Lecture

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Prepared by Dr. NGUYEN Ngoc Vinh

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4. Biodiversity and Evolution

1. What is biodiversity and why is it important?

2. Where do species come from?
3. How do geological processes and climate change affect
evolution?
4. How do speciation, extinction, and human activities affect
biodiversity?
5. What is species diversity and why is it important?
6. What roles do species play in ecosystems?

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 4.1. What is biodiversity and
why is it important?

Concept 4.1.
The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and
ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth

Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part

of the Earth’s Natural Capital

Ø Sustaining life on the earth depends on the biodiversity

found in genes (genetic diversity), species (species
diversity), ecosystems (ecological diversity), and
ecosystem processes (functional diversity) of energy flow
and nutrient cycling.
Ø Species diversity is the number and variety of species
present in any biological community.
- A species is a set of individuals that can mate and
produce fertile offspring. Every organism is a member
of a certain species
- Species diversity estimates range from 8 million to 100
million.
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 Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part
of the Earth’s Natural Capital

Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part

of the Earth’s Natural Capital

Ø Genetic diversity, which is the

variety of genes found in a
population or in a species.
Ø Ecosystem diversity refers to the
earth’s variety of deserts,
grassland, forests, mountains,
oceans, lakes, rivers, and
wetlands. Biomes are major
habitations/large ecosystems
with distinct climates and species.
Ø Functional diversity includes a
variety of processes such as
energy flow and matter cycling
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occurring within ecosystems.

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 Natural Capital: Earth’s Biodiversity

A Variety of Biomes

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 4.2. Where do species come from?

Concept 4.2A. The scientific theory of evolution explains

how life on earth changes over time through changes in
the genes of populations.
Concept 4.2B. Populations evolve when genes mutate and
give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and to produce offspring with these
traits (natural selection).

Biological Evolution by Natural Selection

Explains How Life Changes over Time
Ø Biological evolution is the process whereby earth’s life
changes over time through changes in the genes of
populations in succeeding generations.
Ø The theory of evolution by natural selection is a scientific
explanation of how the process of evolution takes place.
Ø That life on earth had gone through changes had been around
since the time of the ancient Greeks.
Ø Not until 1858, when a mechanism was proposed
independently by:
- Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – on the origin of species by
means of natural selection (1859).
- Alfred Russel Wallace (1823 – 1913) 10

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 Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time

Ø Natural selection is the process in which individuals with

certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce under
a particular set of environmental conditions than those
without the traits.
- A change in the genetic characteristics of a population
from one generation to another is known as biological
evolution, or simply evolution.
Ø Life has evolved into six major groups of organism –
kingdoms.
- Result is viewed as an ever branching tree of species
diversity called the tree of life.
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Six major kingdoms of species

as a result of natural selection

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 The fossil record tells much
of the story of evolution?

Ø Fossil – mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones,

teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or impressions of such items
found in rocks.
– Physical evidence of ancient organisms.
– Reveal what their internal structures looked like
Ø Fossil record is the world’s cumulative body of fossils.
– Incomplete, why?

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Fossil skeleton of a herbivore

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 Genetic makeup of population can change

Ø Population – not individuals – evolved by becoming

genetically different.
Ø Genetic variability
– First step in biological evolution
– Occurs through mutations – random changes in the
structure of number of DNA molecules in a cell that can
be inherited by offspring, i.e. In reproductive cells.
– Most mutations are caused by random errors while DNA
is copying, but others are cause by mutagens.

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Individuals in populations with beneficial

genetic traits can leave more offspring
Next step in biological evolution is natural selection which acts on
individuals.
Ø Natural selection occurs when some individuals of a
population have genetically based traits (resulting from
mutations) that enhance their ability to survive and produce
offspring with these traits.
Ø Adaptation – a heritable trait that enables a individual
organism to survive through natural selection and reproduce
more than other individuals under the prevailing
environmental conditions.
– Leads to differential reproduction
– Examples:
• Fur color and thickness in mammals and
• Genetic resistance in bacteria 16

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 Individuals in populations with beneficial
genetic traits can leave more offspring

Ø Summary
Ø Genes mutate, individuals are selected and populations
evolve that are better adapted to survive and reproduce
under existing environmental conditions.
Ø When environmental conditions change, populations
– Adapt.
– Migrate
– Become extinct

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Individuals in populations with beneficial

genetic traits can leave more offspring

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 4.3. How do geological processes and
climate change affect evolution?

Concept 4.3.
Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out
large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the
evolution of new species.

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Geological Processes Affect

Natural Selection
Ø Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on
earth.
- Location of continents and oceans influence climate
influences where plants and animals can live
- Allows species physically move, adapt to new
environments, and form new species through natural
selection.
Ø Earthwakes
- Fissure can separate and isolate populations.
Ø Volcanic eruptions
- Destroy habitat, and reduces or wipes out populations 20

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 Geological Processes Affect
Natural Selection

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Climate change and catastrophes

affect natural selection
Ø Glacial and interglacial periods: Ice ages followed by
warming tempeartures.
- Ice sheets and sea levels
- Long – term climate changes have a major effect on
bilogical evolution by determining where different types
of organisms can survive and by changing the locations of
ecosystems such as deserts, grasslands, and forests.
Ø Collisions between the earth and large asteroids.
- New species.
- Extinction.
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 Climate change and catastrophes
affect natural selection

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Science focus: earth is just

right for live to thrive

Ø Live can thrive only within a certain temperature range.

Ø Dependence on water
Ø Everage distance of orbit
Ø Rotation on its axis and revolution around the sun
Ø Enough gravitational mass
Ø Oxygen and CO2 levels.

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 4.4. How do speciation, extinction,
and human activities affect biodiversity?

Concept 4.4A. As environmental conditions change, the

balance between formation of new species and extinction of
existing species determines the earth’s biodiversity.
Concept 4.4B. Human activities can decrease biodiversity by
causing the premature extinction of species and by
destroying or degrading habitats needed for the
development of new species.

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How Do New Species Evolve?

Ø Speciation – process by which natural selection causes the

formation of two new or more different species from one.
Ø Species are considered different when individuals can no
longer breed and reproduce fertile offspring.
Ø Mechanism of speciation
- Geographic isolation: Occurs when groups of the same
population become physically isolated (by mountains,
rivers, roads or distance) from one another over time
- Reproductiove isolation: Occurs when mutation and
change by natural selection operate independently in the
gene pool of geographically isolated populations
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 Geographic isolation can lead to
reproductive isolation divergence
of gene pools, and speciation

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How Do Humans Affect Biodiversity?

Ø Humans are playing an increasing role in the process of

speciation.
– By contributing to the rise of new species through
artificial selection
• Selectively breed or crossbreed between genetic
variations of the same species
– By using genetic engineering to quickly manipulate genes
• Alter segments of DNA for desired traits
• Transfer genes between different species that would
not interbreed in nature

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 Extinction is forever

Ø Extinction is
the state or
process of
entire species
ceases to exist.
Ø Endemic
species are
plants &
animals that
exist only in
one
geographic
region. 29

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Extinction can affect one species

or many species at a time
Ø All species eventually become extinct
- Background extinction rate – low rate at which
species have become extinct.
- Annually: 1 – 5 species per million species.
Ø Drastic changes in environmental conditions.
- Mass extinction rate – catastrophic widespread
extinction of large groups of species.
• Perhaps 25 – 70% are wipe out in a geological
periods lasting up to 5 years.

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 Extinction can affect one species
or many species at a time
Ø There have been five mass extinctions.
- Most recent was 65 mya.
- 250 mya, 95% of species
disappeared.
- A mass extinction provides an
opportunity for the evolution of
new species that can fill vacant
ecological niches, or newly created
ones.
Ø Humans have become a major force in
the premature extinction of a growing
list of species. 31

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Science focus: we have two way to

change the genetic traits of populations
Ø Artificial selection.
Ø Genetic engineering, gene splicing.
Ø Consider
- Ethics.
- Morals
- Privacies issues.
- Harmful effects
Ø An example of genetic engineering.

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 4.5. What is species diversity and
why is it important?
Concept 4.5.
Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and
tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.

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Species Diversity Includes the Variety and

Abundance of Species in a Particular Place
Ø Species diversity.
- Species richness – number of species
- Species evenness – relative abundance
Ø Diversity veries with geographical location.
- In terrestrial ecosystems, highest in the tropics and
declines as we move from equator toward poles.
- Most species – rich communities.
• Tropical rain forests
• Coral reefs
• Ocean bottom zone
• Large tropical lakes 34

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 Species Diversity Includes the Variety and
Abundance of Species in a Particular Place

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Science focus: species richness on islands

Ø Species equilibrium model, or theory of island
biogeography.
- Species richness of an island reachs and equilibrium and
depends on:
• Rate of new species immigrating
• Rate of species extinction
Ø Two features of an island affect immigration and extinction
rates.
- Island size
- Distance from the mainland
Ø Theory is applied to habitat fragments and can be used to
makemanagement decisions.
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 Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to
Be Productive and Sustainable
Ø How does species richness affect ecosystem?
1. Is productivity higher in species – rich ecosystem?
2. Does species richness enhance stability, or sustainability?
Ø Most studies seem to support that species richness seems to
increase productivity and stability or sustainability.
- More research is needed before these observations
become accepted as theory.
- One question new question: just how much species
richness is needed
• Evidence suggest that anything greater than between
10 – 40 producer species does not necessarily increase
productivity. 37

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4.6. What roles do species play

in ecosystems?

Concept 4.6A. Each species plays a specific ecological

role called its niche.
Concept 4.6B. Any given species may play one or more
of five important roles—native, nonnative, indicator,
keystone, or foundation roles—in a particular ecosystem.

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 Each Species Plays a Unique Role
in Its Ecosystem
Ø Each species has a specific ecological role called its niche
(what the species does)
Ø Niche
– The role the species plays in an ecosystem and
everything that affects its survival and reproduction
Ø Habitat
– The geographic location of the species
Ø Species
– May be generalists with broad niches, or specialists
with narrow niches
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Each Species Plays a Unique Role in Its Ecosystem

Ø Ecological niche, or simply niche

– Pattern of living, a role in an ecosystem
– Includes everything that affects a species’ survival
Ø Generalist species
– Broad niche
– Can live in many different places, eat many things tolerate a wide
range of environmental conditions.
– Example: Flies, rats, mices, white – tailed deer, raccoons, and
humans.
Ø Specialist species
– Narrow niche.
– Can live in only certain habitats, use only few types of food, and
tolerate a narrow range of environmental factors.
– Example: tiger salamander, giant panda.
Ø Better to be a generalist or specialist? 40

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 A specialist and a generalist

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Specialization reduces competition

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 Case study: Cockroaches: nature’s
ultimate survivors

Ø Cockroach
– Generalists
– Been around for 350 my
– 3500 species
– 25 species are considered pests and can carry
pathogenic viruses and bacteria
– Play a role in natures food web: detritivores and food
items for other species
– High reproductive rates
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Niches can be occupied by native

and nonnative species

Ø Native species
– Live and thrive in a specific ecosystem
Ø Nonnative species (also reffered to as invasive, alien, or
exotic species).
– Immigrate into, or are deliberately or accidentally
introduced, into an ecosystem
– Can threaten native species through competition for
resources, reducing the number native species
– Can spread rapidly if they find a favorable niche
– Not all are villains
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 Indicator species serve as
biological smoke alarms

Ø An indicator species is sensitive to changes in an ecosystem

– Provide early warnings of community and ecosystem
change
– Some amphibian species are good indicator species – their
extinction in Central and South American tropical forests
has been tied to climate change
• Trout need clean water with high O2 level.
• Birds
• Butterflies
• Amphibians.
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Keystone and Foundation Species Help Determine the

Structure and Functions of Their Ecosystems
Ø Keystone species have a large effect on the types and
abundances of species in an ecosystem.
- Pollinators (pollination of flowering species - butterflies,
honeybees)
- Top predator (Regulation of populations of other species –
wolves, alligators)
- May cause population crashes and extinction of dependent
species if drawn to extinction itself
Ø Foundation species create or enhance their habitats, which
benefit others.
- Elephants
- Beavers. 46

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 Case study: why are amphibians vanishing?

Ø Populations are declining throughout the world, at least 1/3

of all species.
Ø First vertebrates to set foot on land, but having trouble
adapting to some rapid changes in the environment these
past few decades.
Ø Particularly, vulnerable to environmental disruption at
various points in their life cycle.

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Life cycle of a frog

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 Thank you for your attention

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