oo-REVIEWER for CHEMISTRY-oo - Sequence of observations

carried out under controlled

I. Introduction condition with several times of
 Science testing
 Systematized body of knowledge that is  Theory
based on facts which deals with the - Well tested hypothesis
collection, tabulation, experimentation  Law
and investigation of data - A statement that summarizes
 Chemistry observed facts
 It is the science of the fundamental  Scientific Attitude
structure of matter, the composition of  S – systematized
substances, their transformation,  C- comprehensive
analysis, synthesis and manufacture  I- investigate
 Branches of Chemistry  E- experiment
Branch Focus  N- nature
Organic Chemistry Study of  C- cause
compounds of  E- effect
carbon  History of Chemistry
Inorganic Study of all  I. According to BERGMAN (1799)
Chemistry elements and - Mythological
compounds other - Obscure
than organic - Certain
compound  II. According to CRANE, PETERSON
Physical Study of and MARR (1957)
Chemistry theoretical aspects - Prehistoric (before 1500BC)
of the structure - Alchemical (1500BC-1500AD)
and changes of - Iatrochemical (1500-1650)
matter
- Phlogiston (1650-1775)
Analytical Qualitative and
- Quantitative (1775-1900)
Chemistry quantitative
- Atomic (1900-1960)
analysis
- Sub-Atomic (1960 to present)
Biochemistry Study of
chemistry that Period Significance
deals with matter Pre-historic From the practical arts to the
in living Greek theory
organisms  Empedocles – Water,
Earth, Fire, Air
 It is a Physical Science along with  Leucippus and
Physics, Geology, and Astronomy. Democritus – matter is
 Scientific Method made up of tiny, minute
 It incorporates observations, hypotheses, particles “atomos”
experiments, theories and law. Alchemical Man’s search for the elixir of life
- Identification of Problem  Alchemy – pseudoscience
- Collection of Data by Observation that became the basis of
- Formulation of Hypothesis modern day chemistry
- Experimentation  There are two major
- Generalization of Theory objectives:
Formulation 1. Philosopher’s Stone –
 Hypothesis change Pb, Fe and other
- Tentative explanation of the base metals into gold
2. Elixir of Life –
observations
prolong/restore youth and
- Intelligent guess
unending life
Iatrochemical Search for new Medicinal
 Experiment
substances
 Iatrochemistry – study of
 the effects of medicine on  Rule in Multiplication/Division
the body - Follow the least number of SF
 Theophrastus Von  Rule in Addition/Subtraction
Hoheinheim (1493-1541) - Least decimal place
– Swiss physician,  Scientific Notation
Paracelsus  Expressing too large or too small values
Phlogiston Chemistry becomes a science M × 10n
 Study on the bile, blood where M =coefficient ,
and saliva 10=base ,
 Medical uses of S, Hg, n=exponent
and other minerals  English System
Quantitative The birth of Modern Chemistry  Foot-pound-second (FPS)
 Application chemical  Lbs –Libras
knowledge  Not convenient to use because there is
 Antoine Lavoisier, Father no regularity in the different units
of Modern Chemistry –  Metric System
combustion  Base of 10
Atomic Development of the Modern  Meter/centimeter-kilogram/grams-
Atomic Theory seconds (MKS or CGS)
 Fruitful period  January 1, 1983 adopted in the country
 60 years of tremendous  Convenient
progress  1960
Sub-atomic Applied Chemistry - Modified metric system (SI
 Miniaturization period Units)
Base Name of Symbol
II. Measurement Quantity Unit
 Collection of quantitative data Length Meter m
 Process of finding out how many times a Mass Kilogram kg
quantity unit (kulang ung copy ko eh) Time Second s
 Precision Electric Ampere A
 Refers to how close the measured values current
to each other if several trials are made Temperatur Kelvin K
 Accuracy e
 Refers to how close the measured values Amount of Mole mol
are to the accepted/true value substance
 Significant Figures Luminous Candela cd
 Recording of the digits that are certain intensity
which is exactly known and another
digit that is estimated which is uncertain  Fundamental Units
 Based on the degree of accuracy  Base units
 Measures the uncertainty  Measured directly
Rule Condition  Important Conversions
Number 5
℃= ( ℉−32 )
1 1-9 are all significant digits 9
2 Zeros between significant numbers are 9
℉= ℃+ 32
significant 5
3 Seros to the right of decimal are significant K=℃+ 273
4 Zeros to the left on non-zero digits are  Derived Units
insignificant but used to indicate place  Quantity which is a combination of 2 or
value/decimal place more fundamental quantity
5 When a number ends in zero, the zeros are  Density
insignificant m
6 If there is a bar over zero, that zero is ρ=
V
significant  Specific Heat
 q=m C p ∆ T  Elasticity
Where q = heat, C = specific heat - Ability to be stretched and to
cal J return to its original shape after
1 =4.184 being stretched, pressed or
g℃ g℃
 Conversion Table twisted
 Solubility
Length
 Conductivity
1 mi 1.609 Km
 Changes of Matter
1m 3.2 ft
 Physical
1 ft 30.48 cm
- Change in appearance but the
1 in 2.54 cm
individual properties remain
1 ft 12 in
- Doesn’t produce any form of
1Å 10-10 m
matter but simply results in a
1 yd 91.4 cm
same kind
Mass
 Chemical
1 metric ton 2200 lbs
- Change and formation of new
1 Kg 2.2 lbs substance
1 lb 454 g - Change that involves a
1 lb 16 oz transformation of the reactants
1 oz 28.40 g into another kind
Volume  Chemical Reaction
1L 1000 ml  Insertion of energy
1 qt 0.946 L  Exothermic
1 gal 3.78 L - Heat is released, heat is from the
1 m3 103 L object to environment
1 qt 2 pi (pint)  Endothermic
- Heat is absorbed. Heat is from
III. Matter the environment to the object
 Matter  Classification of Matter
 Anything that occupies space and has  Homogeneous Materials
mass - Only one phase. The properties
 Phases of Matter of one part are identical with the
 Solid – porous, hardness properties of all other parts.
 Liquid – viscosity  Heterogeneous Materials
 Gas – diffusion - Two or more phases. These
 Plasma – ionized materials with parts that are
 Bose-Einstein Condensate – super fluid composed of different properties
 Physical Properties of Matter  Classification under Homogeneous
 Ductility  Solutions
- Can be formed thin wires - Homogeneous throughout either
- Cu, W be solid, liquid or gas
 Malleability
- Can be drawn into thin sheets  Pure Substances
- Au, Ag, Fe - Homogeneous throughout
- ELEMENTS (consist of only
 Brittleness one kind of atom)
- Some are hard but easily breaks - COMPOUND (2 or more
- Glass and porcelain different elements chemically
 Luster combined in definite
- Shiny proportions)
 Flexibility  Mixtures
- Can be bent without easily  Are of variable-composition
breaking components of mixtures maybe
- Iron bar, steel bar separated physically
 Hardness/Durability
  Named by description rather than the *unsaturated – can still hold
symbols and formulas of elements and more
compounds *supersaturated – has more
 Ways of Separation solute than it should normally
- Filtration hold
- Flotation  Water
- Centrifugation - Ionic
- Distillation - Good solvent for Acids, bases
- Fractional Crystallization and salts
- Chromatography - Immiscible with Benzene (m. in
 Solutions sulfur), Carbon disulfide (m. in
TYPE Solute Solvent Product phosphorus) and Carbon
S-S Brass Bronze Alloy tetrachloride (m. in wax)
metal  Classification of Solvents
Copper Aluminum Cu-Al  Polar
alloy - Dipoles (unsymmetrical
S-L Salt Water Salt arranged so that the center of +
solution and – electrical charges IS NOT
Sugar Water Sugar LOCATED at the same point in
solution the molecule)
S-G Albatross Air Diffused  Non-Polar
Naphthalene Air into air - Symmetrical molecules with the
balls center of + and – electrical
L-S Mercury Silver Dental charges at the same point within
amalgam the molecule
L-L Isopropyl Water Rubbing  Like Dissolves Like
alcohol (polar) (polar) alcohol  Miscible
(miscible)  When the components readily dissolve
Gasoline (non- Kerosene Miscible in any amount
polar) (non-polar)  Partially Miscible
Ether Water Partially  When the components of a solution only
(partially miscible have limited solubility
polar)  Immiscible
L-G Water vapor Air Moisture  Substances don’t dissolve and form two
in air phases/layer
G-S Platinum Hydrogen Metal  Law of Chemical Change
Palladium Hydrogen Metal  Law of Conservation of Mass and
G-L O2 H2O Carbonat Energy
CO2 H2O ed Drinks - Antoine Lavoisier
G-G 78% N2 + 21% O2 + 1% Air - Matter is not destroyed
others - Energy is not created nor
Acetylene Air O2 Acetylen destroyed
e-Air  Law of Definite Proportion
moisture - Joseph Proust
(highly - Every compound has a fixed
flammabl composition
e)  Law of Multiple Proportion
 Properties of Solutions - John Dalton
- Concentrated - When two elements form more
* large solute/volume of solvent than one compound, with the
- Dilute weight of one element
* small solute/volume of solvent remaining fixed, the different
- Saturated weights of the other element
*as much solute as it hold always relate to each other in a
simple ratio
 gy hell als x.n
IV. Atoms Lev o.
 Atomos el of
 Indivisible e-
 Studied by atomists 1 1 1 S=1 2 2
 History 2 2 4 S=1,p=3 2,6 8
 Democritus 3 3 9 S=1,p=3,d=5 2,6,10 18
- atomos 4 4 16 S=1,p=3,d=5,f 2,6,10,1 32
 John Dalton =7 4
- Matter is composed of atoms
- Atomic theory of matter  Mnemonic
 Joseph John Thomson  1s 2s 2p 3s 3p Si Sally Pumasok Sa
- Plum-pudding model Pinto
- Electron discovery 4s 3d 4p Sa Door Pinto
 Ernest Rutherford 5s 4d 5p Sa Door Pinto
- Planetary model 6s 4f 5d 6p Sa Front Door Pinto
- Gold foil experiment 7s 5f 6d 7p Sa Front Door Pinto
- Proton discovery 6f 7d 7f Front Door Front
 Neils Bohr  Method of Representing Electron Distribution
- Orbital model  Spectronic/SPDF Notation
 Arnold Sommerfeld - common
- Elliptical model  Half-Shell method
 James Chadwick - Electrons in an energy level
- Neutron discovery  Rectangle-Arrow method
 Wilhelm Roentgen - Orbitals and arrows
- Xrays  Electron Dot Formula
 Subatomic Particles - Valence electrons
 Electron  Magnetic Properties
 Proton  Paramagnetic
 Neutron - With unpaired electrons
 Mass Number (A) = proton + neutron - The more UNPAIRED
 Atomic Number (Z) = proton = electron electrons, the more
 Isotopic Abundance ATTACHED to a magnetic
number of atoms of isotopes X field
% Abundance of X = X 100  Diamagnetic
total number of atoms ∈the sampl e
- With no unpaired electrons
 Percent Abundance
percent of Isotopes  Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Average mass= (masses )  Limits the number of electrons in an
100 orbital to 2
 Hund’s Rule
IV. Atomic Structure
 Fill up first the orbital before pairing
 Electronic Configuration
 Aufbau’s Principle
 Describes the arrangement of electrons
 The lower sublevels were occupied first
in an atom
before the higher one
 Energy Level
 Configuration of Ions
 Distance from the nucleus to the
 Cations
electrons
- Positively charged
 Subshells
- Removal of electrons
 S (spin)
- Clue: cations prang caution
 P (principal)
 D (diffuse) positibo ung effect
 Anions
 F (fundamental)
- Negatively charged
 Subdivision of Main Energy Levels
- Receiver of electrons
Mai No. No. Kinds and no. Max. Tot
n of of of Orbitals no. of e- al - Clue: anions prang onion
Ener Subs Orbit ma pinapanegative ung effect sau
  Finding the element using SPDF Low ionization energy
 Group (electrons in the outermost shell) CATION formers
 Period (main energy level)  Ionization Energy/Potential
 Quantum Number H decreasing
 Principal (n)
- Main energy level
- 1,2,3,4,5…. As to increasing
K,L,M,N,O….
- Distance of the nucleus to the
elctron
 Orbital (n-1)
- Sublevel
- S=0, p=1, d=2, f=3….  Electronegativity
- Azimuthal or angular H decreasing
momentum
- Shape of orbital
 Magnetic (ml) increasing
- Orbital available
- Direction and defines the orbit  Structure of the oxides of the elements
of an electron in a magnetic
field COVALENT
 Magnetic Spin (ms) MOLECULAR
- Direction of the electron spin (share
+1 electron)
- arrow up only IONIC (transferring electron)
2
−1
- arrow up and an arrow  Acidity of the oxides of the elements
2
down H increasing
basicity ACID
V. Periodic Classification of Elements OXIDES
 Metallic Character increasing
 Hydrogen is placed in the same group as acidity
the halogen because the behavior of BASIC OXIDES
hydrogen is better described by such  ELECTRONEGATIVITY
placement rather than its usual place in  Ability to attract in electrons toward
group 1 itself
increasin H  VALUES:
g Most 0 NON-
nonmetallic POLAR
Decreasing 0.1 – 1.8 POLAR
Most metallic 1.9 – above IONIC
 Atomic Size/Radius  Subtract the electronegativities of the
increasin H elements in a compound
g smallest  Subtract the same electronegativity from
the electronegativity of a DIATOMIC
Decreasing element
Biggest  IONIC SIZE
 Ion Formation  Size of charge cations (+) and anions (-)
 Noble Gases do not form +/- because it  GUIDE:
has high ionization energy and low HIGHER (+), the bigger the size of an
electron affinity atom
H HIGHER (-), the smaller the size of an
atom
High
electron Group Number MNEMONIC
affinities 1 (Alakali Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Sodium
Metals) (Na), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs),  Electrons in the outermost s and p
Francium (Fr) subshell are represented by dots
2 (Alkaline Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg),  NOTE: Group IA and IIA give up e-
Earth Metal) Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium easily
(Ba), Radium (Ra)  Group VIA and VIIA accept e- easily
3 (Boron) Boron, Aluminum. Gallium, Indium,  Lone pairs
Thallium  Electrons that are not paired
4 (Carbon) Carbon, Silicon, Germanium. Tin, Lead  Should be indicated
5 (Nitogen) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic,  Exceptions to Lewis Dot
Antimony, Bismuth  Molecules with odd number of e-
6 Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium, Tellurium,  Molecules which an atom has more than
(Chalcogens) Polonium an octet
7 (Halogens) Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine,  Molecules which an atom has less than
Astatine an octet
8 (Noble Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, VII. Chemical Reaction
Gases) Radon  Combination/ Synthesis Reaction
Mg + S → MgS
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
VI. Chemical Bonds  Decomposition / Analysis Reaction
 The force of attraction that joins atoms 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
in a molecule together Ca(HCO3)2 → CaO + CO2 + H2O
 Ionic Bonds  Replacement / Displacement/ Substitution
 Are formed by the transfer of elements Reaction
from one atom to another 2Al + 3ZnCl2 → 2AlCl3 + 3Zn
 Covalent Bonds  Double Replacement
 Are formed by the sharing of electrons 2NaNO3 + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + 2NaCl
between two atoms  Neutralization Reaction- a reaction between acid
 POLAR and base to form salt and water
- Unequal sharing
- E.g. water H2O VIII. Moles
 NON-POLAR  Jans Jakob Berzelius
- Equal distribution of electrons  System on the symbols of elements
- E.g. diatomic elements  mole –counting unit
 A dash (-) is used to represent a covalent  1 mole=6.02× 1023 atoms
bond which contains two electrons  Avogadro’s number
- Single bond (-) Cl2 
- Double bond () O2 given wieght
no . of moles=
- Triple bond () N2 Molecular∨ Atomic weight
 Octet Rule
 Used to determine reactivity to the main Percentage Composition
group elements in the periodic table part of solution ( solute∨solvent )
 To attain stable situation, an atom can  %= × 100
total solution
either LOSE or ACCEPT an electron to
the other atom IX. Empirical and Molecular Formula
 Like noble gases, it has eight stable
 Empirical formula
electrons in their outermost s and p
 Simplest ratio
subshell (except He2, which only has
 Procedure
two) because the first energy level has
- Determine the mass of element
only the s subshell)
- Convert mass to mole
 Lewis Dot
- Divide the results with the
 A model used to represent the electrons
in the outermost s and p subshell. It smallest number of moles
helps us visualize the octet rule and - Get the ratio
chemical bonds better.  Molecular formula
 Exact ratio
 Procedure
 - Find the EF  Gay Lussac’s Law – pressure is directly
- Divide the given mass with the proportional to temperature
molecular mass to get the ratio P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
- Multiply the ratio to the EF  Combined Gas Law
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
X. Stoichiometry  Ideal Gas Law
 Computation dealing with the amount of PV = nRT
substances Where: P = pressure (atm/torr)
 Procedure V = volume (L)
 Balance the equation N = no. of moles
 Determine the number of moles of the R = 0.08205 liter *atm / mole*K or 62.4
starting substance liter*torr / mole*K (ideal gas constant)
 Determine the mole ratio (coefficient) T = temperature (Kelvin)
 Change the number of moles to the
desired unit
Psensya na kung ngayon lng, may idinagdag lng
XI. Mole Fraction ako kc ung iba wala ditto e.. ung bandang
 Is the ratio of moles of solute in a given umpisa, nde nalesson sa atin ni Mam ung
mole of solution tungkol sa History ng Chem… Hindi ko n
n of solute nailgay ung oxidation number kc marami. I-
 n= familiarize nyo n lng ung mga common na
n of solution
compounds. Try nyo ring bashin ung book ntin
XII. Molarity sac hem kung nasa inyo pa. Practice kau mag
 Concentration of solute in moles per write ng formula tpos tingin tingin din kau ng
volume of solution in liter mga chemical formula. Aun lang.. sana
moles of solute makatulong sa inyo 
 M=
volume of solution∈liters

XIII. Molality
 Concentration of solute in moles per one
kilogram of solvent
moles of solute
 ḿ=
kilograms of solvent

XIV. Normality
number of equivalence of solute( eq)
 N=
volume of solution ( L)
 N= ( number of replaceable ion ) ( M )
 Equivalence
 Numbers of moles of acid or base
multiplied by the number of replaceable
hydrogen or hydroxide ions it has
 Equivalence weight
 Molecular weight of an acid or base
divided by the equivalence of H+ or OH-
it has per molecule

Gas Laws
 Boyle’s Law – pressure is inversely proportional
to volume
P1V1 = P2V2
 Charles’ Law – Volume is directly proportional
to temperature
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2