Draw half of the garment only with it split in the
middle, vertically and the duplicate the next half.
• Flats must be drawn with rulers or French curve.
• Be detailed as possible. The details include – darts, seam lines, stitch lines,
vents, trims, buttons and anything that is visibly appear on the garment.
• Present the elements accurately. E.g. – Single stitch line or double stitch line.
• Seam lines and stitch line must be clear and must be going from end to end.
• Include multiple views of the garment. Sometimes just front/ back views are not
enough for a factory to understand the design requirements.
• Keep it Simple. Keep the technical flats as a vector line work. Add details as
explained above but don't overcomplicate things either
• Avoid unnecessary volumetric effects and wrinkles. When showing layer of
fabric in a flat, use a darker line to indicate shadow and depth.
• A common method is to use croqui and draw the flats over this croquis.

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Flat Sketching – Pocket, Collar & Skirts

2.6. Pattern Making – Meaning, Methods, Advantages &

Disadvantages, Pattern information, Drafting of Sleeve Block
Pattern Making:
Patterns are the outline of each component of a garment. Pattern
making is the technique of making patterns for each part of garment. Pattern making is
the art of manipulating and shaping s flat piece of fabric to shaped garment. Pattern
making is a bridge function between design and production.
Pattern Making Methods:
Pattern making explains how a flat piece of fabric is converted into a well
fitted garment. It is the process of transferring a garment design into its required flat
pattern pieces and then drafting them. Pattern for a garment is the blue print on the basis
of which the fabric is cut. Pattern can be developed by the following methods:
a. Draping Method: - A cloth is draped on a dress form for making a garment in
accordance with the body shape of a person. In this method a piece of two-
dimensional fabric is draped directly on a dress form or figure and made to fit on the
dress form to achieve the desired look or shape.
The process of positioning and pinning fabric on a dress form
to develop the structure of a garment design. A piece of muslin fabric is draped directly
on a dress from. The fabric is fitted on the dress form to get the desired look or shape
using pins. This is then transferred to the pattern and are converted into the final
pattern.

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b. Flat Drafting Method: - It is the system of drawing patterns on paper with accurate
body measurements. With step-by-step procedure, the measurements are then
converted into a pattern. This system depends on accurate measurements to
complete the paper pattern.
Accurate measurements are taken and add required ease
allowance to it. Draw rectangular lines, landmark lines and construction lines on paper
according to the measurements. Test fit of the pattern can be done with muslin cloth.
Flat pattern cutting is now widely used because of its accuracy of sizing and the speed
with which complicated designs are made. Drafting is easy to understand and is
considered as the fastest and most efficient pattern design method.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Pattern Making Methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

• Requires more talent and fashion
• Without cutting the fabric we
sense.
can know the entire effect of
• More time consuming.
garment.
• Fabric consumption is more.
1 Draping • Corrections and changes can
• Look of the garment cannot be
be made easy.
assessed accurately, because
• Various styles can be tried on
initial draping is done cheaper
the dress form.
fabric
• . Accurate method.
• Quicker and easy way.
• Can preserve the paper • At first more time is required for
patterns for long time. the development of pattern.
2 Drafting • Save time and reduce • If it is not prepared on thicker
wastage of fabric. pattern sheet, it can’t be used
• New designs can be more than one time,
developed basic block
patterns.

Pattern Information
• Style number
• Name of each piece
• Size of the pattern
• Number of pieces to be cut
• Seam allowance
• Construction lines
• Grain lines
• Notch Marks
• Pattern Symbols: These are some symbols used in patterns which give
information such a position for placing buttons, pleats etc, cutting line, seam
line etc.

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Drafting of Sleeve Block:

Basic Sleeve is one of the basic patterns set. It has no seam
allowances. It is drafted with standard measurements. The basic blocks can be drafted
for individual figures using personal measurements.
Measurements Required:
Sleeve length : 22.5”
Chest/Bust : 34”
Sleeve Bottom : 7”
Drafting Procedure:
Square across and square down from ‘0’
0–1 = Sleeve Length,
0–2 = Chest/2 – 1½”
Square across from ‘1’ and square down from ‘2’ to mark ‘3’ and complete the block.
4 is the mid of 0 – 2
Square down from ‘4’ to mark ‘5’. (Now the block has been separated for applying
front and back sleeve armhole curves).
0–6 = 1/8 chest
Square across to 7 (6 – 7 is the bicep line)
Join 4 – 6 and 4 – 7
5–8 = 5–9 = 1/2 bottom
8 – 8a = 9 – 9a = 5/8’’
Join the wrist curve 8a, 5, 9a (Hem Line)
Join 6 – 8a & 7 to 9a (Under arm seam)
Divide 4 – 6 into three equal parts and mark ‘a’ and ‘b’.
a – a1 = 3/4” upward,

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b – b1 = 5/8” upward
Take the mid of 4 – 7 and mark ‘c’.
Find the mid of 4 – C and 7 – C and mark point ‘d’ and ‘e’.
d – d1 = 5/8’’ upward,
c – c1 = 1/8’’ upward
e – e1 = 1/4’’ down ward
Join the curve line 6 – a1 – b1 – 4 – d1 – c1 – e1– 7. (Arm hole / Sleeve cap Line)
Complete the pattern with required pattern information.

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UNIT 3:
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT,
TECHPACKS & SAMPLES

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3.1. Design Development Process

Design Development process involves a course of action to create
a design collection that is aesthetic, creative and innovative. This course of action
makes the task easier and simpler.
Design Collection: - A Collection is a range of garments, accessories or
products that are designed or produced for sale to retailers or directly to customers
for a season or particular occasion. Any Successful collection requires an
enormous amount of research, investigation &planning. A design house may
produce a major collection twice each year; for two main seasons in fashion selling
i.e. – spring/summer and autumn/winter.

Design Development Process for a Design Collection involves: -

1. Planning & Concept Development
2. Design Inspiration & Research
3. Development of Mood Board/ Theme Board
4. Design Development
5. Feedback and Improvement
6. Portfolio Presentation

1) Planning & Concept Development: -

– It is the point from where the ideas are going to start and the basic shape of
the design would be conceptualized.
– Clear understanding of customer’s need is essential.
– Market research is done to analyse sales and prices, and to understand
current fashion stock.
– In order to gain an understanding, designers conduct a ‘’ Comp Shop”. This
term refers to comparing stock in competitor retail outlets. Quality of fabric,
construction and detailing are carefully studied alongside prices and origin of
manufacturer. This provides a great deal of information when planning and
selling a fashion collection.
– The important thing to keep in mind is that the idea or concept should gel with
the market.
– This stage would also require the designer to work upon the mood board,
theme board, colour palette, trends and the entire outline of the collection.

2) Design Inspiration & Research: - Design Collection may be Inspired by anything

under the Sun like painting. Nature, photographs, architecture, trends, cultural or
social influences, history, internet, media etc. Research is focused on the following
areas:-
– Type of Collection/ garment to be designed
– Fashion Trends and Fashion Forecast
– Material to be used
– Season/ occasion/activities for which apparel will be launched
– Theme and Inspiration
– Fashion Image- age range, formal /informal style etc
– Cost & Budget
– Deadline (a marketing period is six months before consumers will purchase
the merchandise. Designers schedule merchandise to be ready two to three
months before that)

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3) Development of Mood Board/ Theme Board: -

– A mood board is a collage of images, texts, colour pallets and objects
regarding the topic.
– A successful mood board has a unique and direct message. It expresses the
essence of the design ideas and moods, sums up the theme’s concern.
– Mood boars narrow down designing process as key ideas become prioritised,
a clear thought process evolves and the job of producing designs becomes
simpler.
– Mood board may be digital or physical in form.

Importance of Mood / Theme Board

– This is the first stage of organising thoughts and collected images,
enabling them to channel their creative excitement towards a cohesive
and targeted design outcome.
– Mood boards should always present the mood or flavour of the design
project as well as reflect the targeted customers.
– Mood Boards narrow down designing process as key ideas become
prioritised, a clear thought process evolves and the job of producing
designs becomes simpler.

Steps to create a mood board: -

– Clarify the goal (client type, season etc)
– Explore different themes and select the best suited one.
– Collect related texts, images, other visual elements like fabric and colour
swatches, trims, prints.
– Work on font and colour palette, silhouette.
– Add relevant notes.
– Feedback and modification.

4) Design Development: -The design development process considers all design

elements such as silhouettes, textures, patterns, colours and principle of design.
These basic elements provide an initial framework which designers can expand
into more complex designs. It involves following steps: -
– Idea sketch: -these are rough sketches for designers to write down the
ideas that might be useful for further design development.
– Design development sketch: -in this stage the designer selects the idea
sketches and fully expands the initial concepts. Development sketches
could be finished with or without colour depending on the availability of
fabric samples.
– Production sketch: -When designers have confirmed the final design
development, the next stage is to do technical working drawing. This kind
of drawing is called production drawings or tech packs.
– Sourcing: -After creating the tech pack designer sends it to source
different elements like manufacturing, fabrics, trims, labels and packaging
. After sourcing, tech packs are updated and sent to factory for sampling.
– Sampling: - Tech packs are sent to factory where prototype is developed.
The development team fits and reviews the sample and adjusts the tech
pack as necessary.

5) Feedback and Improvement: - After finishing up the sampling process, Tech

pack is checked to be 100 percent accurate and updated. Modifications are made
until developing a final prototype. When the design is approved a TOP (Top of

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Production sample) and /or PP (pre-production sample) is developed. If there are

no further changes, the sample is ready for production. Finally, the product apparel
is launched at various retail stores, e-commerce stores, fashion runways, and at
exhibitions.

6) Portfolio Presentation: - A fashion portfolio is a package of the whole design

work. They give a full view of the process a designer goes through. Brands want
to see not only the finished designs but also where the ideas come from.
Presentation illustrations aim to attract buyers or clients to preview the final
collection being put on figures. Presentation drawings should contain complete
figures wearing the garment in a suitable pose and feature the most attractive
design along with accessories. The illustrations should be grouped with other
sketches to form a presentation portfolio. They are used at exhibitions or buyers’
meetings for promotion and advertising purposes.

What to include in a Fashion portfolio?

– Mood boards, collage for colour, style, print, trim inspiration.
– Rough hand sketches/iterations/sketch book pages.
– Fashion illustrations
– Digital fashion flats
– Technical sketches /tech pack snippets
– Photos of finished garments (flat lays, /draped on mannequins/presented
by models

3.2. Illustration – 10 Head Fashion Figure

Fashion Illustration is considered as the most fundamental component
of fashion designing. It is used to present the design ideas. Usually, fashion figures are
drawn as per 10 head theories.
Ten Head Theory: -Total body length is divided in to 10 heads.
1 head = 1” (In some drawings, 1 head =1 ¼” or 1½” or 2")
Total length = 1 x 10 = 10”

Steps for drawing 10 Head Croqui

1. Draw a central balance line - 10”
2. Divide the line into 10 equal sections with 1” (1head)
3. Mark 0 – 10 to each section.
4. Name each section
0 – Head
1 – ¼ “down – Neck
1 – ½” down – Shoulder
2 – Bust
3 – ¼” down – Waist
4 – Hip
4 – ¼” down – Crotch
5 – Mid high

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6 – ½” down – Knee
7 – Knee curve
9 – ¼” Down – Ankle
10 – Feet
5. Width Measurements (from center to each side)
a) Head Block – 3/8”
b) Neck Block – 1/8”
c) Shoulder – 1” (2 head)
d) Waist – ½” (1 head)
e) Hip – ¾” (1½ head)
f) Knee – ½”
g) Knee curve – 9/16”
k) Ankle - ¼”
l) Feet - ½”
6. Complete the block figure by joining the marked points

0
Head
1 Neck
Shoulder
2 Bust

3
Waist

4 Hip
Crotch
5 Mid thigh

6
Knee
7 Knee Curve

9
Ankle

10 Feet
Toe

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Fashion Figures: -

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3.3. Teck Packs – Importance, Components & Terminology.

TECH PACKS
A tech pack is a blue print created by the designer. It contains all the
components and instructions required for a manufacturer to turn the design into a finished
product. That includes materials, gradings, seams, colourway, measurements, trim,
labels etc. It serves as a ‘product contract’ between the designer and the manufacturer
throughout the sampling and production process.

IMPORTANCE OF TECH PACKS

1. Helps to create error free samples.
2. Communicate all the details of the design created by the designer, thereby it
help-s to make the production processes smoother and faster.
3. Helps the factory to estimate the resources required for construction of a
particular style.
4. Get accurate price quotes.
5. It is the reference point for quality control.
6. It acts as a common reference point to resolve the problems
7. It minimizes the number of proto/ samples.
8. It helps to decrease the cost and speed up production time.
9. It serves as a master document to track production development including
comments and changes made.
10. It helps to collaborate in teams.

COMPONENTS OF TECH PACK

1. A Cover page: - It is an over view of the design, this page should include high
level details about the design. It contains:
a. A finished colour flat sketch
b. The company name & Contact
c. Style name / Number
d. Season
e. Vendor
f. COO (Country of Origin)
g. Date
2. Tech Sheets: - Tech sketches are the black and white sketches with text
callouts to specify design details. Arrow callout Page or Callout comments are
additional piece of information that are attached to technical sketch. This helps
the manufacturer to understand the design requirements and make product s to
exact specifications.
3. A BOM (Bill of Materials): - List of raw materials which are needed to be
sourced to make a garment and make it ready for shipment as per buyer’s
requirement. What to buy, how to buy and instructions about how to process the

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product is included in this. Raw materials details for the complete garment such
as item description, quality and quantity of material, consumption, placement,
positioning and colour number etc are included.
4. A Graded Spec: - This contains the measurements for all sizes that will be put
through production.
5. Colourway Specs: - This page identifies the colours which are to be used in the
design. Each colour area contains, sections for the colour name, colour number
and colour swatch. The colour number may be the pantone colour number.
6. Artwork Spec (If relevant): -If the product has any type of embellishment (for
example - a print or embroidery or specific trim details) then include a
specification sheet for each of these. Includes the artwork to scale with al details
and colours.
7. A spot for proto/fit /sale sample comments: -Since a tech pack serves a
master document for tracking, there are pages to enter measurements /
comments/approvals/ rejections about various samples (proto sample, fit
sample, sales sample, photo sample etc). It is common to include photos of
samples marked up with comments to communicate changes or construction
issues.
8. Fold page: - This page expresses how the garment should be folded and
packed. This page may contain a series of sketches showing the step by step
process of folding and packing a garment.
9. Label Placement Page: - This page explains the type of label that is to be used
in the product and where it should be placed.
10. Packaging Page: - This page in tech packs shows a visual of how the garment
should be folded, hang tag attached and any other additional details.

TECH PACK TERMINOLOGY

1. CAD – Computer Aided Design
2. CALL OUTS – Special note about a garment structure, finishing etc.
3. FABRIC CONSTRUCTION – The specific base construction of fabric, type of
structure and size or weight.
4. FLAT SKETCHES – Technical sketch of the product, as it were lying flat ,
includes stitching, seaming details.
5. GRADING – Proportionally increasing or decreasing the dimensions of parts of
ta product according to the size rage intended for production.
6. PACKING LIST – List prepared by the shipper that lists the quantity and kind of
items being shipped.
7. PROTOTYPE – A full size working model of a new product or new version of an
existing product used as a basis for later production stages.
8. PURCHASE ORDER(PO) – A legal. Biding contract between a buyer and a
supplier.
9. SOURCING – Process of obtain goods.
10. WOVEN – Fabric composed of two yarns running in perpendicular direction
woven together.

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3.4. Tech pack-based samples – Importance, types & roles

Sample is the prototype or model of the garment, upon what
the buyer can decide on how and whether to confirm the order or not. Garment sampling
process is one of the important processes in garment manufacturing. It plays a significant
role in attracting buyers and confirming export order. Different types of samples are made
and submitted to buyer for their approval.
Importance of Sample Making
• Samples are the means to attract the buyer and get the order confirmed.
• The samples decide the ability of exporters to deal with any given style of
garment.
• The buyer accesses the capability of exporter only with the help of Samples. The
buyer critically examines the samples submitted for its style, construction, fit,
quality etc.
• Though sampling is a difficult and time bound process, it will help the exporter to
get the order from the buyer.
• Sampling also works as a bridge between the productions and marketing
department. Hence it has the influence of both marketing as well as production
department.
• The samples should be innovative and should be manufactured with optimum
quality.
• Samples allow to minimize errors and issues related to construction or approval
before production begins.

Types and Role of Samples

The types and requirement of samples will vary from buyer to buyer, but
in industry there is a particular order of sampling process followed, the stages and
purpose of sample may be same but the terminology used may be different and it totally
depends upon buyer. Usually there are three stages with sample making in factories.

- The first set of samples correspond to the design phase, which includes everything
from the initial design to patternmaking.
- The second sample set is part of the evaluation phase which is for finalizing
garment fit, predict costings, order quantities, etc.

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- Finally, after the collection is approved and sent to production, it is need to check
samples again to ensure quality and consistency of the entire batch. These samples
correspond to the quality control phase.
Most of these samples are not essential to guarantee a top
product that will not only satisfy your customers but will help make its way in today’s
highly competitive market.

No. Type of Sample Role /Objective of Sample

- It is the very initial sample.

- To check the design and style of the garment.
1 Proto Sample
- This may go through multiple iterations of prototypes
before you finalize your pattern.

- A digital sample allows the visualization of fit and fall of

the garment in both stillness and movement.
Digital Garment
2 - 3D samples can significantly cut down on sample
Sample
making cost and approval time between the designers
and factories.

- This sample is created from first pattern and used to

ensure the desired fit of the garment.
- The fit sample is made with actual measurement based
3 Fit Sample on the original product and specification sheets given by
the buyer.
- It’s better to use the actual fabric, but substitute fabric
and trims can also be used for the sample development.

- The main purpose of Size set sample is to check the

factory’s capability to make the samples in all sizes.
4 Size – Set Sample - Actual fabric and trims are to be used for Size set
samples.
- It is used to fit the styling of the garment.

- This sample reflects all of the construction information

5 Sew – by Sample needed to produce the style.
- Factories use this sample to estimate cost of production.

- This sample is used for marketing and presentation to

Sales Man Sample buyers.
/ Marketing / - Used to showcase in various retail stores and showrooms
6
Showroom to get the order.
Sample - Actual fabric and trims are used for the development of
this sample.

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No. Type of Sample
7 Photo Sample
8 GPT Sample
Pre-production
9 sample / Contract
Seal/ Seal Sample
10 Pilot run Sample
Top of Production
11
(TOP) Sample
- Some garments are picked from the final shipment lot and
12 Shipment Sample -
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- Role /Objective of Sample
- These are made to the size of model, for product
photography or magazine photo shot.
- The main purpose is to check the performance of the
garment to various physical and chemical tests.
- These are to be made with actual fabrics and trims.
- Samples can be tested in the factory itself or by a third-
party inspection.
- Various tests like Shrinkage, Colour fastness, Seam
performance etc.
- Its role is to gain approval before the bulk production.
- The factory can start bulk production only after the PP
sample is approved.
- The original fabric along with all original trims and
embroidery or print (if any) should be used in the sample
- To assure buyer about the actual bulk production
capability of the factory.
- 2-5% of total production quantity is made in the separate
sewing line before the actual bulk production.
- This set of samples is taken off the sewing line during
first production order.
- TOP sample is also checked by the buyer for the
packing.
- For small batch orders, one or two garments per
variation should sufficient.
are sent to the buyer as the shipment sample.
The purpose of sending shipment sample is to assure
buyer that quality is maintained throughout the end of
production.
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UNIT 4
HEALTH AND SAFETY
RELATED PRACTICES
APPLICABLE AT
WORKPLACE

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4.1. Potential hazards at Work Place

A hazard is an agent having the potential to cause harm and hurt to a
target or causes a potential health effect.
Types of Hazards:
1. Physical hazards
• Low light environment causes eye problem
• No adequate ventilation causes respiratory problems and allergies
• Prolonged sitting and continuous working causes back pain, stiffening of neck and
wrist joints
• Poor arrangement of machines, lifting loads- Ergonomics.
Precautions to be taken:
• Always work in right poster
• Keep the stand at a height till bust level and straight wrist position to avoid
bending your neck and back for a long time
• Use wrist rest to avoid strain in the back and wrist joint
• Take short break from long stitching
2. Fire hazards
• Electrical short circuit
• Damage to the equipment
• Spark, ignition
• Presence of loose materials
• Deposit of dust
• High piles of stock
Precautions to be taken:
• Good housekeeping
• Minimum storage in workrooms
• Restricting smoking areas
• Controlling heated work areas
• Storing raw materials and finished goods systematically
3. Biological hazards
• Microbes
• Plants
• Animals
• Genetically modified agents
Precautions to be taken:
• Adequate ventilation
• Clean environment
• Use of exhaust fans
• Hygienic washrooms

4. Chemical hazards
• Common at the time of dyeing and printing
• Chemicals used in fabric processing. Example: Sulphuric Acid

Precautions to be taken:
• Must follow special instructions while handling a particular chemical

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5. Electrical hazards
• Improper earthing
• Improper insolation
• Usage of old wire
• Moisture
• Electrical maintenance
• Looping in the running lane
• Short circuit

Precautions to be taken:
• Avoid improper earthing and loose connection
• All circuit to be enclosed in a proper circuit
• Moisture to be kept in control
• Use of wires as per electrical standards
• Avoid looping
• Need preventive maintenance

6. Electrical hazards while using machines

• Wrong use of equipment
• Use of faulty equipment
• Working near electrical equipment which is in line
• Using equipment without training

Precautions to be taken:
• Critical emergencies such as alarms, evacuation plans, emergency lights and
gathering areas
• Proper training to operate machines
• Demonstration of work techniques

7. Psychological hazards
• Boring, stress, low pay, lack of recognition, production pressure
• Job insecurity, working hours
Precautions to be taken:
• Behaviour therapy like counselling, meditation, yoga, music, occupational
therapy

Some common injuries and preventive measures:

• Finger and hand injury during cleaning- machine must be switched off while
cleaning
• Eye injury form broken parts- safety glasses should be used
• Finger injury from needle- setting of the finger guard
• Injury from tools and equipment- shears and needles should be placed at the right
place after use
• Electrical injury- never use a machine with damaged covers, cable switches

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UNIT 5
LEGAL REGULATORY &
ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS

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5.1. Policies and Procedures of a company

Company: - A company is a legal entity formed by a group of individuals to engage in
and operate a business in a commercial or industrial capacity. Companies may be either
public or private. For the smooth running of activities a company establish policies and
procedures.
Company Policies and Procedures: - These are basically set in place to establish the
rules of conduct within an organisation, outlining the responsibilities of both employees
and employers. Company policy and procedures aim to protect the rights of workers as
well as business interest of employers.
A policy is a guiding principle that allows all employees to be
consistent in the way in which they work within the organisation. A procedure explains a
specific action plan for carrying out a policy.
Types of Policies:
1. Program Policies
• Used to create an overall security vision of the organisation
• It includes topic and scope, responsibilities, compliance issues
2. Topic Specific Policies
• Address specific issues like email policy, internet usage, physical security etc.
3. Application Specific Policies
• Design to protect specific applications or system. Eg: Controls established
payrolls

Most important company policies and their benefits are listed below:

No Policies & Procedures Benefits

- Having a standard way to request a day off or

Employee Attendance:
take vacation leave will help things run more
Include guidelines on vacation
1 smoothly in the office.
time, sick leave, appointments
- Employees are expected to be on time and
and paid volunteer hours.
regular in attendance.

- A clear code of conduct can help employees

Code of Conduct: Contains understand expectations of the company in terms
2 the vision, ethics and the of performance and behaviour.
mission of the organization. - It is created to build and maintain the right
business environment for employees.

- It enables employees to earn the ‘basic cost of

Employee Wages: Details living’.
3 about salary and managing - Ensures that the employee receives the right
employee payrolls. monthly payment on time and without any
unnecessary deductions.

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Workplace Healthy and - Workplace health and safety violations can cause
Safety: Details about the harm to your employees, business money and
4 health and safety measures to damage company’s reputation.
be followed in the - Health and safety policies protects the employers
organization. as well as improve their work efficiency.

- With complete access to the rules and

Employee Disciplinary
regulations of the workplace, disciplinary action
Action: Record of
can be enforced if a situation arises.
5 expectations in terms of
- A step-by-step list regarding disciplinary action
performance and details of
can make it easy for employees to know what to
disciplinary actions.
expect if they violate a company policy.

- This policy protects not just the employees and

Sexual Harassment in The
6 interns of an organization but also any woman
Workplace Policy:
visiting the company or a woman customer.

- This will help the HR personnel carry out the

Termination of Employment
correct procedures according to the federal laws.
7 Policy:
- Helps the employee to be compliant if the
company violate from policies.

- An equal opportunity policy prevents companies

Non-discrimination or from discriminating against job applicants or
8 Policy or Equal Opportunity employees if they are a member of a protected
Policy (EOP) class (e.g, race, gender, age, religion, familial
status, colour).

Grievance Policy: These are - It’s important to outline a formal process for
policies related to handle the resolving complaints within the company so that
9
formal complaints with an employees know how to handle their concerns in
aspect of their workplace. a professional way.

- It gives employees a clear understanding of what

is expected of them.
Performance Management
10 - It provides an appropriate framework within which
and Appraisal:
the performance of an employee can be
managed.

Best Wishes for the Examinations…………..……

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