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Modern Steelmaking Processes

3. Electric Arc Process Steelmaking

Topics to discuss
• Electric arc furnace design
• Arc furnace steelmaking practice
• Electric arc furnace operation
 Introduction
• Steelmaking in electric arc furnace has emerged
as an important steelmaking process in recent
years.
• The concept of mini steel plants is developed
using the flexibility and easy adoptability of EAF
steelmaking
• Several developments in the design and
operation have made EAF steelmaking to
contribute significantly to the overall total
production of steel in the world.
 the proportion of electric steel is estimated
to be around 40 to 45% in the total world
steel production.

• Different grades of finished products of plain

carbon or alloy steels is produced from scrap
and other metallic charge materials.
• Scrap is the preferred raw material, but DRI and
iron carbide are also being used regularly.
• It must be noted that EAF consumes lot of
electric energy and hence the cost and
availability of electrical power are important
issues in electric steel development.

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Electric Arc Furnace Design

Type of Electric Furnaces

• Electric furnace are of three types:

1. Resistance heating furnace – not suitable for steelmaking operations
2. Induction heating furnace – employed in steelmaking only on a relatively
small scale (0.5-30 ton/heat)
3. Arc heating furnace – widely used and about 45% of world’s steel is produced
by electric arc furnace (EAF)

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• In the electric arc heating, an electric arc is formed between the electrode and
the metallic charge and the charge is heated from the arc radiation.

• Electric arc can be generated using:

(a) alternating current
 furnace operates by means of electric current flowing from one electrode of three
to another through the metallic charge

(b) direct current

 the current flows from a single electrode, which acts as cathode, to an anode
embedded in the bottom of the furnace
 Common advantages over AC: [1] less clutter at the top, fewer components to maintain,
possibility of automation, [2] reduced electrode consumption, [3] reduced power
consumption
 installation cost is 20-35% higher than AC installation,
but this can be recovered in one to two years due to lower operating costs

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• Electric arc furnace can also be of two types depending on the type of arc generated:
(a) indirect arc
 the arc is struck between two electrodes and the heat is transferred to the charge by radiation
 suitable for small capacity (in foundries) only
 cannot produce steelmaking temperature readily

(b) direct arc

 current flows from electrode to the charge and heat is transferred from the arc to the charge
primarily by radiation, but a part of heat is also generated in the charge itself
 three electrodes are fed from three-phase AC supply input, one phase connected to each
electrode and the charge is the neutral point.
 the arc temperature can raise above 4000 °C

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 EAF and Its Auxiliaries
Broadly, electric furnace steelmaking shop
comprises of the following :
• Electric furnace
• Transport facilities for ladle
• Scrap charging
• Auxiliary injection facilities
• Electrode movement mechanism
• Charging of raw materials and weighing system
• Slag disposal
Vertical section of an electric arc furnace shop
Main parts of direct arc AC EAF :
• furnace body
• gears for furnace movement
• roof and roof lifting arrangement
• electrodes, their holders and supports
• electrodes lifting and lowering mechanism
• furnace electrics
• EAF is a refractory-lined steel shell, consisting of a
saucer-shaped hearth with walls and roof, and is
mounted on a tilting mechanism.
• Three electrodes enter through the roof.
• The hood may be swung away for charging.
• Heat is generated by the hot area formed between
the electrodes and the charge.
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Cross section of an electric arc furnace
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Hearth Roof
• contains metal and slag. • exposed to more heat than other furnace
elements
• lining consists of backing lining (few layers of high fired
magnesite bricks) and working lining (rammed with either • Its lining is also subjected to radiant heat
dolomite or magnesite mass) reflected from the walls and slag
• permeable blocks or porous refractory at the bottom to • high alumina bricks and magnesite – chromite
inject inert gas for stirring bricks are used for roof lining.
• EAF steel bath is shallow (aspect ratio ~ 0.20 - 0.22) • lining is water cooled to increases the life of
refractory lining to at least 10-20 times more
than without water cooling.
Side walls
• has three holes to for inserting the electrodes.
• experience thermal shock and corrosive action of slag.
• Hot spot formed on side walls due to the radiation from
arc flames, reflected from bath surface
• lined with magnesite, dolomite or chrome magnesite bricks up to the slag line.
• wall thickness : 450 - 500 mm for 10 - 50 ton EAF; 550 – 650 mm for 100 - 200 ton EAF
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Refractory details

sub-bottom – magnesite or tar-impregnated magnesite brick

hearth – monolithic magnesite

lower sidewall - magnesite or tar-impregnated magnesite brick

slagline – magnesite carbon, or magnesite or tar-impregnated

magnesite brick

sidewall/hot spot - magnesite carbon brick

roof – high alumina or alumina-chrome brick

taphole – high alumina or basic ramming mass

spout or runner – high alumina or basic ramming mass

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Electrode

• Electrodes are round in section, and typically in segments with threaded

coupling, so that as the electrodes wear, new segments can be added.
• Graphite electrodes are preferred over carbon electrodes because of better
electrical conductivity.
• The electrodes are automatically
raised and lowered by a positioning system.

• The electrodes are positioned at apexes

of an equilateral triangle.
• The diameter of the circle passing through
the centers of electrodes is called the
diameter of the electrode spacing.
 small diameter – slow heating
 larger diameter – high wear of wall lining EAF roof
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• Diameter (up to 60 cm) of the electrode should correspond to the current supplied.
• If current density is excessively high, electrodes are heated and oxidized vigorously.
• The electrode current varies from 12-16 A/cm2 for 400-600 mm electrode diameter.
• Larger electrode diameter increases electric energy consumption.

• Consumption of costly electrode

(which varies between 3 - 6 kg/ton steel) depends on
 Oxidation of the surface of the electrode
 Mechanical losses due to fracture
 Dissolution in slag during carbon boil

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 Transformer Power
• EAF are powerful consumers of electric energy.
 Operating voltage : 100 - 800V
 Operating current : 20 - 80 kA
 Power requirement : ~ 80 MW per 100 ton production

• Large transformers needed to transform high voltage

energy into low voltage to run electric arc furnaces.
 The transformer capacity: 470 - 650 kVA/ton, or
750 - 900 kVA/m2 hearth area

• The melting process consists of two periods:

melt-down and refining period.
 melt down period requires higher electric energy
than the refining period.
 Power consumption: 600 - 400 kWh/ton (melting); Electrical characteristics of an arc furnace
150 - 400 kWh/ton (refining) during operation (schematic)
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• For a variety of reasons the task of transforming the

power from the kV level at the incoming utility line to
the voltage level needed by the arcs is usually done
in two stages.

• A first transformer (occasionally two transformers in

parallel) steps the voltage down from the high voltage
line to a medium voltage level which is generally
standardized for each country (in the U.S. this
medium voltage is usually 34.5 kV).

• As the steel plant requires electrical power for other

sectors, for example a caster or rolling mill, there will
be several transformers connected at the 34.5 kV
level and thus it is common to have a small 34.5 kV
substation within the melt shop.

• From the 34.5 kV busbar, the arc furnace is powered

by a special, heavy duty furnace transformer.
power transformation from high voltage line
to the arc furnace
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 EAF Steelmaking Practice
Charge Materials
• Principle raw material - steel scrap (60 - 80%
of the charge). In some practices, DRI and pig
iron is also used for chemical balance.
• Carbonaceous material (anthracite coal,
metallurgical coke and green petroleum coke)
for refining and energy requirement
• Slag formers (limestone, fluorspar, sand,
quartzite) for basic EAF steelmaking process
• Deoxidiser (Fe-Mn, Fe-Si, or Al)
• Alloying elements (to produce alloy steels)
conventional
effect of slag foaming on arc radiation
• Oxidising condition can be achieved by oxygen
lancing and/or iron ore addition.
• Oxygen is also injected with coal for slag foaming
by producing CO gas in the slag. In some cases
only carbon is injected and the carbon reacts with
FeO in the slag to produce CO gas.
 about 30–40% of the total energy input to the EAF
to come from oxy-fuel burners and oxygen lancing
 energy transfer efficiency range from 60–90% with
slag foaming compared to 40% without
 at least 0.3% C should be removed from the bath to
achieve a good foamy slag practice
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foaming slag
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 Factors promote slag foaming:
• oxygen and carbon availability
• increased slag viscosity
• decreased surface tension
• slag basicity ~ 2.5
• FeO in slag = 15–20%

Foam height, cm
Foam height, cm

Oxygen flow, Nm3/min

CaO / SiO2
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consumable oxygen lance

water-cooled oxygen lance

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 Alternate Charge Materials

• The traditional EAF charge has been 100% cold scrap.

• The charge materials situation is critical for several reasons:

 The product mix served by EAFs is moving more towards value-added steels, which are
specified with low metallic residuals and low nitrogen levels (automotive flat rolled, cold
heading- rolled and wire).
 The availability of scrap needed to meet the requirements of value added products is
limited. The availability of scrap is decreasing as more and more near-net-shape
metalworking operations appear.
 Yield and energy consumption are both strongly dependent on the quality and physical
characteristics of the charge materials availability.

• Some of the alternate ferrous source include: pig iron, DRI and iron carbide

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Pig iron

• Pig iron is a good charge material because of its [1] high density,
[2] low melting point, [3] carbon contribution, and [4] no tramp elements.

• Charging of pig iron means refining is to be done in EAF.

 For example, if we make a charge mix containing 20% hot metal with 3.5% C and 80% scrap
with 0.1% C to produce100 ton steel with 0.1% C, we need to remove around 640 kg C.
 This means that one has to supply lot of oxygen under EAF condition and has to handle
large amount of CO as well.
 This extra decarburization will increase tap to tap time and may decrease productivity.
 Under practical condition, 30% hot metal is suggested to give optimum results with regard to
productivity, electric consumption, etc.
 If solid pig iron is charged, extra energy would be required to melt the pig iron.

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 Direct reduced iron (DRI) or hot briquetted iron (HBI)

• DRI or HBI has emerged as an important substitute of the scrap.

 As it does not contain any tramp element, use of it leads to dilution of tramp
elements in steel.
 DRI contains: Free Fe + oxygen combined with Fe + free C + gangue minerals
(SiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 etc).

• Quality of DRI is important.

• This can be judged in terms of metallization and oxygen remaining.

 Higher metallization leads less energy requirement to remove oxygen from FeO
 C present in DRI helps reducing FeO

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• Using DRI with increased metallization • What is the consequence?

a) increases free iron
a) Tap to tap time may decrease with the
b) decreases FeO, requiring less heat and reductant increase in DRI but use of more proportion of
to recover Fe of FeO DRI may increase tap to tap time due to
c) decreases the gangue minerals in DRI, producing
[1] more time required to reduce FeO→Fe
decreased slag volume during steel production
[2] increased volume of slag handling
d) due to (b) and (c), the overall effect would be
decrease in electric consumption and reduced
b) Increased proportion of DRI beyond a limit
electrode wear
may increase electrode consumption and
refractory wear
• Use of increased proportion of DRI in the charge
c) Generally speaking, DRI requires 100–200
 increases the free iron in the charge additional kWh per ton to melt as compared
 increased FeO content, requiring extra heat to to scrap melting
recover Fe from FeO
 Increased gangue volume, causing increased slag
volume and requiring increased heat

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 Iron carbide

• Contains 6% carbon, but does not contain
gangue and tramp elements.
• Lighter than steel and is introduced
pneumatically below the slag layer
through a lance.
• On dissolution, carbon of iron carbide is released,
reacts with oxygen and releases heat which leads
to saving in electric energy.
• Also, the CO produced brings advantages of slag
foaming on the electric arc furnace operation.

• Has a melting point (2110 K) greater than
molten steel and it dissolves in steel.
• Use of iron carbide increases yield.
• However the benefits of iron carbide addition must
be considered in relation to its cost of production
and method of addition into electric arc furnace.

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Basic EAF Process Type

(known by their slags)

• EAF is capable of refining any type of charge by maintaining basic slag in a

basic-lined furnace.

• Unlike any other furnace, EAF has no oxidising atmosphere of it own.

• Oxidising or reducing conditions for refining can be maintained by making slags

of suitable composition.

• Oxidising refining is carried out under a slag containing a good amount of FeO.

• Reducing conditions can be maintained by having the slag highly in basic but
practically free from FeO.

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 Acid process

• EAFs using acid process can be used for refining low-S and low-P grade
scraps, but they are restricted to foundries, not in steelmaking.

Basic process

1) Basic and oxidising (single slag) practice – used for making carbon or
low alloy steels
2) Basic and reducing (single slag) practice – for high alloy (e.g., stainless
steel) steelmaking to effect maximum alloy recovery; hardly any refining
takes place. C and P content in the scrap must be within the specified
level, as these will not be removed during refining. S can, however, be
readily removed.

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Basic process (contd...)

3) Basic and oxidising slag converted to reducing (single slag) – used to Typical oxidising slag
remove C but recover most of alloying elements, i.e., Cr, Mn, etc. in CaO 38-45%
scrap during high alloy steelmaking. P content in scrap must be low, FeO 13-20%
since it will otherwise revert back to the bath during reducing period. SiO2 10-15%
MnO 10-15%
4) Basic and oxidising (double slag) practice – modification of single slag
Typical reducing slag
practice. Early slag is removed and a similar slag is made for effecting
Carbide Lime
desulphurisation and dephosphorisation.
CaO 65-70% 55-60%
5) Double slag practice – refining under basic and oxidising slag to SiO2 20-25% 25-30%
eliminate impurities like Si, Mn, C and P. This slag is removed and a MgO 5-10% 5-10%
FeO 0.5% max 1.0% max
basic and reducing slag is made by fresh addition of lime, coke and
Carbide slag: Lime – 6 parts
spar for desulphurisation and alloy addition. Very effective process for Coke – 2 parts
desulphurisation and large alloy additions. Lime slag: Lime – 6 parts
Coke – 0.5-1.0 part

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 Salient Features of EAF Steelmaking

1. As EAF steelmaking is primarily scrap/DRI based For this purpose, scrap may be classified into the
and materials have relatively low levels of residual following categories:
impurities, the extent of refining is much less. (a) scrap containing elements that cannot be
removed by oxidation during refining, such as
2. As a process, EAF is much more versatile Cu, Ni, Sn, Mo, W, etc.
and can make a wide range of steel grades. (b) scrap containing partially oxidisable
elements, such as P, Mn , Cr, etc.
3. Sorting out of scrap and choosing the proper scrap
(c) scrap containing completely oxidisable
grade are important for EAF steelmaking, since the
elements, such as Al, Si, Ti, V, Zr, etc.
extent of refining has to be managed accordingly.
(d) scrap containing volatile elements, such as
Zn, Cd, Pb, etc
• Scrap of type (b) and (c) can be tackled easily during refining.
• Type (d) scrap would require some special attention.
• However, type (a) scrap increases undesirable residuals in the final steel.
This is where DRI scores over scrap — it is totally free from all the above undesirable elements.
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4. The initial bath carbon is maintained at about 0.3% above the final carbon
specification during oxidising refining.
This is often referred to as the opening carbon. The evolution of CO
following the oxidation of this carbon provides the necessary agitation for
homogenisation of the bath as well as for enhancing the reaction rates.
However, stirring is absent during refining under a reducing slag, and
some other stirring technique (use of mechanical stirrers called rabbles)
is required.

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 Comparison with oxygen steelmaking

EAF Oxygen Steelmaking

Source of energy Electric + chemical energy Chemical energy; Autogenous process

Iron containing raw Scrap + hot metal + DRI in suitable

Hot metal + 20-30% scrap
material proportion as per practice

Oxygen lancing is to promote Oxygen supply is continuously done to refine hot

Operating procedure decarburisation, scrap melting and metal to steel. A three phase dispersion of
post combustion slag/metal/gas forms to accelerate the refining rates.

Slag foaming is induced to shield

refractory lining from the heat of arc.

Carbon injection is done to induce

foamy slag practice

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EAF Operation

Essential steps: A typical 60 minute tap-to-tap cycle is :

• Preparation of charge first charge 3 minutes
first meltdown 20 minutes
• Charging
second charge 3 minutes
• Melt-down second meltdown 14 minutes
• Refining refining 10 minutes
• Finishing and tapping of single-slag heat tapping 3 minutes
turnaround 7 minutes
• Slagging off and making of reducing slag
Total 60 minutes
• Reducing period
• Finishing and tapping of the heat

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• The large baskets containing heavy and
light scrap are preheated through the exit
gas. Burnt lime and spar are added to
help early slag formation. Iron one or mill
scale may also be added if refining is
required during melt- down period.
• The roof is swung off the furnace,
and the furnace is charged.
 Some furnaces are equipped with
continuous charging.
 Hot metal is also charged as per the
requirement.
• Melt- down time depends on
 Arc conditions: larger arc
requires lower current and lower
heat losses
 Deep or shallow bath: deep bath
shortens the meltdown period.
• Refining continues even during
melting. Removal of P must be
completed before the rise in
temperature and carbon boil.
• In the meltdown period, electrodes are lowered
and bored into the scrap.
 Lower voltages are selected in order to protect the
roof and walls from excessive heat and damage
from the arcs.
 Once the arc is shielded by scrap, voltage is
increased to form molten metal pool to reduce the
meltdown period.
• During meltdown period, Si, Mn and C oxidizes.
Also, oxidizing and limy slag is produces which
promotes dephosphorization as well.
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• The single oxidizing slag practice is employed when
removal of S is not required.
 When both P and S are required to be removed, double
slag practice is used.
 In double slag practice, oxidizing slag is removed and
reducing slag is formed after deoxidation with ferrosilicon
or ferromanganese or aluminum.
 Reducing slag helps to avoid loss of alloying elements.
• Once the bath chemistry and its temperature are
attained, heat is deoxidized and finished for tapping
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Log-sheet of
Low alloy steel heat
(Double slag process)

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Typical Energy Balance for EAF

Ultra-high- Low to medium

power furnace power furnace
Inputs Electrical energy 50-60 % 75-85 %
Burners 5-10 % ---
Chemical reactions 30-40 % 15-25 %
100 % 100 %
Outputs Steel 55-60 % 50-55 %
Slag 8-10 % 8-12 %
Cooling water 8-10 % 5-6 %
Miscellaneous 1-3 % 17-30 %
Offgas 17-28 % 7-10 %
100 % 100 %

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