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SESSION 1.1: GARMENT INDUSTRY

INTRODUCTION
In the early 19th century clothing was handmade, and produced for the
family by women. The first production of ready-to-wear garments was to complete the
needs of sailors, slaves, and miners.
The production of ready-made clothing, become an "industrialized"
profession with the invention of a practical and commercial sewing machine in 1850s. The
ready-to-wear industry grew rapidly from the 1860s as a result of increasing mechanization
and technologies.
INDIAN GARMENT INDUSTRY
India's Garment Industry is a well-organized enterprise and is among
the best in the world. It constitutes of skilled designers, manufacturers, exporters, suppliers,
stockiest, retailers and wholesalers. The Indian Readymade Garment industry is the second
largest employment provider after agriculture.
As per the World Trade Statistical Review 2018, India is ranked as 5th
largest exporter of RMG in the world. Readymade garment industry in India has an
advantage as it produces men, women and children’s garments. Technological
advancement and use of modern machinery has enabled the manufacturers to achieve
better quality and well-designed, fashionable garments. Indian Garment Industry has earned
a reputation for its durability, quality and appearance.
DEPARTMENTS IN GARMENT INDUSTRY
Garment industry is very diverse in nature performing variety of
processes. Different departments are working under a garment factory. Garment
manufacturing process includes number of processes from order receiving to dispatching

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shipment of the finished garments. Departments are set-up based on the group of activities
to be performed by a team of people. Based on present apparel industry, garment
manufacturing departments are categorized as:
 Pre-Production Department - Pre-production process includes sampling, sourcing of
raw materials, Approvals, PP meeting etc.
 Production Department - Production processes are cutting, sewing etc.
 Post production Department - thread trimming, pressing, checking, folding and
packing, shipment inspection etc.
 Auxiliary Departments - To run the factory smoothly, with production departments,
one needs to set up some auxiliary departments.
Functions & Activities of Different Departments: - Activities of different
departments explained here are followed by garment export houses as well as domestic
garment manufacturers.
1. Merchandising Department (Marketing): - Merchandising department works as a
mediator in between factory and buyers. This department is responsible for marketing
the products made by the factory. In bigger factories merchandising team is given
specific responsibilities as sampling or marketing merchant and production merchant.
Merchandising Department Activities: -
 Communicate with buyers and keep good relationship with customers.
 Conduct Pre-Production Meeting
 Scheduling of pre-production and production activities
 Develop and review garment samples.
 Product costing.
 Preparing Bill of Material (BOM) and fabric indent.
 Sourcing of raw materials.
 Provide quality approval.
 Prepare production file and execute orders.
 Providing after sales services.
2. Design Department (Pattern Making/CAD): - Apparel design department is
responsible for product development. They focus on developing designs in similar
garment categories the company does its business. Pattern making and digitizing
patterns to CAD is also done by design department.
 Designers develop new design collection in every season as per the latest trends
after conducting market study and fashion forecasting.
 Pattern making and pattern grading.
 Garment fit checking and correction of patterns.
 Incorporate buyer’s comments on samples.
 Marker planning.

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3. Sampling Department: - Sampling department makes all kind of samples that need to
be submitted to the buyer. In small size factories, pattern making, and sampling is kept
in one department. Sampling department’s activities are:
 Reading garment spec and understanding workmanship of the garment.
 Assisting in preparing bill of material for the sample.
 Calculating fabric consumption.
 Making garment samples (by following complete processes of cutting, sewing,
finishing and checking).
 Prepare quality inspection reports.
4. Material or Sourcing Department (Fabric Store and Fabric Sourcing, Trims and
Accessory Store): - Factories source fabric for garment sample development and for
bulk production. The fabric store is handled by fabric in-charge and the in-charge is
assisted by a team of helpers for loading and unloading fabrics and issuing fabric to
cutting department. Small size factories, fabric and trim store are headed by the same
person. Following are the major Activities of the fabric store:
 Receive raw materials like fabrics, trims, accessories etc.
 Checking of Greige and Finished fabric
 Prepare shade band for dyed and printed fabrics.
 Basic testing of physical properties of fabrics.
 Fabric dyeing
 Fabric reconciliation. (It is a process of fabric analysis which means how the total
purchased fabric is used by a factory, what percentage of the fabric is actually
used to make garments, what percentage of the purchased fabric is left after
shipment as dead stock, and how much fabric is lost as wastage).
 Checking of Trims and accessories in term of quality and quantity.
 Maintain inventory record for fabrics, trims and accessories.
 Fabric, trims and accessory issue.
 Communication with raw materials supplier.
5. Production Planning and Control (PPC Department): - This department is
responsible for planning and scheduling orders. Production planning and scheduling of
activities are essential to procure raw material on time, complete production activities
on time and able handover shipment on time. Small size factories do not keep a separate
department for production planning. Merchandisers do the planning of pre-production
activities and production head prepares a production plan. Following activities are
carried out by the PPC department:
 Task Scheduling.
 Material requirement planning
 Estimating quantity and costs of production
 Capacity & line planning.
 Loading production, production follow up and execution.

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6. Cutting Department: - This department is responsible for cutting of fabrics and feeding
sewing department with cuttings. Cutting department set up with cutting department
head, cutters, spreaders, quality checkers, and helpers for sorting, ply numbering and
bundling. List of activities of the cutting department is as follows:
 Fabric receiving and checking.
 Cut planning.
 Fabric spreading/layering on the cutting table.
 Marker plan setting.
 Cutting, sorting, bundling and numbering of garment parts.
7. Sewing Department: - Main jobs of the sewing department are stitching of garment. In
the sewing floor, various types of production systems and line layout are used. Major
tasks of this department are as follows but not limited to these only.
 Line setting.
 Garment stitching.
 Ironing garment components.
 Checking of stitched garments
 Stitching alteration
8. Printing / Embroidery department: - It comes into play, only when the particular
garment style demands printing or embroidery. It receives the garment panel, style and
the embroidery or printing details and garment sample from the merchandisers. The
work is done according to the sample approved by the buyer.
9. Finishing & Packing Department: - Stitched garments are finished prior to packing
into poly bag. Packing department in a factory works side by side of the finishing
department. Based on product categories finishing room activities may vary. Activities
of the finishing department are listed below:
 Thread trimming. Removes extra threads from the garment at the stitched areas.
 Stain removing and garment washing
 Garment pressing or ironing.
 Checking, folding and tagging.
 The packing is done in the carton boxes. Individual packing of garments in the
poly bag and folding the garments is also done.
10. Quality Control Department: - Responsibilities of the quality control department may
vary organization to organization but main activities almost remain the same. The quality
assurance department in apparel industry divides their work in to different stages of
production like pre-inspection, inline inspection, end line inspection and final inspection.
Activities of the Quality control department are as follows.
 Setting up Quality Standards.
 Establishing Quality SOP (Standard Operating Procedure).
 Quality Assurance.

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 Quality Control activities at the Pre-production stage:

 Preparing the audit report of the fabric and trims quality.
 Ensure the quality aspects of samples.
 Ensure that no faulty fabric is sent for cutting.
 Conducting pre-production meeting before production start.
 Conduct in process inspection or DUPRO (During Production Inspection) and
final inspection or FRI (Final Random Inspection).
 Verify packaging, labelling, instructions and markings comply with mandatory
standards.
11. Shipping and documentation: - Shipping and documentation department prepare
shipment related documents. They communicate with buyers for shipment dispatch and
send the shipment to buyers.
12. Industrial Engineering Department: Industrial Engineering department assists
production department in setting line, improving production and measuring production
performance. IE department plays a great role in ensuring operational efficiency and
work plan. In a typical garment unit, industrial engineering department handles following
activities:
 Selection of machines and work-aids and number of machines for each operation
of a particular order.
 Time study and capacity study of operators.
 Methods developments & analysis as a side of quality & quantity.
 Line Balancing
 Hourly production monitoring & achieve the line target.
 Prepare a Man-machine report.
 Line Cost Calculation, Floor capacity calculation
 Develop detailed production methods and documentation of all methods using
appropriate manuals and computer-based system.
 Operator performance improvement and training program.
 Improving productivity through a detailed analysis of the process by process.
13. Accounting Department: - They manage accounts of the company. Maintain records
of supplier payment and follow up with buyers for pending payment. Accounting
department prepare payroll for employee and give payments to workers. This
department is involved in all kind payment and cash management.
14. Human Resource and Administration: - This department is concern about the social
issue of the employee.
 They look after recruiting and employee welfare.
 This department maintains employee attendance and absent records.
 Handle labour issues.
 Factory compliance and social compliance.
 New employee orientation programmes.

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15. Machine Maintenance Department: - This department repair machines and look after
maintenance of sewing machines. Major activities of the machine maintenance
department are: -
 Machine set up.
 Inspection of sewing machines and other machinery in the factory, repairing and
up gradation.
 Maintaining and ensuring continuous power supply in the factory.
 Planning, design and implement any kind of expansion of the factory. And
purchase of new machinery.
 Issuing of different spare parts and accessories according to the production
requirement.

SESSION 1.2: ROLE & RESPONSIBILITIES OF ASSISTANT

FASHION DESIGNER
Fashion designers are primary pillars of fashion world. They have
a vision and talent to analyze fashion trends, sketch design ideas, select fabrics and play a
major role in all the aspects of production. Fashion designers develop garment and
accessory designs for men, women and children. Role and responsibilities of assistant fashion
designer.
 Researching and analyzing fashion trends.
 Creating designs based on research data.
 Meeting with buyers.
 Creating patterns for mass production.
 Testing and deciding on fabrics, colors, patterns and textures for each design.
 Overseeing the production, including carrying out fittings, determining prices and managing
marketing.
 Maintaining relationships with vendors, suppliers and models
Qualities of an Assistant Fashion Designer
 Creative flair and an eye for pattern and colour.
 The ability to organise and prioritise the work.
 Good time-management skills.
 The ability to work well under pressure and meet tight deadlines.
 Strong written and verbal communication skills.
 Effective presentation skills.
 Commercial awareness and knowledge of the current market.
 A good understanding of garment construction and costing.
 The ability to work well on your own, and in a team.
 Good negotiation skills for working with customers and suppliers.
 Confidence and self-motivation.

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SESSION 1.3: TOOLS & EQUIPMENT USED IN GARMENT

MAKING
Efficiency of any work always depends upon the tools and
equipment used for it. A good quality tools must be selected for accuracy and speed in
construction. Proper selection, use and maintenance of tools will improve the quality and
quantity in production.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

Tools used in garment making can be listed under following heads.

1. Measuring Tools: - These are the tools used for taking measurements for garment
construction from body or garment and on fabric.
2. Drafting / Marking Tools: - These are generally used for marking or drafting and
transferring the paper pattern on to the fabric.
3. Cutting Tools: - These tools are used for cutting patterns and fabric during pattern
making and construction. Cutting tools can be classified as:
a. Manual cutting machines: These are manually operated for cutting single or
double fabric layer and can be selected as per the requirement
b. Semi-automatic cutting machines: Semi-automatic cutting machines are used
for easy and precise cutting.
c. Fully-automatic cutting machines: Fully-automatic cutting machines are
computer controlled and does not require any operator for its functioning.
4. Sewing Tools: - These are various tools used for the stitching of garments.
5. Pressing Tools: - These tools are used to pressing of garments.

Measuring Tools
1) Tape Measure: This is a plastic tape
with small metal tips on either end. It is
60” long, and has 1/8 divisions. It has
markings in centimetres and inches.
Tape measure is used to take body
measurements, drafting patterns, and
measuring fabrics.
2) Rulers: There are different types of
rulers made of fiber wood or metal.
Rulers are used for measuring small
distances for tucks, hems, facings etc,
and also for taking measurements in
drafting.

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Drafting / Marking Tools

1) Pencils and Pen: These are also
used for marking on the fabric
surface. These markings can be
washed out easily. Pen markings
washes out or fade after 48 hours.
2) L – Scale: It is a fibre or wooden scale
having L-Shape. These scales are
used for finding and aligning the grain
of fabric and also for making
perpendicular lines in pattern drafting.

3) French Curve: This is used to shape

the depth of the neck hole and
armhole of the pattern

4) Hip Curve: They are useful for

connecting or shaping curve points
such as armhole, hip etc.

5) Notcher: It is a punching tool. It is

used to make ‘U’ shaped notch marks
which indicates seam allowance,
central lines etc. It looks like a single
punch machine.
6) Tailor’s Chalk: It is made of wax or
stone chalk. It is used to transfer
seam lines and other pattern details
to fabric. It can be brushed out from
the surface of the fabric.
7) Tracing Wheel: This is a sharp
toothed wheel used to transfer pattern
markings to cloth. This can be also
used to transfer pattern lines to
pattern paper during pattern
development.
8) Stiletto: This is a sharp pointed
instrument for punching holes in
material. It is used for forming eyelets
in belts and for embroidery work.

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9) Pins and Pincushions: Pins are

used for basting and fixing of pattern
pieces on to fabric. Pin cushion is a
small stuffed cushion made of wool or
felt, filled with wool or cotton to hold
the pins.

10) Dress Forms: It is a standardized

duplication of a human form. It is
cotton padded, canvas covered and
set on a movable stand. It. is used to
take measurements, develop
patterns and fit garment samples.

Cutting Tools - Manual Cutting Machines

1) Scissors: They have 5 to 6 inches long

and identical blade. They are used for
light cutting, trimming, clipping corners,
and cutting curves.

2) Shears: They are 8 to 12 inches long.

They are used for cutting all types of
fabrics. Shears differ from scissors in
that they have one small ring handle
and a large ring handle.
3) Seam ripper: This is a handy little tool
for taking out seams and removing
stitches. It must be used carefully so as
not to cut the fabric.

4) Buttonhole scissors: These scissors

have notched blades which are used
for cutting buttonholes in a garment

5) Pinking shears: They have a zigzag

shaped blade. They are used to finish
the seam allowances with a zigzag
cutting line or scalloped edge.

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6) Thread Cutter / Snipers: These

clippers are specifically used to cut
threads and they are not designed to
cut fabric.
7) Rotary Cutter: It requires more
handling skill than shears. It cuts
patterns and samples faster than
scissors. Rotary cutters are used in
commercial garment industries.

8) Cutting Table: It is a table of

convenient height and size for cutting
and construction of garments.

Cutting Tools – Semi Automatics Cutting Machines

9) Electric Shears: They are ideal for
cutting paper, silk, nylon, and soft,
hard-to-cut fabric. These are light in
weight and easy to operate.

10) Straight knife cutting machine:

These are large electrical cutters
used in industry for cutting several
layers of fabric simultaneously. It has
a base plate and an upright stand
holding a vertical blade.

11) Band knife cutting machine: This

machine has a narrow blade which is
fixed on the table and is used for
cutting smaller garment pieces like
collars, cuffs, etc.

12) Round knife cutting machine: It is a

small flexible machine with a round
shaped cutter.

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Cutting Tools – Fully Automatic Cutting Machines

13) Laser cutting machine: Instead on

blade fabric layer is cut by laser rays.
Laser cutting machine is also
computer controlled machine. Cutting
takes location by burning, melting,
and vaporization.
14) Water jet cutting machine: A very
excessive velocity, small diameter
circulate of water is created by
applying high-pressure water to a
nozzle. The high-pressure jet acts as
a solid device even as it encounters
the fabric to be cut, tearing the fibres
on impact.

15) Ultrasonic cutting: More currently

advanced are cutting systems that
use an ultrasonically driven knife
blade.

Sewing Tools

1) Sewing Machine: It is the machine

used to stitch fabric and other materials
together with thread. Various types of
sewing machine are used for domestic
as well as industrial purpose.

2) Needle: Needles are found in various

sizes. The best quality needles are
made of steel. For hand sewing
medium length needles with a short
oval eye is selected. Sharp and short
needles are suitable for permanent
stitching. Crewel needles with a long
oval eye are designed for embroidery
work.

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3) Needle Threader: It is a device made

of thin wire which aids in threading
machine needles and hand needles.

4) Thimble: Thimble is used to protect the

finger from being pricked by the needle
when sewing. They are made of either
plastic or metal.

Pressing Tools

1) Iron box: A steam iron is used to remove

wrinkles in the fabric, flattening of seams
and final finishing after garment
construction

2) Ironing board: Small foldable table with

a padded heat resistant surface.

3) Tailor’s ham: It is a small firmly packed

cushion with rounded surface, used for
as a mould while pressing shaped areas
in a garment.

4) Sleeve board: It looks like a miniature

ironing board for pressing seams of
narrow areas like sleeves and pant legs.

5) Press cloth: It is a thin muslin cloth used

to cover certain garments while ironing

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INDUSTRIAL SEWING MACHINES

A sewing machine is a textile machine used to stitch fabric, leather and other
material together with thread. Sewing machines range from most basic type to the electronic
machines that use advanced computer technology.
There are different types of sewing machines available for industrial as well as
for home use. Industrial sewing machines are designed for bulk production and are larger,
faster and more complex. Some common types of sewing machines used in industry are:

1. Single Needle Lock Stitch Machines: - Works with manual as well as electronic
controls. Domestic treadle sewing machines comes under this group. Used for sewing
at home, tailoring shops as well as in industry.
2. High Speed Lockstitch Machines: -These are lock stitch machines used in industrial
purpose hence it is called “Industrial sewing machine”. An industrial sewing machine is
specifically built for long term, professional sewing tasks and is therefore constructed
with superior durability, parts and motors.
3. Double Needle Machine: - These machines work with electronic controls at a high
speed. Machine consists of two needles which function together. Double row of stitching
can be obtained in a single operation. Used particularly for sewing jeans, safari suits
etc, where double seams are required.
4. Button Sewing Machine: - This is also a high-speed electronic machine used for
attaching buttons on garments. Buttons with 2 or 4 holes or shanks can be sewn on the
same machine by simple adjustments.
5. Buttonhole Sewing Machine: - This is a very expensive machine used for sewing
button holes. The machine automatically slits through the garments and sews round its
edges to prevent fraying and stretching.
6. Zig zag Sewing Machine: These are used to make zig zag stitches, used to finish the
edges of garments.
7. Over lock / Over Edge Sewing Machine: - This machine stitches the edges of a
garment to be finished. It covers rough edges of fabric and gives a clear and neat
appearance where seam edges are visible. It is also used for assembling knitted articles
such as T-Shirts.
8. Blind Stitch Hemming Machine: - This machine is used to make blind hem stitches.
These stiches are not seen on the outer sides of the garments.
9. Bar tacking Machines: - They create bar tack stitches, a series of stitched used to
reinforce the areas of garments subjected to stress.
10. Fusing Machine: - Fusing machine is used for fusing and pressing the inside fabric and
surface material together. It is also used to fuse collars, cuffs and front placket. There
are several kinds of fusing machines are widely used in the industrial sectors.

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PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF SEWING MACHINE

The basic structure of sewing machine is the same whether it is hand operated
sewing, treadle sewing machine or electric sewing machine. The sewing machine has four
regions – Head region, Arm region, Base region & Leg region.
The basic parts of sewing and their functions are listed below:

1. Head Region

a. Thread Take up Lever: - It moves up and down above the tension discs. At the outside
end of this lever, there is a small hole through which the thread passes.
b. Tension Disc: This is a simple mechanism where two concave discs are put together,
with the convex sides facing each other. The thread passes between the two discs.
The tension of the thread is adjusted by a spring and a nut which increases or
decreases the pressure on the disc.

c. Presser Foot: It helps to hold the cloth firmly for stitching properly.

d. Presser Foot Lifter: This is a lever which is attached to the presser bar for raising and
lowering the presser foot.
e. Thread Guide: It holds the thread in position from the spool to the needle.

f. Needle Bar: This is a steel rod to hold the needle at one end with the help of a clamp.

g. Face Plate: It is the cover which when removed gives access to the oiling points on
needle bar; pressure bar and thread take up lever.

2. Arm Region

h. Spool Pin: It holds the spool of thread in the pin on the top of the machine.

i. Balance / Fly wheel: Treadle operated sewing machine has two fly wheels – the
bigger one at the lower side right to the treadle and the smaller one at the right side of
head part of machine. The smaller one is also referred as balance wheel or hand wheel.
When this is made to revolve, the machine starts to work.

j. Clutch or Thumb Screw: It is seen at the centre of the balance wheel and it engages
and disengages the stitching mechanism.

k. Bobbin Winder: This facilitates the winding of thread on the bobbin. Some are made
to stop automatically when the bobbin is full.

l. Stitch Regulator: This controls the length of the stitch. Some regulators can be set to
stitch in reverse.

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3. Base Region
m. Slide Plate: It helps to insert and take out, the bobbin case from the shuttle by sliding
the plate.
n. Needle / Throat plate: This is a semi-circular plate with a hole to allow the needle to
pass through it and collect the bobbin thread.
o. Feed Dog / Teeth: This consists of a set of teeth fitted below the needle plate. It helps
to move the cloth forward while sewing.
p. Bobbin Case: This moves into position to catch the top thread and form the stitch, as
the needle is lowered into the bobbin chamber.
q. Shuttle: Bobbin case is fitted in the shuttle.

4. Leg region

r. Treadle / Pedal: It is made out of iron. When pressing this with foot, the machine works.

s. Speed Wheel / Fly wheel: The big wheel seen in between the leg and treadle.

t. Wheel Guard: It guards the leather belt to revolve on the speed wheel.

u. Connecting Rod: It is the rod connecting the treadle and speed wheel.

v. Leather Belt: This is usually made out of leather, but a cloth Tape, Nylon wire or any
other strong rope can also be used.

Parts of a Sewing Machine

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SESSION 1.4: BODY MEASUREMENTS & SIZING SYSTEMS

Well-fitted garments have a great impact on the overall personality of
the wearer. The accuracy of any garment construction and pattern making depends largely
on relevant and correct body measurements. It is important to understand the importance
and procedure for taking correct measurements. Correct use of measuring tape,
identification of body landmarks and precautions observed while taking measurements are
also important.

IMPORTANCE OF BODY MEASUREMENTS

 It serves as a foundation for preparing drafts and paper patterns.
 Help in determining body symmetry which is important for constructing a well-fitted
garment.
 Helpful in selecting correct size of readymade garments.
 Used to make alterations in the readymade garments.
 Measurements should be recorded systematically. Therefore, save a lot of time.
 Besides good fitting, correct measurements can also contribute towards saving time
in constructing a garment.
 Personal measurements are required not only for stitching the garment at home or
getting it stitched, but also for buying readymade garments.
Taking body measurements is a responsible task, which should
be undertaken with great care. For this purpose, it is important for a dress maker to have
adequate knowledge about correct methods of taking and recording body measurements,
equipment required for it and other important points to be considered in taking the
measurements.

BODY LANDMARKS
Various body landmarks include:
 Landmarks such as waist, bust, highest shoulder point and pivot point for bodice
measurements.
 Landmarks such as waist level and hip level for skirt measurement.
 Landmarks such as lower shoulder point, upper round arm and lower round arm for
sleeve measurements.
PROCEDURE FOR TAKING BODY MEASUREMENT
There are three kinds of measurements taken on a body:
 Length measurements are taken vertically along the body.
 Width measurements are taken across the body from one side to another.
 Circumference measurements are taken around the body.

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a) Bodice Measurements: These are the measurements required for developing

garments which covers the upper part of the body.
1. Neck: This measurement is taken for making collars and necklines. Measure
around the neck, passing tape just above the collar bone in front and along the
base of the neck at the back.
2. Chest: The measurement of chest is taken for making all upper torso garments
like blouses, kurta, kameez, shirts etc. This is taken below the scye point and
above the bust point.
3. Bust: Bust measurement is taken for ladies and chest measurements for kids and
men. This measurement is taken across the chest, at 2'' below scye point, over
centre front bust point. Take the measurement around the bust using the
measuring tape allowing 2 fingers loose.
4. Waist: This measurement is taken, around the lower point of the waist (Where
cords are tied or trousers are fit). The measurement of waist is taken for making
all garments that cover the waist like blouses, kurta, kameez, shirts, skirts,
trousers etc. Waist is the narrowest part of the body.
5. Hip: This measurement is taken at the most wider part of the hip.
6. Front Waist Length / Waist Height: This is the measurement from the base of
throat to waist line.
7. Back Waist Length: This measurement is taken from nape to waist line.
8. Shoulder Width: Shoulder measurements are require for all types of upper torso
garments. It is the measurement from the nape of neck to each sides of the hand.
Measuring tape placed at the middle of the neck and measurement taken at both
sides of the upper hands.
9. Back Width: This is taken from 1'' above the midpoint of the scye.
10. Scye Depth: Hand is placed straight and the measurement is taken around the
armhole. The measurement of armhole is taken for making sleeves.
b) Sleeve Measurements
11. Sleeve Length: Measure from tip of shoulder to required length of sleeve.
12. Under Arm Length: This measurement is taken from inner part of the hand to the
scye to the wrist.
13. Upper Arm Circumference: Measure around the fullest part of the arm.
14. Wrist: This measurement is taken around the wrist and this is used for stitching
full sleeve

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Fig.3.1.1. Body Measurements

c) Skirt/Trouser Measurements:
15. Waist: This measurement is taken, around the lower point of the waist (Where
cords are tied or trousers are fit).
16. Hip: This measurement is taken around the wider part of the hip. the measurement
of hip is taken for making all garments that cover the hip like kurta, kameez, skirts,
trousers etc.
17. Waist to Hip: Measure down from waist at centre back to fullest part of the hip.
18. Skirt Length: From waist to desired length for skirt.
19. Crotch Length: Measurement from centre back under the crotch to the centre front
waist. This measurement is useful for pants, pyjamas etc.

PRECAUTIONS OBSERVED WHILE TAKING BODY MEASUREMENTS

 Stand erect/straight with arms hanging at sides while taking body measurements.
 Feet should be placed together flat on the floor.
 He/she should be wearing well-fitted garments and bulky should be removed while
giving measurements.
 Measurements should be taken systematically and sequentially.
 Measurements should be noted down simultaneously in a notebook.
 The tape should be essentially of good quality, sturdy and non-stretchable.
 The end with long metallic tip should be used for length measurements and the other
short metallic end should be used for width and circumference measurements.

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 The measuring tape should not be turn or fold at any place while measuring.
 The measuring tape should be parallel to the floor for horizontal measurements and
perpendicular to the floor for vertical measurements.
 While taking circumference measurements, two fingers should be placed in-between
the measuring tape and the body to avoid very tight measurements.
 Observe the body for special adjustment needed while measuring like broad
shoulders, low bust line etc.

CROSS CHECKING GARMENT MEASUREMENTS WITH STANDARD SIZE CHARTS

Crosschecking of garment measurements with standard sizes
should be done for garment testing in industry. The specification sheet includes all the
information related to how and where to measure as well as measurement of different sizes.
Preparation for measuring garments are:
 A table with smooth surface, adequate width.
 A good quality measuring tape and a ruler.
 Basic tools like masking tape, tailor’s chalk or chalk pencil, straight pins, clear grid
ruler, L-square etc.
 A specification sheet showing standard sizes Document for recording measurements.
Guidelines for taking measures from a garment:
 The garment should be gently shaken to remove any folds.
 All the fasteners like buttons, hooks, etc. should be closed measurements.
 Lay the garment on the clean and smooth surface.
 Garments without fasteners be overlapped as specified in specification sheet.
 Slits in a garment should lie flat with edges together.
 Knit garments should be folded, not hung on hangers.
 Measuring tape lies flat against the garment while measuring.
 In order to maintain consistency, first front side & is back measured.
 In top, only one sleeve & in pant, one leg is measured.
 Openings should be measured from inside edge.
 Curved seams be measured without stretching/straightening the tape.
 Squared/drop measurement be measured with L-Square.

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VARIOUS NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL STANDARD SIZING SYSTEMS

Standard sizing systems are first developed in early 19th century
for producing military uniforms during American Civil War. International size labelling system
was developed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for greater uniformity.
Principles of human body proportions form the basis. Body measurements of large number
of population are collected and analysed (anthropometric study). All belonging to a particular
size group should fit into a same garment. Size labelling in standard systems can be number
or letter.

 Numbered size labelling: This size labelling has numeric or numbered sizes such
as 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 etc. and the most commonly used method for moderate to
expensive men’s wear, women’s wear and children’s wear.
 Lettered size labelling: Also known as alpha sizes, lettered sizes are expressed as
S for small, M for medium, L for large and XL for extra-large.

International sizing systems

 U.S. sizing system: In case of women, multiple size categories such as are missy,
petite, junior, tall and women’s or plus size etc. have to be developed due to greater
variation in body shape.
 European sizing system: European sizing system is based on body dimensions i.e.,
measurements are taken in centimetres.
 British sizing system: Its measurement system is based on inches instead of
centimetres.

National sizing standards: Ministry of Textiles, Government of India has launched a project
called ‘Size India’ to develop country’s first sizing system in 2018. Full body scanners are
being used to scan the persons to derive various body measurements. The data will then be
analysed and correlated to develop sizing standards. This will ensure better fit, less
rejections and more business opportunities for the Indian ready-to-wear industry.

SESSION 1.5: TEXTILE FIBERS, YARNS & FABRICS

TEXTILE FIBERS
 Definition
Fibers are the basic visible unit of a fabric. A fiber can be defined as a
pliable hair like filament that is very small in diameter in relation to its length.
E.g.: Cotton, Silk, Polyester etc.

 Classification
Fibers can be classified on the basis of length as staple fibers and filament
fibers.

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1. Staple Fibers: - These are short fibers with the length ranging from ¾” to 18”.
Staple fibers are twister together to form continuous long yarns.
E.g.: - Cotton, Wool
2. Filament Fibers: - These are long continuous fibers of length more the 18”. Silk is
the only natural filament fiber.
E.g.: - Silk, Polyester, Rayon.
Fibers can be classified on the basis of source as natural fibers and
manmade or artificial fibers.

1. Natural Fibers: - Natural fibers are obtained from natural sources like plants,
animals, minerals etc. Usually, they are found in fibrous form. Natural fibers may be
vegetable fibers, animal fibers or mineral fibers.
a. Vegetable/Plant Fibers: - Vegetable fibres are obtained from different parts of
plants such as seeds, leaves, stem etc. These fibres are also known as natural
cellulose fibres because they contain large amount of cellulose. Cotton is known
as king of fibers.
E.g.: Seed hair – Cotton
Stem fiber – Linen, Jute
Leaf fiber – Pineapple Fibers, Sisal

b. Animal Fibers: - These are natural fibers obtained from animal source. The main
component of animal fibers is protein; hence they are also known as natural
protein fibers. Silk is the most lustrous natural fiber and is known as queen of
fibers.
E.g.: - Animal Secretions – Silk
Animal fur / hair – Wool, Camel hair, Rabbit hair

c. Mineral Fibers: - These are obtained from mineral source. Mineral fibers are
mainly used in fireproof fabrics. These fibers are used more for industrial purpose
than clothing.
E.g.: - Rock fiber – Asbestos.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBER BASED ON ORIGIN

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2. Manmade Fibers: - These are fibers made by man. They are not found in nature
fibrous form, but are made to fibers by mechanical or chemical processes.

a. Regenerated Fibers: - These are man – made fibers, but the raw materials are
from natural resource like cellulose, protein, mineral etc. The properties of fibers
depend upon the manufacturing processes and source.
E.g.: - Cellulose – Rayon
Modified Cellulose – Acetate,
Protein (Azlon) – Vicara, Caselin
Mineral – Glass, Graphite
Metal – Gold, Silver, Aluminium
Rubber – Rubber

b. Synthetic / Thermoplastic Fibers: - These fibers are made by the

polymerization of chemicals. The chemical solutions are forced through
spinnerets to form filament and is hardened to obtain long continuous strands
called filament fibers. The properties of fibers depend upon their chemical
compositions and kinds of molecular orientation. This group includes three major
fibers and several minor ones. Nylon is the first synthetic fiber and is known as
magic fiber.
E.g.: - Nylon (polyamide produced in 1938)
Polyester (produced in 1953)
Acrylic (produced in 1948)
Spandex
Vinyl
YARNS
Yarns: - Yarn is a long continuous length of twisted fibres, suitable for use in the production
of textiles.
Classification of Yarns: - Yarns can be classified on the basis of structure as:

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1. Simple yarns: These yarns have uniform appearance, texture, size and shape with
balanced twist. These are:
a. Single yarn where the yarn disintegrates into fibres when untwisted.
b. Ply yarns where two or more single yarns are twisted together to make a yarn.
c. Cord yarns where two or more ply yarns are twisted together in the opposite
direction.

2. Complex / Novelty yarns: These are constructed with uneven texture and varying
twist to add special effects to the fabric. Different types of complex yarns are as
follows:
a. Slub yarns: It has certain areas with low twist making it soft and fluffy as
compared to adjacent areas.
b. Flock yarn: It is created by inserting small tufts of fibres at regular intervals
giving a fancy three dimensional effect.
c. Boucle yarn: It is a 3-ply yarn having decorative loops projecting out at regular
intervals held in place by the binder yarn.
d. Spot or knot yarn: It is a 2-ply yarn made by wrapping around the effect yarn
several times at a place creating a thick spot.
e. Spiral yarn: It is made by twisting two or more single yarns of varying thickness
creating a spiral like effect.
f. Chenille yarn: It is created by placing short length yarns in-between two core
yarns while twisting them together.
g. Core spun yarn: It consists of a core or a base yarn providing the desired
strength and it is completely cover by another yarn lending the desired
properties.
3. Textured yarns: Yarn texturizing is a process applied to smooth filament yarns in
order to alter the shape and texture by permanently inserting crimp, loops, curls or
coils in the yarn.
Spinning: -Yarns are made by spinning of fibers. Fibers are twisted together by spinning.
At first hand spinning method was used for making yarns from staple fibers. Later in machine
spinning various methods were adopted for different filament and stable yarn production.
Filament yarns are usually made from manmade fibers through
various methods like wet spinning, dry spinning, melt spinning etc. In these processes the
molten polymer of synthetic fibers will be inserts into a vessel, after few colorations have
been done, the solution will be pushed out through the spinnerets to become filament yarns.

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Yarn Twist: - Twist is the spiral turning given to fibers around the yarn axis. Twist binds the
fibers together and gives strength to the yarn. The amount of yarn twist is measured in
number of turns per inch (TPI). The amount of yarn twist determines appearance, texture,
drapability, durability etc. Yarns with extremely high levels of twist are called “crepe yarns”.
The direction of twist in the yarn may be either ‘S’ or ‘Z’.

a. ‘S’ twist – left hand twisting of yarns

b. ‘Z’ twist – right hand twisting of yarns.

Yarn Count: - Yarn count expresses the fineness or linear density of yarn. The yarn number
is directly proportional to the yarn size i.e., with the increase in yarn number, the yarn becomes thicker and
coarser. Yarn count can be expressed in:
a. Denier: - It is defined as weight in grams of 9000 meters length of yarn. It is mainly
used for filament yarns.
b. Tex: - It is defined as weight in grams of 1000 meters length of yarn. It is applicable
for all types of fibers and yarns.

FABRICS
Fabric is made by interlacing or interloping of yarns or fibers.
There are different types of fabrics such as woven, knitted, non-woven fabric etc. Woven
fabric is made by weaving process with the help of a loom. Knitted fabric is made by knitting
process with the help of a knitting machine or by hand method like crochet. Non-woven
fabrics are made by felting or bonding fibres together.

FABRIC CONSTRUCTION METHODS

1. WEAVING
Weaving is the common method of fabric construction. Two
sets of yarns, warp & weft are used in loom to make to make woven fabrics. Weaving
is the interlacing of warp and weft yarns. Warp yarn is used length wise and weft yarn
is used width wise
Woven fabrics are manufactured in a loom. There are two basic
types of loom - hand loom & power loom.
In a loom the warp threads are placed in position while the filling threads are
woven through them. Four major operations are involved in weaving.

 Shedding: Each alternate warp yarn is raised to insert the filling yarn into the warp
to form a shed.
 Picking: As the warp is raised, the filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a
carrier device.
 Beating up (Battening): With each picking operation, the reed pushes or beats
each filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already been formed.
 Taking up and letting off: Winding the finished fabric on the cloth beam and
releasing more of the warp from the warp beam.
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There are different types of woven fabric structures like plain

weave, twill weave, satin weave, basket weave etc. Plain weave is used to make fabrics
that are normally used to make shirts and Kurtis. Twill weave is used to make fabrics
that are normally used to make Jeans.

Types of Weaves: - There are three basic weaves – Plain, Twill and Satin. There are
so many variations of these weaves which creates different appearance of fabric and
are sometimes referred as decorative weaves.
a) Plain Weave: - It is the simplest method of fabric construction. It is also termed as
calico weave. Plain weave is constructed by interlacing weft yarns alternately over
and under the warp yarns. The fabric looks alike on both sides. Stripes or checks
can be created using different colored yarns in warp and weft direction. The two
main variations of the plain weave are Basket weave, Rib weave.

b) Twill Weave: - Twill weaves can be easily identified by its general characteristic of
diagonal lines in either warp or weft direction. The filling yarn interlace more than
one warp yarns, in a progressively stepped up or stepped down manner. This forms
the diagonal patterns in the fabric. The direction of the twill can be varied to create
interesting effects such as right-hand twill weave, left hand twill weave, broken twill
weave, pointed twill, herringbone etc. The most commonly known twill is the denim
or jeans fabric. It is a very strong and durable weave.

c) Satin Weave: - Satin weave is characterized by a smooth and shiny fabric surface.
In satin weave, warp yarns floats over the weft yarns., If the weft yarns floats over
warp yarns, then it is known as ‘sateen’. It requires 5-12 harness to make this
weave.

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Characteristics of Woven Fabrics

 Woven fabrics show very little or no stretch in the warp and weft direction
unless elastic yarns are used.
 These are strongest along the lengthwise grain.
 The edges of fabric are securely held by firmly woven selvedge on both
lengthwise sides of a fabric and it prevents fraying and tearing of fabric at
edges.
 Woven fabric can be produced in different densities and weights.
 Different interlacing patterns can be used to create variety of designs and
textures in the woven fabric.
2. Knitting
Knitted fabrics are made by interloping of yarns. Length wise
yarns are called wales and width wise yarns are called course. Normally there are
two types of knitted fabrics like weft knit and warp knit.

3. Other methods of Fabric Construction

a. Non-Woven: - Non-woven fabrics are made directly from fibers. They are
produced by bonding or interlocking fibers by mechanical, chemical, thermal,
using solvents, or combinations of these processes. Non-woven fabrics are
lighter in weight and weaker compared to woven or knitted fabrics. Cotton,
rayon, polyester etc. fibres are used to make non-woven fabrics. These are
used to make surgical and industrial masks, bandages, wipes and towels.
Sometimes non-woven fabrics are also used to make packing materials, geo-
textiles and roofing products.
b. Felting: - Layers of fibers (wool or wool blends) are laid down with a desired
thickness and run through hot agitating plates that blend the fibers together.
Felts are not as strong as other fabrics and vary in quality depending on the
quality of the fiber used. Felt has many industrial and clothing uses. It is used
industrially for padding, soundproofing, insulation etc. Felt has wide use in
such products as hats, slippers and clothing decorations.
c. Film fabrics: They are formed directly from the polymer solution prepared for
man-made fibres, extruded through a very narrow and wide slot into the
cooling chamber producing then sheets or films resembling plastic.
d. Braid: Braids are narrow fabrics made by interlacing of yarns length wisely.
They have good elongation characteristics. Braids can be flat or round. Braids
are used primarily for trims, shoelaces, cords, ribbons, cord coverings of
industrial products like wires, cables, hoses etc.

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e. Net: Net are open-mesh fabrics with geometrical shapes. The fibers or yarns
are held together by knots or fusing of thermoplastic fibers. The net mesh can
be in varying shapes and sizes. This process produces tubular nets which are
used for packaging fruit and vegetables, agricultural nets, bird nets, mosquito
nets etc.
f. Lace: Lace is another basic fabric made from yarns. Yarns may be inter
looped, interlaced or knotted to give open-mesh structure. Beautiful decorative
designs can be created through lace making. Laces are very important
trimmings that are used to decorate a garment. Handmade or machine made
on special lace machines, laces are used.
g. Quilted fabrics: Quilted fabrics are composed of three layers (top fabric, fibre
mat/foam as middle layer and backing fabric) stitched together closely using a
durable thread throughout in straight or curved lines or in a specific pattern.
h. Crochet: It is a hand technique where stitches are made by pulling a chain of
loops one after the other.
i. Macramé: Macramé is a hand knotting technique for producing a three-
dimensional fabric such as belts, handbags, jewellery, bracelets, wall
hangings etc.

TRIMS AND ACCESSORIES

Trimmings, and accessories have great importance

in garments manufacturing. The main difference between trimming and accessories is,
trimmings are used for functional purposes, and accessories are used for decorative or sale
purposes. Use of the trims and accessories are:
 Decorating the garment and increasing its attractiveness and visual appeal.
 Improving the wear ability of the garment around the three dimensional body.
 Making the garment fit the body comfortably with flexibility and convenience.
 Increasing the durability of the garment by strengthening areas of stress.
 Fulfilling the desire of the wearers to have attractive adornments on the garment.

1. Trims: - The raw materials used in sewing other than fabric are called Trims. In other
words, materials are directly attached to the fabric for the construction of a garment,
are called trims.
E.g., Threads, buttons, lining, Interlining, zippers, labels, care labels, etc. (Interlining is
used as shape forming/preserving materials).
Trims Used in Garments
 Collar Stay  Seam Sealing
 Labels  String/Draw  Cord Bell tape
 Buttons Cord  Buckle  Shoulder pad
 Zippers  Piping Cord  Rivet  Cable (steel
 Padding  Emblem  Weaving ware)
 Interlining  Logo Print Belt  Adjuster
 Elastic  Swivel Hook  Hook and  Recco
 Thread  Eyelet/Grommet Eye  Elastic Threads
 Velcro Tape  Shoulder Tape

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2. Garment accessories: - Accessories are not directly attached with garment by sewing.
The materials, which are used to make a garment attractive for sale and packing, other
than fabrics and trims, are called accessories. Functions of the garment accessories
are:

Garment Accessories

 Polybag  Safety Pin  Neck Board  Iron Seal

 Mini Polybag  Gum Tape  Butterfly  Clip
 Master Carton  Arrow Sticker  Numbering Stickers  Ball chain
 Size Clip  Scotch Tape  Hanger  Size Tag
 Tag Pin  Barcode  Size Stickers  Carton Sticker
 Brass Pin  Tissue Paper  Carton Pad  Safety Sticker
 Collar Stand  Backboard  Plastic Staple  Plastic Clip

SESSION 1.6: TRENDS IN GARMENT INDUSTRY

Trend means, the new styles, colours, prints and textures that
are introduced every season to add freshness and novelty in the design collection. Trend is
a proper development plan which help the designers and merchandisers to anticipate
customer wants and needs.
Designers should be continuously involved in research and
analysis of:
 Life-style of their target customers.
 Popular designer collections to study the fashion trends.
 Sales records and merchandise return data.
 Trade publications, fashion magazines/ newspapers, catalogue etc.
 Customer’s buying behaviour influenced by social, economic, technological and
environmental conditions
The researches may be:
1. Customer research: The process starts with identifying the demographics and
geographic location of the target customers which include age, gender, education,
occupation, income, marital status, family size, religion etc.
2. Trend research: Popular fashion trends in terms of silhouettes, colours, textures,
prints and details needs to be researched so that these can be built into new design
collection. Fashion trend research can be done through:
 Trend merchandiser’s
 Forecasting agencies and colour services for fashion and colour prediction.
3. Sales research: Sales record reflect the developing trends and can serve as a basis
for new design collections. Sales research can be very beneficial especially when
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4. Fashion media research: Fashion professionals should read the trade publications,
fashion and consumer magazines, etc. in order to have different perspectives about
what is selling and what is not selling
5. Research of social, economic, technological and environmental influences:
Today, customers are aware of the changes that are happening around them and
expect their clothing to reflect the same.
FASHION FORECASTING/TREND
Fashion forecasting predicts changing direction of fashion which
would be accepted by majority of people at a given time and place. Fashion trend is a
direction in which fashion is going to move in next 2 (short-time forecasting) to 5 years (long-
time forecasting).
TYES OF FORECASTING
Long-term Forecasting: Forecasting which is done 5 to 10 years in advance. Is called long-
term forecasting
Short Term forecasting: Forecasting which is done two years in advance to predict the
trend is known as short term for casing

TREND INFORMATION SOURCES

The different information sources used for analysing trends are
as follows:
Primary Source
 International trade fairs/ trade shows
 Textile and apparel forecast fairs
 Trade gazettes and producers of fabrics and accessories
 Recent trends in related industries
Secondary Source
 Trade or consumer publications.
 E-resources like websites, online programs etc.
 Written reports shared by forecast services.
 Historical design sources etc.
 Collections of prominent designers Influences of place, art, music.
 Celebrities on red carpet,
 Film festival etc.
Tertiary Source
 Tracking of sales of past collections to know the hot selling styles and customer
category buying it.
 Market research firms providing information on consumer market segments,
occupational shifts, etc.
 Demographics of the target population like birth rate, growth age groups, average
size etc.
 Networking and communication with designers, buyers and membership of
professional organisations
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